John KeatsJohn Keats

31/10/1795- 23/02/182131/10/1795- 23/02/1821

Contents:Contents:

- John Keats’s John Keats’s biographybiography

- Odes- Odes

Ode on IndolenceOde on Indolence Ode to PsycheOde to Psyche Ode to a NightingaleOde to a Nightingale Ode on a Grecian UrnOde on a Grecian Urn Ode on Melancholy Ode on Melancholy To AutumnTo Autumn

John Keats’s biographyJohn Keats’s biography John Keats was born on 31 October 1795, first child of Thomas Keats and Frances John Keats was born on 31 October 1795, first child of Thomas Keats and Frances

Jennings Keats, who had apparently eloped. Everything was pretty ordinary for all Jennings Keats, who had apparently eloped. Everything was pretty ordinary for all concerned for a while--the Keatses had three more sons (George and Thomas, plus concerned for a while--the Keatses had three more sons (George and Thomas, plus Edward who died as a baby) and one daughter, Frances, by 1803. That was also the Edward who died as a baby) and one daughter, Frances, by 1803. That was also the year when John went away to school at Enfield. In 1804, John's father was killed in a year when John went away to school at Enfield. In 1804, John's father was killed in a fall from a horse. Just over two months later, for mysterious reasons, Frances fall from a horse. Just over two months later, for mysterious reasons, Frances remarried, to a London bank clerk named William Rawlings. Frances quickly decided remarried, to a London bank clerk named William Rawlings. Frances quickly decided she'd made some sort of terrible error and left, taking nothing with her since the laws she'd made some sort of terrible error and left, taking nothing with her since the laws of the time decreed that all her property and even her children belonged to her of the time decreed that all her property and even her children belonged to her husband. Frances' mother, Alice, swept in and took custody of the children, but she husband. Frances' mother, Alice, swept in and took custody of the children, but she could do nothing about the Swan and Hoop- the family run pub, which Rawlings sold could do nothing about the Swan and Hoop- the family run pub, which Rawlings sold immediately before disappearing. It was around this time that John became prone to immediately before disappearing. It was around this time that John became prone to fistfights, which he rarely lost even though he was small for his age. fistfights, which he rarely lost even though he was small for his age.

Frances reappeared suddenly in 1809, ill and depressed from many years of Frances reappeared suddenly in 1809, ill and depressed from many years of depending on the kindness of strangers. John was overjoyed to see her and took care depending on the kindness of strangers. John was overjoyed to see her and took care of her devotedly, but it was soon obvious that she had consumption. She died in of her devotedly, but it was soon obvious that she had consumption. She died in 1810, a year or so after her brother died of the same disease. John was crushed, and 1810, a year or so after her brother died of the same disease. John was crushed, and turned from fighting to studying. A year later, one of his financial guardians, a man turned from fighting to studying. A year later, one of his financial guardians, a man named Abbey, sat him down and asked John what he'd like to do for a living. John had named Abbey, sat him down and asked John what he'd like to do for a living. John had already considered the question, and replied that he'd like to be a surgeon. So he was already considered the question, and replied that he'd like to be a surgeon. So he was duly apprenticed to a surgeon named Hammond who lived in the neighbourhood. duly apprenticed to a surgeon named Hammond who lived in the neighbourhood.

It was in 1813 that John first started reading lyric poetry, most notably works by Sir It was in 1813 that John first started reading lyric poetry, most notably works by Sir Edmund Spenser like "The Faerie Queen." It was also around this time that John Edmund Spenser like "The Faerie Queen." It was also around this time that John began to really rebel against Hammond. The following year, Grandmother Jennings began to really rebel against Hammond. The following year, Grandmother Jennings died, and the family was split up, it being improper at that time for younger sisters to died, and the family was split up, it being improper at that time for younger sisters to live with older brothers without a parental type around. Frances was sent to live with live with older brothers without a parental type around. Frances was sent to live with the kids' other financial guardian and the two boys went to work. John just kept to the kids' other financial guardian and the two boys went to work. John just kept to himself and wrote really sad poems. These poems still weren't very good, and he kept himself and wrote really sad poems. These poems still weren't very good, and he kept right on with learning to be a surgeon (in fact, he was doing so well, he'd jumped right on with learning to be a surgeon (in fact, he was doing so well, he'd jumped ahead of the curriculum) but over the next couple of years, poetry gradually became ahead of the curriculum) but over the next couple of years, poetry gradually became the overriding ambition of his life and medicine was left in the dust. the overriding ambition of his life and medicine was left in the dust.

One of John's sonnets, called "To Solitude, " was printed in 1816, in the One of John's sonnets, called "To Solitude, " was printed in 1816, in the liberal newspaper, liberal newspaper, The ExaminerThe Examiner. This sonnet was good, but it wasn't until a . This sonnet was good, but it wasn't until a little later in the year that he wrote "On First Looking Into Chapman's little later in the year that he wrote "On First Looking Into Chapman's Homer," which proved that he was the man to watch. His first volume of Homer," which proved that he was the man to watch. His first volume of poetry appeared on 3 March 1817, and it didn't sell very well at all. John poetry appeared on 3 March 1817, and it didn't sell very well at all. John was depressed, but kept writing. Shelley had challenged him to an epic was depressed, but kept writing. Shelley had challenged him to an epic poetry writing contest over the summer, and for that contest, John wrote poetry writing contest over the summer, and for that contest, John wrote EndymionEndymion, though he didn't finish it within the time limit, so I guess Shelley , though he didn't finish it within the time limit, so I guess Shelley won. But John was the sought-after young poet in London, and he lived in a won. But John was the sought-after young poet in London, and he lived in a whirl of parties and dances, even though he didn't much like crowds. whirl of parties and dances, even though he didn't much like crowds.

In June of 1818, John apparently became convinced that he would have In June of 1818, John apparently became convinced that he would have only three more years to live. He'd already written many of his most famous only three more years to live. He'd already written many of his most famous poems, but he was still convinced that he hadn't yet done enough to leave poems, but he was still convinced that he hadn't yet done enough to leave his mark on the literary world. His brother George had announced plans to his mark on the literary world. His brother George had announced plans to emigrate to Illinois with his new wife, and his brother Tom had just started emigrate to Illinois with his new wife, and his brother Tom had just started showing signs of consumption and needed John to look after him. And to top showing signs of consumption and needed John to look after him. And to top it all off, John had just fallen madly in love with a young woman named it all off, John had just fallen madly in love with a young woman named Fanny Brawne. All of this overwhelmed and depressed him. He tried to lose Fanny Brawne. All of this overwhelmed and depressed him. He tried to lose himself in his latest poem, himself in his latest poem, HyperionHyperion. .

Tom died in December of 1818. Though John should have received £500 Tom died in December of 1818. Though John should have received £500 from Tom's estate, Abbey (the guardian) decreed that he couldn't have it from Tom's estate, Abbey (the guardian) decreed that he couldn't have it until his sister Frances turned 21. It wasn't until a year or so after John's until his sister Frances turned 21. It wasn't until a year or so after John's death that anyone realized that Abbey had misappropriated nearly £1000 death that anyone realized that Abbey had misappropriated nearly £1000 from Alice Jennings' estate. To make matters worse, brother George had from Alice Jennings' estate. To make matters worse, brother George had gone broke and was begging John to send him whatever he could scavenge gone broke and was begging John to send him whatever he could scavenge from the family funds. Desperate, John convinced his publishers to issue from the family funds. Desperate, John convinced his publishers to issue another volume of his poetry, but this was not a stunning success. Dead another volume of his poetry, but this was not a stunning success. Dead broke, he still allowed George to have the remnants of the family estate. broke, he still allowed George to have the remnants of the family estate. John was rapidly becoming dependant on the help of his friends, people like John was rapidly becoming dependant on the help of his friends, people like Leigh Hunt and Charles Brown. John was also developing consumption, Leigh Hunt and Charles Brown. John was also developing consumption, coughing up blood in February of 1820. coughing up blood in February of 1820.

It was around this time that, without It was around this time that, without consulting John, Charles began arrangements consulting John, Charles began arrangements for sending John to Italy. John didn't want to be for sending John to Italy. John didn't want to be so far away from his ladylove, but he felt so far away from his ladylove, but he felt incapable of arguing. He left in September incapable of arguing. He left in September of1820, accompanied by Joseph Severn, an up of1820, accompanied by Joseph Severn, an up and coming portrait artist. Once in Rome, the and coming portrait artist. Once in Rome, the two men moved into lodgings across the two men moved into lodgings across the piazza from an English doctor named Clark. piazza from an English doctor named Clark. John was not allowed to write poetry and only John was not allowed to write poetry and only given the dullest books to read, as emotional given the dullest books to read, as emotional excitement was considered very bad for excitement was considered very bad for consumptive patients. John was definitely in a consumptive patients. John was definitely in a state; he stopped opening letters, even from state; he stopped opening letters, even from his beloved Frances, after a month or so. In his beloved Frances, after a month or so. In December, he tried to commit suicide by December, he tried to commit suicide by taking laudanum, but Severn stopped him. taking laudanum, but Severn stopped him. Later, delirious from the disease and the Later, delirious from the disease and the starvation diet Clark prescribed, John would starvation diet Clark prescribed, John would rant at Severn for stopping him and even went rant at Severn for stopping him and even went so far as to accuse his friends of having so far as to accuse his friends of having poisoned him back in London. poisoned him back in London.

On 23 February 1821, John died. Fanny, upon On 23 February 1821, John died. Fanny, upon hearing the news, seemed all right for a few hearing the news, seemed all right for a few weeks, then fell ill, and after recovering began weeks, then fell ill, and after recovering began wearing widows' weeds. John had requested wearing widows' weeds. John had requested that his tombstone read only "Here lies one that his tombstone read only "Here lies one whose name was writ in water." Charles whose name was writ in water." Charles Brown, feeling that was too brusque, had this Brown, feeling that was too brusque, had this carved on the stone instead: "This Grave carved on the stone instead: "This Grave contains all that was Mortal of a YOUNG contains all that was Mortal of a YOUNG ENGLISH POET Who on his Death Bed, in the ENGLISH POET Who on his Death Bed, in the Malicious Power of his Enemies, Desired these Malicious Power of his Enemies, Desired these Words to be engraved on his Tomb Stone 'Here Words to be engraved on his Tomb Stone 'Here lies One Whose Name was writ in Water'". lies One Whose Name was writ in Water'".

OdesOdes Keats was one of the most important figures of early nineteenth-century Romanticism, a Keats was one of the most important figures of early nineteenth-century Romanticism, a

movement that espoused the sanctity of emotion and imagination, and privileged the movement that espoused the sanctity of emotion and imagination, and privileged the beauty of the natural world. Many of the ideas and themes evident in Keats's great odes beauty of the natural world. Many of the ideas and themes evident in Keats's great odes are quintessentially Romantic concerns: the beauty of nature, the relation between are quintessentially Romantic concerns: the beauty of nature, the relation between imagination and creativity, the response of the passions to beauty and suffering, and the imagination and creativity, the response of the passions to beauty and suffering, and the transience of human life in time. The sumptuous sensory language in which the odes are transience of human life in time. The sumptuous sensory language in which the odes are written, their idealistic concern for beauty and truth, and their expressive agony in the written, their idealistic concern for beauty and truth, and their expressive agony in the face of death are all Romantic preoccupations--though at the same time, they are all face of death are all Romantic preoccupations--though at the same time, they are all uniquely Keats's. uniquely Keats's.

Taken together, the odes do not exactly tell a story--there is no unifying "plot" and no Taken together, the odes do not exactly tell a story--there is no unifying "plot" and no recurring characters--and there is little evidence that Keats intended them to stand recurring characters--and there is little evidence that Keats intended them to stand together as a single work of art. Nevertheless, the extraordinary number of suggestive together as a single work of art. Nevertheless, the extraordinary number of suggestive interrelations between them is impossible to ignore. The odes explore and develop the interrelations between them is impossible to ignore. The odes explore and develop the same themes, partake of many of the same approaches and images, and, ordered in a same themes, partake of many of the same approaches and images, and, ordered in a certain way, exhibit an unmistakable psychological development. This is not to say that certain way, exhibit an unmistakable psychological development. This is not to say that the poems do not stand on their own--they do, magnificently; one of the greatest the poems do not stand on their own--they do, magnificently; one of the greatest felicities of the sequence is that it can be entered at any point, viewed wholly or partially felicities of the sequence is that it can be entered at any point, viewed wholly or partially from any perspective, and still prove moving and rewarding to read. There has been a from any perspective, and still prove moving and rewarding to read. There has been a great deal of critical debate over how to treat the voices that speak the poems--are they great deal of critical debate over how to treat the voices that speak the poems--are they meant to be read as though a single person speaks them all, or did Keats invent a meant to be read as though a single person speaks them all, or did Keats invent a different persona for each ode? different persona for each ode?

There is no right answer to the question, but it is possible that the question itself is There is no right answer to the question, but it is possible that the question itself is wrong: The consciousness at work in each of the odes is unmistakably Keats's own. Of wrong: The consciousness at work in each of the odes is unmistakably Keats's own. Of course, the poems are not explicitly autobiographical (it is unlikely that all the events course, the poems are not explicitly autobiographical (it is unlikely that all the events really happened to Keats), but given their sincerity and their shared frame of thematic really happened to Keats), but given their sincerity and their shared frame of thematic reference, there is no reason to think that they do not come from the same part of reference, there is no reason to think that they do not come from the same part of Keats's mind--that is to say, that they are not all told by the same part of Keats's Keats's mind--that is to say, that they are not all told by the same part of Keats's reflected self. In that sense, there is no harm in treating the odes a sequence of reflected self. In that sense, there is no harm in treating the odes a sequence of utterances told in the same voice. The psychological progress from "Ode on Indolence" utterances told in the same voice. The psychological progress from "Ode on Indolence" to "To Autumn" is intimately personal, and a great deal of that intimacy is lost if one to "To Autumn" is intimately personal, and a great deal of that intimacy is lost if one begins to imagine that the odes are spoken by a sequence of fictional characters. begins to imagine that the odes are spoken by a sequence of fictional characters.

Ode on IndolenceOde on Indolence SummarySummary

In the first stanza, Keats's speaker describes a vision he had one morning of three In the first stanza, Keats's speaker describes a vision he had one morning of three strange figures wearing white robes and "placid sandals." The figures passed by in strange figures wearing white robes and "placid sandals." The figures passed by in profile, and the speaker describes their passing by comparing them to figures carved profile, and the speaker describes their passing by comparing them to figures carved into the side of a marble urn, or vase. When the last figure passed by, the first figure into the side of a marble urn, or vase. When the last figure passed by, the first figure reappeared, just as would happen if one turned a vase carved with figures before reappeared, just as would happen if one turned a vase carved with figures before one's eyes. one's eyes.

In the second stanza, the speaker addresses the figures directly, asking them how it In the second stanza, the speaker addresses the figures directly, asking them how it was that he did not recognize them and how they managed to sneak up on him. He was that he did not recognize them and how they managed to sneak up on him. He suspects them of trying to "steal away, and leave without a task" his "idle days," and suspects them of trying to "steal away, and leave without a task" his "idle days," and goes on to describe how he passed the morning before their arrival: by lazily enjoying goes on to describe how he passed the morning before their arrival: by lazily enjoying the summer day in a sort of sublime numbness. He asks the figures why they did not the summer day in a sort of sublime numbness. He asks the figures why they did not disappear and leave him to this indolent nothingness. disappear and leave him to this indolent nothingness.

In the third stanza, the figures pass by for a third time. The speaker feels a powerful In the third stanza, the figures pass by for a third time. The speaker feels a powerful urge to rise up and follow them, because he now recognizes them: the first is a "fair urge to rise up and follow them, because he now recognizes them: the first is a "fair maid," Love; the second is pale-cheeked Ambition; and the third, whom the speaker maid," Love; the second is pale-cheeked Ambition; and the third, whom the speaker seems to love despite himself, is the unmeek maiden, the demon Poesy, or poetry. seems to love despite himself, is the unmeek maiden, the demon Poesy, or poetry. When the figures disappear in the fourth stanza, the speaker again aches to follow When the figures disappear in the fourth stanza, the speaker again aches to follow them, but he says that the urge is folly: Love is fleeting, Ambition is mortal, and Poesy them, but he says that the urge is folly: Love is fleeting, Ambition is mortal, and Poesy has nothing to offer that compares with an indolent summer day untroubled by "busy has nothing to offer that compares with an indolent summer day untroubled by "busy common-sense." common-sense."

In the fifth stanza, the speaker laments again the figures' third passing, describing his In the fifth stanza, the speaker laments again the figures' third passing, describing his morning before their arrival, when his soul seemed a green lawn sprinkled with morning before their arrival, when his soul seemed a green lawn sprinkled with flowers, shadows, and sunbeams. There were clouds in the sky but no rain fell, and the flowers, shadows, and sunbeams. There were clouds in the sky but no rain fell, and the open window let in the warmth of the day and the music of birdsong. The speaker tells open window let in the warmth of the day and the music of birdsong. The speaker tells the figures they were right to leave, for they had failed to rouse him. In the sixth the figures they were right to leave, for they had failed to rouse him. In the sixth stanza, he bids them adieu and asserts again that Love, Ambition, and Poesy are not stanza, he bids them adieu and asserts again that Love, Ambition, and Poesy are not enough to make him raise his head from its pillow in the grass. He bids them farewell enough to make him raise his head from its pillow in the grass. He bids them farewell and tells them he has an ample supply of visions; then he orders them to vanish and and tells them he has an ample supply of visions; then he orders them to vanish and never return. never return.

Themes Themes

Chronologically, the "Ode on Indolence" was probably the second ode. It was Chronologically, the "Ode on Indolence" was probably the second ode. It was composed in the spring of 1819, after "Ode on Melancholy" and a few months composed in the spring of 1819, after "Ode on Melancholy" and a few months before "To Autumn." However, when the odes are grouped together as a before "To Autumn." However, when the odes are grouped together as a sequence, "Indolence" is often placed first in the group--an arrangement that sequence, "Indolence" is often placed first in the group--an arrangement that makes sense, considering that "Indolence" raises the glimmerings of themes makes sense, considering that "Indolence" raises the glimmerings of themes explored more fully in the other five poems, and seems to portray the speaker's explored more fully in the other five poems, and seems to portray the speaker's first struggle with the problems and ideas of the other odes. The story of first struggle with the problems and ideas of the other odes. The story of "Indolence" is extraordinarily simple--a young man spends a drowsy summer "Indolence" is extraordinarily simple--a young man spends a drowsy summer morning lazing about, until he is startled by a vision of Love, Ambition, and morning lazing about, until he is startled by a vision of Love, Ambition, and Poesy proceeding by him. He feels stirrings of desire to follow the figures, but Poesy proceeding by him. He feels stirrings of desire to follow the figures, but decides in the end that the temptations of his indolent morning outweigh the decides in the end that the temptations of his indolent morning outweigh the temptations of love, ambition, and poetry. temptations of love, ambition, and poetry.

So the principal theme of "Ode on Indolence" holds that the pleasant So the principal theme of "Ode on Indolence" holds that the pleasant numbness of the speaker's indolence is a preferable state to the more excitable numbness of the speaker's indolence is a preferable state to the more excitable states of love, ambition, and poetry. One of the great themes of Keats's odes is states of love, ambition, and poetry. One of the great themes of Keats's odes is that of the anguish of mortality--the pain and frustration caused by the changes that of the anguish of mortality--the pain and frustration caused by the changes and endings inevitable in human life, which are contrasted throughout the and endings inevitable in human life, which are contrasted throughout the poems with the permanence of art. In this ode, the speaker's indolence seems poems with the permanence of art. In this ode, the speaker's indolence seems in many ways an attempt to blur forgetfully the lines of the world, so that the in many ways an attempt to blur forgetfully the lines of the world, so that the "short fever-fit" of life no longer seems so agonizing. The speaker rejects love "short fever-fit" of life no longer seems so agonizing. The speaker rejects love and ambition simply because they require him to experience his own life too and ambition simply because they require him to experience his own life too intensely and hold the inevitable promise of ending (of love, the speaker intensely and hold the inevitable promise of ending (of love, the speaker wonders what and where it is; of ambition, he notes the pale cheek and wonders what and where it is; of ambition, he notes the pale cheek and "fatigued eye," and observes that it "springs" directly from human mortality). "fatigued eye," and observes that it "springs" directly from human mortality). He longs never to know "how change the moons" and to be "sheltered from He longs never to know "how change the moons" and to be "sheltered from annoy." This is why Poesy offers the most seductive, and also most hateful, annoy." This is why Poesy offers the most seductive, and also most hateful, challenge to indolence. Poetry is not mortal and changeable (Poesy, in fact, is a challenge to indolence. Poetry is not mortal and changeable (Poesy, in fact, is a "demon"), but it is anathema to indolence and would require the speaker to feel "demon"), but it is anathema to indolence and would require the speaker to feel his life too acutely--thus it has "not a joy" for him as sweet as the drowsy his life too acutely--thus it has "not a joy" for him as sweet as the drowsy nothingness of indolence. nothingness of indolence.

Though the poem ends on a note of rejection, the Though the poem ends on a note of rejection, the persistence of the figures and the speaker's impassioned persistence of the figures and the speaker's impassioned response to them indicate that he will eventually have to response to them indicate that he will eventually have to raise his head from the grass and confront Love, Ambition, raise his head from the grass and confront Love, Ambition, and Poesy more directly--a confrontation embodied in the and Poesy more directly--a confrontation embodied in the other five odes, where the speaker struggles with other five odes, where the speaker struggles with problems of creativity, mortality, imagination, and art. problems of creativity, mortality, imagination, and art. Many of the ideas and images in "Ode on Indolence" Many of the ideas and images in "Ode on Indolence" anticipate more developed ideas and images in the later anticipate more developed ideas and images in the later odes. Each ode finds Keats confronting some sort of divine odes. Each ode finds Keats confronting some sort of divine figure, usually a goddess; in "Indolence," he confronts figure, usually a goddess; in "Indolence," he confronts three. The lushly described summer landscape, with its three. The lushly described summer landscape, with its "stirring shades / and baffled beams," anticipates the "stirring shades / and baffled beams," anticipates the imaginary landscape the speaker creates in "Ode to imaginary landscape the speaker creates in "Ode to Psyche"; the experience of numbness anticipates the Psyche"; the experience of numbness anticipates the aesthetic numbness of "Ode to a Nightingale" and the aesthetic numbness of "Ode to a Nightingale" and the anguished numbness of "Ode on Melancholy"; the anguished numbness of "Ode on Melancholy"; the birdsong of the "throstle's lay" anticipates the nightingale birdsong of the "throstle's lay" anticipates the nightingale and the swallows of "To Autumn." The Grecian dress of the and the swallows of "To Autumn." The Grecian dress of the figures and their urn-like procession anticipate the "Ode figures and their urn-like procession anticipate the "Ode on a Grecian Urn" and also cast back to an earlier poem, on a Grecian Urn" and also cast back to an earlier poem, "On Seeing the Elgin Marbles," in which the speaker's "On Seeing the Elgin Marbles," in which the speaker's confrontation with some ancient Greek sculptures makes confrontation with some ancient Greek sculptures makes him feel overwhelmed by his own mortality. (The "Phidian him feel overwhelmed by his own mortality. (The "Phidian lore" the speaker refers to at the end of the first stanza is lore" the speaker refers to at the end of the first stanza is a direct reference to the earlier poem: Phidias was the a direct reference to the earlier poem: Phidias was the sculptor who made the Elgin marbles.) sculptor who made the Elgin marbles.)

In this way, the "Ode on Indolence" makes a sort of In this way, the "Ode on Indolence" makes a sort of preface to the other odes. It does not enter into a preface to the other odes. It does not enter into a dramatic exploration of love, ambition, or art, but rather dramatic exploration of love, ambition, or art, but rather raises the possibility of such a confrontation in a way that raises the possibility of such a confrontation in a way that casts light on the speaker's behaviour in the other odes. casts light on the speaker's behaviour in the other odes. Its lush, sensuous language, and its speaker's oscillation Its lush, sensuous language, and its speaker's oscillation between temptation and rejection in the face of the between temptation and rejection in the face of the figures' persistent processional, indicate a fuller, deeper, figures' persistent processional, indicate a fuller, deeper, and more acutely felt poetic exploration to come. But for and more acutely felt poetic exploration to come. But for now, the speaker is content to let the figures fade and to now, the speaker is content to let the figures fade and to give himself wholly to the numb dreaminess of his give himself wholly to the numb dreaminess of his indolence.indolence.

Ode to PsycheOde to PsycheSummarySummary

Keats's speaker opens the poem with an address to the goddess Psyche, Keats's speaker opens the poem with an address to the goddess Psyche, urging her to hear his words, and asking that she forgive him for singing urging her to hear his words, and asking that she forgive him for singing to her own secrets. He says that while wandering through the forest that to her own secrets. He says that while wandering through the forest that very day, he stumbled upon "two fair creatures" lying side by side in the very day, he stumbled upon "two fair creatures" lying side by side in the grass, beneath a "whisp'ring roof" of leaves, surrounded by flowers. They grass, beneath a "whisp'ring roof" of leaves, surrounded by flowers. They embraced one another with both their arms and wings, and though their embraced one another with both their arms and wings, and though their lips did not touch, they were close to one another and ready "past kisses lips did not touch, they were close to one another and ready "past kisses to outnumber." The speaker says he knew the winged boy, but asks who to outnumber." The speaker says he knew the winged boy, but asks who the girl was. He answers his own question: She was Psyche. the girl was. He answers his own question: She was Psyche.

In the second stanza, the speaker addresses Psyche again, describing her In the second stanza, the speaker addresses Psyche again, describing her as the youngest and most beautiful of all the Olympian gods and as the youngest and most beautiful of all the Olympian gods and goddesses. He believes this, he says, despite the fact that, unlike other goddesses. He believes this, he says, despite the fact that, unlike other divinities, Psyche has none of the trappings of worship: She has no divinities, Psyche has none of the trappings of worship: She has no temples, no altars, no choir to sing for her, and so on. In the third stanza, temples, no altars, no choir to sing for her, and so on. In the third stanza, the speaker attributes this lack to Psyche's youth; she has come into the the speaker attributes this lack to Psyche's youth; she has come into the world too late for "antique vows" and the "fond believing lyre." But the world too late for "antique vows" and the "fond believing lyre." But the speaker says that even in the fallen days of his own time, he would like to speaker says that even in the fallen days of his own time, he would like to pay homage to Psyche and become her choir, her music, and her oracle. pay homage to Psyche and become her choir, her music, and her oracle. In the fourth stanza, he continues with these declarations, saying he will In the fourth stanza, he continues with these declarations, saying he will become Psyche's priest and build her a temple in an "untrodden region" of become Psyche's priest and build her a temple in an "untrodden region" of his own mind, a region surrounded by thought that resemble the beauty of his own mind, a region surrounded by thought that resemble the beauty of nature and tended by "the gardener Fancy," or imagination. He promises nature and tended by "the gardener Fancy," or imagination. He promises Psyche "all soft delight" and says that the window of her new abode will Psyche "all soft delight" and says that the window of her new abode will be left open at night, so that her winged boy--"the warm Love"--can come be left open at night, so that her winged boy--"the warm Love"--can come in. in.

With its loose, rhapsodic formal structure With its loose, rhapsodic formal structure and its extremely lush sensual imagery, the and its extremely lush sensual imagery, the "Ode to Psyche" finds the speaker turning "Ode to Psyche" finds the speaker turning from the delights of numbness (in "Ode on from the delights of numbness (in "Ode on Indolence") to the delights of the creative Indolence") to the delights of the creative imagination--even if that imagination is not imagination--even if that imagination is not yet projected outward into art. yet projected outward into art.

The basis for the story of "Ode to Psyche" The basis for the story of "Ode to Psyche" is a famous myth. Psyche was the youngest is a famous myth. Psyche was the youngest and most beautiful daughter of a king. She and most beautiful daughter of a king. She was so beautiful that Aphrodite, the was so beautiful that Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, was jealous of goddess of love and beauty, was jealous of her; she dispatched her son, Eros, the god her; she dispatched her son, Eros, the god of love (the Cupid of Roman mythology and of love (the Cupid of Roman mythology and the "winged boy" of Keats's poem) to the "winged boy" of Keats's poem) to punish Psyche for being so beautiful. But punish Psyche for being so beautiful. But Eros was so startled by Psyche's beauty Eros was so startled by Psyche's beauty that he pricked himself with his own arrow that he pricked himself with his own arrow and fell in love with her. Eros summoned and fell in love with her. Eros summoned Psyche to his palace, but he remained Psyche to his palace, but he remained invisible to her, coming to her only at night invisible to her, coming to her only at night and ordering her never to try to see his and ordering her never to try to see his face. One night, Psyche lit a lamp in order face. One night, Psyche lit a lamp in order to catch a glimpse of her lover; but Eros to catch a glimpse of her lover; but Eros was so angry with her for breaking his trust was so angry with her for breaking his trust that he left her. Psyche was forced to that he left her. Psyche was forced to perform a number of difficult tasks to perform a number of difficult tasks to placate Venus and win back Eros as her placate Venus and win back Eros as her husband. The word "psyche" is Greek for husband. The word "psyche" is Greek for "soul," and it is not difficult to imagine why "soul," and it is not difficult to imagine why Keats would have found the story Keats would have found the story attractive--the story of the woman so attractive--the story of the woman so beautiful that Love fell in love with her. beautiful that Love fell in love with her.

Additionally, as Keats observed, the myth of Psyche was Additionally, as Keats observed, the myth of Psyche was first recorded by Apuleius in the second century A.D., first recorded by Apuleius in the second century A.D., and is thus much more recent than most myths (this is and is thus much more recent than most myths (this is why Keats refers to Psyche as the "latest born" of why Keats refers to Psyche as the "latest born" of "Olympus's faded hierarchy"). It is so recent, in fact, that "Olympus's faded hierarchy"). It is so recent, in fact, that Psyche was never worshipped as a real goddess. That Psyche was never worshipped as a real goddess. That slight is what compels Keats's speaker to dedicate slight is what compels Keats's speaker to dedicate himself to becoming her temple, her priest, and her himself to becoming her temple, her priest, and her prophet, all in one. So he has found a way to move prophet, all in one. So he has found a way to move beyond the numbness of indolence and has discovered a beyond the numbness of indolence and has discovered a goddess to worship. To worship Psyche, Keats summons goddess to worship. To worship Psyche, Keats summons all the resources of his imagination. He will give to all the resources of his imagination. He will give to Psyche a region of his mind, where his thoughts will Psyche a region of his mind, where his thoughts will transform into the sumptuous natural beauties Keats transform into the sumptuous natural beauties Keats imagines will attract Psyche to her bower in his mind. imagines will attract Psyche to her bower in his mind. Taken by itself, "Ode to Psyche" is simply a song to love Taken by itself, "Ode to Psyche" is simply a song to love and the creative imagination; in the full context of the and the creative imagination; in the full context of the odes, it represents a crucial step between "Ode on odes, it represents a crucial step between "Ode on Indolence" and "Ode to a Nightingale": the speaker has Indolence" and "Ode to a Nightingale": the speaker has become preoccupied with creativity, but his imagination become preoccupied with creativity, but his imagination is still directed toward wholly internal ends. He wants to is still directed toward wholly internal ends. He wants to partake of divine permanence by taking his goddess into partake of divine permanence by taking his goddess into himself; he has not yet become interested in the outward himself; he has not yet become interested in the outward imaginative expression of art. imaginative expression of art.

Ode to a NightingaleOde to a Nightingale

SummarySummary The speaker opens with a declaration of his own heartache. He feels numb, as though he had taken The speaker opens with a declaration of his own heartache. He feels numb, as though he had taken

a drug only a moment ago. He is addressing a nightingale he hears singing somewhere in the a drug only a moment ago. He is addressing a nightingale he hears singing somewhere in the forest and says that his "drowsy numbness" is not from envy of the nightingale's happiness, but forest and says that his "drowsy numbness" is not from envy of the nightingale's happiness, but rather from sharing it too completely; he is "too happy" that the nightingale sings the music of rather from sharing it too completely; he is "too happy" that the nightingale sings the music of summer from amid some unseen plot of green trees and shadows. summer from amid some unseen plot of green trees and shadows.

In the second stanza, the speaker longs for the oblivion of alcohol, expressing his wish for wine, "a In the second stanza, the speaker longs for the oblivion of alcohol, expressing his wish for wine, "a draught of vintage," that would taste like the country and like peasant dances, and let him "leave draught of vintage," that would taste like the country and like peasant dances, and let him "leave the world unseen" and disappear into the dim forest with the nightingale. In the third stanza, he the world unseen" and disappear into the dim forest with the nightingale. In the third stanza, he explains his desire to fade away, saying he would like to forget the troubles the nightingale has explains his desire to fade away, saying he would like to forget the troubles the nightingale has never known: "the weariness, the fever, and the fret" of human life, with its consciousness that never known: "the weariness, the fever, and the fret" of human life, with its consciousness that everything is mortal and nothing lasts. Youth "grows pale, and spectre-thin, and dies," and "beauty everything is mortal and nothing lasts. Youth "grows pale, and spectre-thin, and dies," and "beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes." cannot keep her lustrous eyes."

In the fourth stanza, the speaker tells the nightingale to fly away, and he will follow, not through In the fourth stanza, the speaker tells the nightingale to fly away, and he will follow, not through alcohol ("Not charioted by Bacchus and his pards"), but through poetry, which will give him alcohol ("Not charioted by Bacchus and his pards"), but through poetry, which will give him "viewless wings." He says he is already with the nightingale and describes the forest glade, where "viewless wings." He says he is already with the nightingale and describes the forest glade, where even the moonlight is hidden by the trees, except the light that breaks through when the breezes even the moonlight is hidden by the trees, except the light that breaks through when the breezes blow the branches. In the fifth stanza, the speaker says that he cannot see the flowers in the glade, blow the branches. In the fifth stanza, the speaker says that he cannot see the flowers in the glade, but can guess them "in embalmed darkness": white hawthorne, eglantine, violets, and the musk-but can guess them "in embalmed darkness": white hawthorne, eglantine, violets, and the musk-rose, "the murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves." In the sixth stanza, the speaker listens in rose, "the murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves." In the sixth stanza, the speaker listens in the dark to the nightingale, saying that he has often been "half in love" with the idea of dying and the dark to the nightingale, saying that he has often been "half in love" with the idea of dying and called Death soft names in many rhymes. Surrounded by the nightingale's song, the speaker thinks called Death soft names in many rhymes. Surrounded by the nightingale's song, the speaker thinks that the idea of death seems richer than ever, and he longs to "cease upon the midnight with no that the idea of death seems richer than ever, and he longs to "cease upon the midnight with no pain" while the nightingale pours its soul ecstatically forth. If he were to die, the nightingale would pain" while the nightingale pours its soul ecstatically forth. If he were to die, the nightingale would continue to sing, he says, but he would "have ears in vain" and be no longer able to hear. continue to sing, he says, but he would "have ears in vain" and be no longer able to hear.

In the seventh stanza, the speaker tells the nightingale that it is immortal, that it was not "born In the seventh stanza, the speaker tells the nightingale that it is immortal, that it was not "born for death." He says that the voice he hears singing has always been heard, by ancient emperors for death." He says that the voice he hears singing has always been heard, by ancient emperors and clowns, by homesick Ruth; he even says the song has often charmed open magic windows and clowns, by homesick Ruth; he even says the song has often charmed open magic windows looking out over "the foam / Of perilous seas, in faery lands forlorn." In the eighth stanza, the word looking out over "the foam / Of perilous seas, in faery lands forlorn." In the eighth stanza, the word forlorn tolls like a bell to restore the speaker from his preoccupation with the nightingale and back forlorn tolls like a bell to restore the speaker from his preoccupation with the nightingale and back into himself. As the nightingale flies farther away from him, he laments that his imagination has into himself. As the nightingale flies farther away from him, he laments that his imagination has failed him and says that he can no longer recall whether the nightingale's music was "a vision, or a failed him and says that he can no longer recall whether the nightingale's music was "a vision, or a waking dream." Now that the music is gone, the speaker cannot recall whether he himself is awake waking dream." Now that the music is gone, the speaker cannot recall whether he himself is awake or asleep. or asleep.

ThemesThemes

With "Ode to a Nightingale," Keats's speaker begins his fullest and deepest With "Ode to a Nightingale," Keats's speaker begins his fullest and deepest exploration of the themes of creative expression and the mortality of human exploration of the themes of creative expression and the mortality of human life. In this ode, the transience of life and the tragedy of old age ("where life. In this ode, the transience of life and the tragedy of old age ("where palsy shakes a few, sad, last gray hairs, / Where youth grows pale, and palsy shakes a few, sad, last gray hairs, / Where youth grows pale, and spectre-thin, and dies") is set against the eternal renewal of the nightingale's spectre-thin, and dies") is set against the eternal renewal of the nightingale's fluid music ("Thou wast not born for death, immortal bird!"). The speaker fluid music ("Thou wast not born for death, immortal bird!"). The speaker reprises the "drowsy numbness" he experienced in "Ode on Indolence," but reprises the "drowsy numbness" he experienced in "Ode on Indolence," but where in "Indolence" that numbness was a sign of disconnection from where in "Indolence" that numbness was a sign of disconnection from experience, in "Nightingale" it is a sign of too full a connection: "being too experience, in "Nightingale" it is a sign of too full a connection: "being too happy in thine happiness," as the speaker tells the nightingale. Hearing the happy in thine happiness," as the speaker tells the nightingale. Hearing the song of the nightingale, the speaker longs to flee the human world and join song of the nightingale, the speaker longs to flee the human world and join the bird. His first thought is to reach the bird's state through alcohol--in the the bird. His first thought is to reach the bird's state through alcohol--in the second stanza, he longs for a "draught of vintage" to transport him out of second stanza, he longs for a "draught of vintage" to transport him out of himself. But after his meditation in the third stanza on the transience of life, himself. But after his meditation in the third stanza on the transience of life, he rejects the idea of being "charioted by Bacchus and his pards" (Bacchus he rejects the idea of being "charioted by Bacchus and his pards" (Bacchus was the Roman god of wine and was supposed to have been carried by a was the Roman god of wine and was supposed to have been carried by a chariot pulled by leopards) and chooses instead to embrace, for the first time chariot pulled by leopards) and chooses instead to embrace, for the first time since he refused to follow the figures in "Indolence," "the viewless wings of since he refused to follow the figures in "Indolence," "the viewless wings of Poesy." Poesy."

The rapture of poetic inspiration matches the endless creative rapture of the The rapture of poetic inspiration matches the endless creative rapture of the nightingale's music and lets the speaker, in stanzas five through seven, nightingale's music and lets the speaker, in stanzas five through seven, imagine himself with the bird in the darkened forest. The ecstatic music even imagine himself with the bird in the darkened forest. The ecstatic music even encourages the speaker to embrace the idea of dying, of painlessly encourages the speaker to embrace the idea of dying, of painlessly succumbing to death while enraptured by the nightingale's music and never succumbing to death while enraptured by the nightingale's music and never experiencing any further pain or disappointment. But when his meditation experiencing any further pain or disappointment. But when his meditation causes him to utter the word "forlorn," he comes back to himself, recognizing causes him to utter the word "forlorn," he comes back to himself, recognizing his fancy for what it is--an imagined escape from the inescapable ("Adieu! his fancy for what it is--an imagined escape from the inescapable ("Adieu! the fancy cannot cheat so well / As she is fam'd to do, deceiving elf"). As the the fancy cannot cheat so well / As she is fam'd to do, deceiving elf"). As the nightingale flies away, the intensity of the speaker's experience has left him nightingale flies away, the intensity of the speaker's experience has left him shaken, unable to remember whether he is awake or asleep. shaken, unable to remember whether he is awake or asleep.

In "Indolence," the speaker rejected all In "Indolence," the speaker rejected all artistic effort. In "Psyche," he was willing to artistic effort. In "Psyche," he was willing to embrace the creative imagination, but only embrace the creative imagination, but only for its own internal pleasures. But in the for its own internal pleasures. But in the nightingale's song, he finds a form of nightingale's song, he finds a form of outward expression that translates the outward expression that translates the work of the imagination into the outside work of the imagination into the outside world, and this is the discovery that world, and this is the discovery that compels him to embrace Poesy's "viewless compels him to embrace Poesy's "viewless wings" at last. The "art" of the nightingale wings" at last. The "art" of the nightingale is endlessly changeable and renewable; it is is endlessly changeable and renewable; it is music without record, existing only in a music without record, existing only in a perpetual present. As befits his celebration perpetual present. As befits his celebration of music, the speaker's language, sensually of music, the speaker's language, sensually rich though it is, serves to suppress the rich though it is, serves to suppress the sense of sight in favour of the other senses. sense of sight in favour of the other senses. He can imagine the light of the moon, "But He can imagine the light of the moon, "But here there is no light"; he knows he is here there is no light"; he knows he is surrounded by flowers, but he "cannot see surrounded by flowers, but he "cannot see what flowers" are at his feet. This what flowers" are at his feet. This suppression will find its match in "Ode on a suppression will find its match in "Ode on a Grecian Urn," which is in many ways a Grecian Urn," which is in many ways a companion poem to "Ode to a Nightingale." companion poem to "Ode to a Nightingale." In the later poem, the speaker will finally In the later poem, the speaker will finally confront a created art-object not subject to confront a created art-object not subject to any of the limitations of time; in any of the limitations of time; in "Nightingale," he has achieved creative "Nightingale," he has achieved creative expression and has placed his faith in it, expression and has placed his faith in it, but that expression--the nightingale's but that expression--the nightingale's song--is spontaneous and without physical song--is spontaneous and without physical manifestationmanifestation

Ode on a Grecian UrnOde on a Grecian Urn Summary Summary

In the first stanza, the speaker stands before an ancient Grecian urn and addresses it. In the first stanza, the speaker stands before an ancient Grecian urn and addresses it. He is preoccupied with its depiction of pictures frozen in time. It is the "still unravish'd He is preoccupied with its depiction of pictures frozen in time. It is the "still unravish'd bride of quietness," the "foster-child of silence and slow time." He also describes the bride of quietness," the "foster-child of silence and slow time." He also describes the urn as a "historian" that can tell a story. He wonders about the figures on the side of urn as a "historian" that can tell a story. He wonders about the figures on the side of the urn and asks what legend they depict and from where they come. He looks at a the urn and asks what legend they depict and from where they come. He looks at a picture that seems to depict a group of men pursuing a group of women and wonders picture that seems to depict a group of men pursuing a group of women and wonders what their story could be: "What mad pursuit? What struggle to escape? / What pipes what their story could be: "What mad pursuit? What struggle to escape? / What pipes and timbrels? What wild ecstasy?" and timbrels? What wild ecstasy?"

In the second stanza, the speaker looks at another picture on the urn, this time of a In the second stanza, the speaker looks at another picture on the urn, this time of a young man playing a pipe, lying with his lover beneath a glade of trees. The speaker young man playing a pipe, lying with his lover beneath a glade of trees. The speaker says that the piper's "unheard" melodies are sweeter than mortal melodies because says that the piper's "unheard" melodies are sweeter than mortal melodies because they are unaffected by time. He tells the youth that, though he can never kiss his lover they are unaffected by time. He tells the youth that, though he can never kiss his lover because he is frozen in time, he should not grieve, because her beauty will never fade. because he is frozen in time, he should not grieve, because her beauty will never fade. In the third stanza, he looks at the trees surrounding the lovers and feels happy that In the third stanza, he looks at the trees surrounding the lovers and feels happy that they will never shed their leaves. He is happy for the piper because his songs will be they will never shed their leaves. He is happy for the piper because his songs will be "for ever new," and happy that the love of the boy and the girl will last forever, unlike "for ever new," and happy that the love of the boy and the girl will last forever, unlike mortal love, which lapses into "breathing human passion" and eventually vanishes, mortal love, which lapses into "breathing human passion" and eventually vanishes, leaving behind only a "burning forehead, and a parching tongue." leaving behind only a "burning forehead, and a parching tongue."

In the fourth stanza, the speaker examines another picture on the urn, this one of a In the fourth stanza, the speaker examines another picture on the urn, this one of a group of villagers leading a heifer to be sacrificed. He wonders where they are going group of villagers leading a heifer to be sacrificed. He wonders where they are going ("To what green altar, O mysterious priest...") and from where they have come. He ("To what green altar, O mysterious priest...") and from where they have come. He imagines their little town, empty of all its citizens, and tells it that its streets will "for imagines their little town, empty of all its citizens, and tells it that its streets will "for evermore" be silent, for those who have left it, frozen on the urn, will never return. In evermore" be silent, for those who have left it, frozen on the urn, will never return. In the final stanza, the speaker again addresses the urn itself, saying that it, like Eternity, the final stanza, the speaker again addresses the urn itself, saying that it, like Eternity, "doth tease us out of thought." He thinks that when his generation is long dead, the "doth tease us out of thought." He thinks that when his generation is long dead, the urn will remain, telling future generations its enigmatic lesson: "Beauty is truth, truth urn will remain, telling future generations its enigmatic lesson: "Beauty is truth, truth beauty." The speaker says that that is the only thing the urn knows and the only thing beauty." The speaker says that that is the only thing the urn knows and the only thing it needs to know. it needs to know.

Themes Themes

If the "Ode to a Nightingale" portrays Keats's If the "Ode to a Nightingale" portrays Keats's speaker's engagement with the fluid speaker's engagement with the fluid expressiveness of music, the "Ode on a expressiveness of music, the "Ode on a Grecian Urn" portrays his attempt to engage Grecian Urn" portrays his attempt to engage with the static immobility of sculpture. The with the static immobility of sculpture. The Grecian urn, passed down through countless Grecian urn, passed down through countless centuries to the time of the speaker's centuries to the time of the speaker's viewing, exists outside of time in the human viewing, exists outside of time in the human sense--it does not age, it does not die, and sense--it does not age, it does not die, and indeed it is alien to all such concepts. In the indeed it is alien to all such concepts. In the speaker's meditation, this creates an speaker's meditation, this creates an intriguing paradox for the human figures intriguing paradox for the human figures carved into the side of the urn: They are free carved into the side of the urn: They are free from time, but they are simultaneously frozen from time, but they are simultaneously frozen in time. They do not have to confront aging in time. They do not have to confront aging and death (their love is "for ever young"), but and death (their love is "for ever young"), but neither can they have experience (the youth neither can they have experience (the youth can never kiss the maiden; the figures in the can never kiss the maiden; the figures in the procession can never return to their homes). procession can never return to their homes).

The speaker attempts three times to engage The speaker attempts three times to engage with scenes carved into the urn; each time he with scenes carved into the urn; each time he asks different questions of it. In the first asks different questions of it. In the first stanza, he examines the picture of the "mad stanza, he examines the picture of the "mad pursuit" and wonders what actual story lies pursuit" and wonders what actual story lies behind the picture: "What men or gods are behind the picture: "What men or gods are these? What maidens loth?" Of course, the these? What maidens loth?" Of course, the urn can never tell him the whos, whats, urn can never tell him the whos, whats, whens, and wheres of the stories it depicts, whens, and wheres of the stories it depicts, and the speaker is forced to abandon this line and the speaker is forced to abandon this line of questioning. of questioning.

In the second and third stanzas, he examines the picture of the piper In the second and third stanzas, he examines the picture of the piper playing to his lover beneath the trees. Here, the speaker tries to imagine playing to his lover beneath the trees. Here, the speaker tries to imagine what the experience of the figures on the urn must be like; he tries to what the experience of the figures on the urn must be like; he tries to identify with them. He is tempted by their escape from temporality and identify with them. He is tempted by their escape from temporality and attracted to the eternal newness of the piper's unheard song and the attracted to the eternal newness of the piper's unheard song and the eternally unchanging beauty of his lover. He thinks that their love is "far eternally unchanging beauty of his lover. He thinks that their love is "far above" all transient human passion, which, in its sexual expression, above" all transient human passion, which, in its sexual expression, inevitably leads to an abatement of intensity--when passion is satisfied, all inevitably leads to an abatement of intensity--when passion is satisfied, all that remains is a wearied physicality: a sorrowful heart, a "burning that remains is a wearied physicality: a sorrowful heart, a "burning forehead," and a "parching tongue." His recollection of these conditions forehead," and a "parching tongue." His recollection of these conditions seems to remind the speaker that he is inescapably subject to them, and he seems to remind the speaker that he is inescapably subject to them, and he abandons his attempt to identify with the figures on the urn. abandons his attempt to identify with the figures on the urn.

In the fourth stanza, the speaker attempts to think about the figures on the In the fourth stanza, the speaker attempts to think about the figures on the urn as though they were experiencing human time, imagining that their urn as though they were experiencing human time, imagining that their procession has an origin (the "little town") and a destination (the "green procession has an origin (the "little town") and a destination (the "green altar"). But all he can think is that the town will forever be deserted: If these altar"). But all he can think is that the town will forever be deserted: If these people have left their origin, they will never return to it. In this sense he people have left their origin, they will never return to it. In this sense he confronts head-on the limits of static art; if it is impossible to learn from the confronts head-on the limits of static art; if it is impossible to learn from the urn the whos and wheres of the "real story" in the first stanza, it is urn the whos and wheres of the "real story" in the first stanza, it is impossible ever to know the origin and the destination of the figures on the impossible ever to know the origin and the destination of the figures on the urn in the fourth. urn in the fourth.

It is true that the speaker shows a certain kind of progress in his successive It is true that the speaker shows a certain kind of progress in his successive attempts to engage with the urn. His idle curiosity in the first attempt gives attempts to engage with the urn. His idle curiosity in the first attempt gives way to a more deeply felt identification in the second, and in the third, the way to a more deeply felt identification in the second, and in the third, the speaker leaves his own concerns behind and thinks of the processional speaker leaves his own concerns behind and thinks of the processional purely on its own terms, thinking of the "little town" with a real and purely on its own terms, thinking of the "little town" with a real and generous feeling. But each attempt ultimately ends in failure. The third generous feeling. But each attempt ultimately ends in failure. The third attempt fails simply because there is nothing more to say--once the speaker attempt fails simply because there is nothing more to say--once the speaker confronts the silence and eternal emptiness of the little town, he has confronts the silence and eternal emptiness of the little town, he has reached the limit of static art; on this subject, at least, there is nothing more reached the limit of static art; on this subject, at least, there is nothing more the urn can tell him. the urn can tell him.

In the final stanza, the speaker presents the conclusions drawn In the final stanza, the speaker presents the conclusions drawn from his three attempts to engage with the urn. He is from his three attempts to engage with the urn. He is overwhelmed by its existence outside of temporal change, with its overwhelmed by its existence outside of temporal change, with its ability to "tease" him "out of thought / As doth eternity." If human ability to "tease" him "out of thought / As doth eternity." If human life is a succession of "hungry generations," as the speaker life is a succession of "hungry generations," as the speaker suggests in "Nightingale," the urn is a separate and self-contained suggests in "Nightingale," the urn is a separate and self-contained world. It can be a "friend to man," as the speaker says, but it world. It can be a "friend to man," as the speaker says, but it cannot be mortal; the kind of aesthetic connection the speaker cannot be mortal; the kind of aesthetic connection the speaker experiences with the urn is ultimately insufficient to human life. experiences with the urn is ultimately insufficient to human life.

The final two lines, in which the speaker imagines the urn The final two lines, in which the speaker imagines the urn speaking its message to mankind--"Beauty is truth, truth beauty," speaking its message to mankind--"Beauty is truth, truth beauty," have proved among the most difficult to interpret in the Keats have proved among the most difficult to interpret in the Keats canon. After the urn utters the enigmatic phrase "Beauty is truth, canon. After the urn utters the enigmatic phrase "Beauty is truth, truth beauty," no one can say for sure who "speaks" the truth beauty," no one can say for sure who "speaks" the conclusion, "that is all / Ye know on earth, and all ye need to conclusion, "that is all / Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know." It could be the speaker addressing the urn, and it could be know." It could be the speaker addressing the urn, and it could be the urn addressing mankind. If it is the speaker addressing the urn, the urn addressing mankind. If it is the speaker addressing the urn, then it would seem to indicate his awareness of its limitations: The then it would seem to indicate his awareness of its limitations: The urn may not need to know anything beyond the equation of beauty urn may not need to know anything beyond the equation of beauty and truth, but the complications of human life make it impossible and truth, but the complications of human life make it impossible for such a simple and self-contained phrase to express sufficiently for such a simple and self-contained phrase to express sufficiently anything about necessary human knowledge. If it is the urn anything about necessary human knowledge. If it is the urn addressing mankind, then the phrase has rather the weight of an addressing mankind, then the phrase has rather the weight of an important lesson, as though beyond all the complications of human important lesson, as though beyond all the complications of human life, all human beings need to know on earth is that beauty and life, all human beings need to know on earth is that beauty and truth are one and the same. It is largely a matter of personal truth are one and the same. It is largely a matter of personal interpretation which reading to accept. interpretation which reading to accept.

Ode on MelancholyOde on Melancholy Summary Summary

The three stanzas of the "Ode on Melancholy" address the subject of how to The three stanzas of the "Ode on Melancholy" address the subject of how to cope with sadness. The first stanza tells what not to do: The sufferer should cope with sadness. The first stanza tells what not to do: The sufferer should not "go to Lethe," or forget their sadness (Lethe is the river of forgetfulness not "go to Lethe," or forget their sadness (Lethe is the river of forgetfulness in Greek mythology); should not commit suicide (nightshade, "the ruby in Greek mythology); should not commit suicide (nightshade, "the ruby grape of Prosperpine," is a poison; Prosperpine is the mythological queen of grape of Prosperpine," is a poison; Prosperpine is the mythological queen of the underworld); and should not become obsessed with objects of death and the underworld); and should not become obsessed with objects of death and misery (the beetle, the death-moth, and the owl). For, the speaker says, that misery (the beetle, the death-moth, and the owl). For, the speaker says, that will make the anguish of the soul drowsy, and the sufferer should do will make the anguish of the soul drowsy, and the sufferer should do everything he can to remain aware of and alert to the depths of his everything he can to remain aware of and alert to the depths of his suffering. suffering.

In the second stanza, the speaker tells the sufferer what to do in place of In the second stanza, the speaker tells the sufferer what to do in place of the things he forbade in the first stanza. When afflicted with "the melancholy the things he forbade in the first stanza. When afflicted with "the melancholy fit," the sufferer should instead overwhelm his sorrow with natural beauty, fit," the sufferer should instead overwhelm his sorrow with natural beauty, glutting it on the morning rose, "on the rainbow of the salt sand-wave," or in glutting it on the morning rose, "on the rainbow of the salt sand-wave," or in the eyes of his beloved. In the third stanza, the speaker explains these the eyes of his beloved. In the third stanza, the speaker explains these injunctions, saying that pleasure and pain are inextricably linked: Beauty injunctions, saying that pleasure and pain are inextricably linked: Beauty must die, joy is fleeting, and the flower of pleasure is forever "turning to must die, joy is fleeting, and the flower of pleasure is forever "turning to poison while the bee-mouth sips." The speaker says that the shrine of poison while the bee-mouth sips." The speaker says that the shrine of melancholy is inside the "temple of Delight," but that it is only visible if one melancholy is inside the "temple of Delight," but that it is only visible if one can overwhelm oneself with joy until it reveals its center of sadness, by can overwhelm oneself with joy until it reveals its center of sadness, by "burst[ing] Joy's grape against his palate fine." The man who can do this "burst[ing] Joy's grape against his palate fine." The man who can do this shall "taste the sadness" of melancholy's might and "be among her cloudy shall "taste the sadness" of melancholy's might and "be among her cloudy trophies hung.trophies hung.

ThemesThemes

If the "Ode to Psyche" is different from the other odes primarily because of its If the "Ode to Psyche" is different from the other odes primarily because of its

form, the "Ode on Melancholy" is different primarily because of its style. The form, the "Ode on Melancholy" is different primarily because of its style. The only ode not to be written in the first person, "Melancholy" finds the speaker only ode not to be written in the first person, "Melancholy" finds the speaker admonishing or advising sufferers of melancholy in the imperative mode; admonishing or advising sufferers of melancholy in the imperative mode; presumably his advice is the result of his own hard-won experience. In many presumably his advice is the result of his own hard-won experience. In many ways, "Melancholy" seeks to synthesize the language of all the previous odes--ways, "Melancholy" seeks to synthesize the language of all the previous odes--the Greek mythology of "Indolence" and "Urn," the beautiful descriptions of the Greek mythology of "Indolence" and "Urn," the beautiful descriptions of nature in "Psyche" and "Nightingale," the passion of "Nightingale," and the nature in "Psyche" and "Nightingale," the passion of "Nightingale," and the philosophy of "Urn," all find expression in its three stanzas--but "Melancholy" is philosophy of "Urn," all find expression in its three stanzas--but "Melancholy" is more than simply an amalgam of the previous poems. In it, the speaker at last more than simply an amalgam of the previous poems. In it, the speaker at last explores the nature of transience and the connection of pleasure and pain in a explores the nature of transience and the connection of pleasure and pain in a way that lets him move beyond the insufficient aesthetic understanding of way that lets him move beyond the insufficient aesthetic understanding of "Urn" and achieve the deeper understanding of "To Autumn." "Urn" and achieve the deeper understanding of "To Autumn."

For the first time in the odes, the speaker in "Melancholy" urges action rather For the first time in the odes, the speaker in "Melancholy" urges action rather than passive contemplation. Rejecting both the eagerly embraced drowsiness of than passive contemplation. Rejecting both the eagerly embraced drowsiness of "Indolence" and the rapturous "drowsy numbness" of "Nightingale," the speaker "Indolence" and the rapturous "drowsy numbness" of "Nightingale," the speaker declares that he must remain alert and open to "wakeful anguish," and rather declares that he must remain alert and open to "wakeful anguish," and rather than flee from sadness, he will instead glut it on the pleasures of beauty. than flee from sadness, he will instead glut it on the pleasures of beauty. Instead of numbing himself to the knowledge that his mistress will grow old and Instead of numbing himself to the knowledge that his mistress will grow old and die (that "Beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes," as he said in "Nightingale"), die (that "Beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes," as he said in "Nightingale"), he uses that knowledge to feel her beauty even more acutely. Because she he uses that knowledge to feel her beauty even more acutely. Because she dwells with "beauty that must die," he will "feed deep, deep upon her peerless dwells with "beauty that must die," he will "feed deep, deep upon her peerless eyes." eyes."

In the third stanza, the speaker offers his most convincing synthesis of In the third stanza, the speaker offers his most convincing synthesis of melancholy and joy, in a way that takes in the tragic mortality of life but lets melancholy and joy, in a way that takes in the tragic mortality of life but lets him remain connected to his own experience. It is precisely the fact that joy will him remain connected to his own experience. It is precisely the fact that joy will come to an end that makes the experience of joy such a ravishing one; the fact come to an end that makes the experience of joy such a ravishing one; the fact that beauty dies makes the experience of beauty sharper and more thrilling. that beauty dies makes the experience of beauty sharper and more thrilling. The key, he writes, is to see the kernel of sadness that lies at the heart of all The key, he writes, is to see the kernel of sadness that lies at the heart of all pleasure--to "burst joy's grape" and gain admission to the inner temple of pleasure--to "burst joy's grape" and gain admission to the inner temple of melancholy. Though the "Ode on Melancholy" is not explicitly about art, it is melancholy. Though the "Ode on Melancholy" is not explicitly about art, it is clear that this synthetic understanding of joy and suffering is what has been clear that this synthetic understanding of joy and suffering is what has been missing from the speaker's earlier attempts to experience art. missing from the speaker's earlier attempts to experience art.

"Ode on Melancholy" originally began "Ode on Melancholy" originally began with a stanza Keats later crossed out, with a stanza Keats later crossed out, which described a questing hero in a which described a questing hero in a grotesque mythological ship sailing grotesque mythological ship sailing into the underworld in search of the into the underworld in search of the goddess Melancholy. Though Keats goddess Melancholy. Though Keats removed this stanza from his poem removed this stanza from his poem (the resulting work is subtler and less (the resulting work is subtler and less overwrought), the story's questing overwrought), the story's questing hero still provides perhaps the best hero still provides perhaps the best framework in which to read this framework in which to read this poem. The speaker has fully rejected poem. The speaker has fully rejected his earlier indolence and set out to his earlier indolence and set out to engage actively with the ideas and engage actively with the ideas and themes that preoccupy him, but his themes that preoccupy him, but his action in this poem is still fantastical, action in this poem is still fantastical, imaginative, and strenuous. He can imaginative, and strenuous. He can only find what he seeks in mythical only find what he seeks in mythical regions and imaginary temples in the regions and imaginary temples in the sky; he has not yet learned how to sky; he has not yet learned how to find it in his own immediate find it in his own immediate surroundings. That understanding and surroundings. That understanding and the final presentation of the odes' the final presentation of the odes' deepest themes will occur in "To deepest themes will occur in "To Autumn." Autumn."

To AutumnTo Autumn

SummarySummary Keats's speaker opens his first stanza Keats's speaker opens his first stanza

by addressing Autumn, describing its by addressing Autumn, describing its abundance and its intimacy with the abundance and its intimacy with the sun, with whom Autumn ripens fruits sun, with whom Autumn ripens fruits and causes the late flowers to bloom. In and causes the late flowers to bloom. In the second stanza, the speaker the second stanza, the speaker describes the figure of Autumn as a describes the figure of Autumn as a female goddess, often seen sitting on female goddess, often seen sitting on the granary floor, her hair "soft-lifted" the granary floor, her hair "soft-lifted" by the wind, and often seen sleeping in by the wind, and often seen sleeping in the fields or watching a cider-press the fields or watching a cider-press squeezing the juice from apples. In the squeezing the juice from apples. In the third stanza, the speaker tells Autumn third stanza, the speaker tells Autumn not to wonder where the songs of spring not to wonder where the songs of spring have gone, but instead to listen to her have gone, but instead to listen to her own music. At twilight, the "small gnats" own music. At twilight, the "small gnats" hum above the shallows of the river, hum above the shallows of the river, lifted and dropped by the wind, and lifted and dropped by the wind, and "full-grown lambs" bleat from the hills, "full-grown lambs" bleat from the hills, crickets sing, robins whistle from the crickets sing, robins whistle from the garden, and swallows, gathering for garden, and swallows, gathering for their coming migration, sing from the their coming migration, sing from the skies. skies.

ThemesThemes In both its form and descriptive surface, "To Autumn" is one of the simplest of In both its form and descriptive surface, "To Autumn" is one of the simplest of

Keats's odes. There is nothing confusing or complex in Keats's paean to the Keats's odes. There is nothing confusing or complex in Keats's paean to the season of autumn, with its fruitfulness, its flowers, and the song of its swallows season of autumn, with its fruitfulness, its flowers, and the song of its swallows gathering for migration. The extraordinary achievement of this poem lies in its gathering for migration. The extraordinary achievement of this poem lies in its ability to suggest, explore, and develop a rich abundance of themes without ability to suggest, explore, and develop a rich abundance of themes without ever ruffling its calm, gentle, and lovely description of autumn. Where "Ode on ever ruffling its calm, gentle, and lovely description of autumn. Where "Ode on Melancholy" presents itself as a strenuous heroic quest, "To Autumn" is Melancholy" presents itself as a strenuous heroic quest, "To Autumn" is concerned with the much quieter activity of daily observation and appreciation. concerned with the much quieter activity of daily observation and appreciation. In this quietude, the gathered themes of the preceding odes find their fullest and In this quietude, the gathered themes of the preceding odes find their fullest and most beautiful expression. most beautiful expression.

"To Autumn" takes up where the other odes leave off. Like the others, it shows "To Autumn" takes up where the other odes leave off. Like the others, it shows Keats's speaker paying homage to a particular goddess--in this case, the deified Keats's speaker paying homage to a particular goddess--in this case, the deified season of Autumn. The selection of this season implicitly takes up the other season of Autumn. The selection of this season implicitly takes up the other odes' themes of temporality, mortality, and change: Autumn in Keats's ode is a odes' themes of temporality, mortality, and change: Autumn in Keats's ode is a time of warmth and plenty, but it is perched on the brink of winter's desolation, time of warmth and plenty, but it is perched on the brink of winter's desolation, as the bees enjoy "later flowers," the harvest is gathered from the fields, the as the bees enjoy "later flowers," the harvest is gathered from the fields, the lambs of spring are now "full grown," and, in the final line of the poem, the lambs of spring are now "full grown," and, in the final line of the poem, the swallows gather for their winter migration. The understated sense of inevitable swallows gather for their winter migration. The understated sense of inevitable loss in that final line makes it one of the most moving moments in all of poetry; loss in that final line makes it one of the most moving moments in all of poetry; it can be read as a simple, uncomplaining summation of the entire human it can be read as a simple, uncomplaining summation of the entire human condition. condition.

Despite the coming chill of winter, the late warmth of autumn provides Keats's Despite the coming chill of winter, the late warmth of autumn provides Keats's speaker with ample beauty to celebrate: the cottage and its surroundings in the speaker with ample beauty to celebrate: the cottage and its surroundings in the first stanza, the agrarian haunts of the goddess in the second, and the locales of first stanza, the agrarian haunts of the goddess in the second, and the locales of natural creatures in the third. Keats's speaker is able to experience these natural creatures in the third. Keats's speaker is able to experience these beauties in a sincere and meaningful way because of the lessons he has learned beauties in a sincere and meaningful way because of the lessons he has learned in the previous odes: He is no longer indolent, no longer committed to the in the previous odes: He is no longer indolent, no longer committed to the isolated imagination (as in "Psyche"), no longer attempting to escape the pain of isolated imagination (as in "Psyche"), no longer attempting to escape the pain of the world through ecstatic rapture (as in "Nightingale"), no longer frustrated by the world through ecstatic rapture (as in "Nightingale"), no longer frustrated by the attempt to eternalize mortal beauty or subject eternal beauty to time (as in the attempt to eternalize mortal beauty or subject eternal beauty to time (as in "Urn"), and no longer able to frame the connection of pleasure and the sorrow of "Urn"), and no longer able to frame the connection of pleasure and the sorrow of loss only as an imaginary heroic quest (as in "Melancholy"). loss only as an imaginary heroic quest (as in "Melancholy").

In "To Autumn," the speaker's experience of beauty refers back to In "To Autumn," the speaker's experience of beauty refers back to earlier odes (the swallows recall the nightingale; the fruit recalls joy's earlier odes (the swallows recall the nightingale; the fruit recalls joy's grape; the goddess drowsing among the poppies recalls Psyche and grape; the goddess drowsing among the poppies recalls Psyche and Cupid lying in the grass), but it also recalls a wealth of earlier poems. Cupid lying in the grass), but it also recalls a wealth of earlier poems. Most importantly, the image of Autumn winnowing and harvesting (in Most importantly, the image of Autumn winnowing and harvesting (in a sequence of odes often explicitly about creativity) recalls an earlier a sequence of odes often explicitly about creativity) recalls an earlier Keats poem in which the activity of harvesting is an explicit metaphor Keats poem in which the activity of harvesting is an explicit metaphor for artistic creation. In his sonnet "When I have fears that I may cease for artistic creation. In his sonnet "When I have fears that I may cease to be," Keats makes this connection directly: to be," Keats makes this connection directly:

When I have fears that I may cease to be Before my pen has glean'd When I have fears that I may cease to be Before my pen has glean'd my teeming brain, Before high-piled books, in charactry, Hold like rich my teeming brain, Before high-piled books, in charactry, Hold like rich garners the full ripen'd grain...garners the full ripen'd grain...

In this poem, the act of creation is pictured as a kind of self-In this poem, the act of creation is pictured as a kind of self-harvesting; the pen harvests the fields of the brain, and books are harvesting; the pen harvests the fields of the brain, and books are filled with the resulting "grain." In "To Autumn," the metaphor is filled with the resulting "grain." In "To Autumn," the metaphor is developed further; the sense of coming loss that permeates the poem developed further; the sense of coming loss that permeates the poem confronts the sorrow underlying the season's creativity. When confronts the sorrow underlying the season's creativity. When Autumn's harvest is over, the fields will be bare, the swaths with their Autumn's harvest is over, the fields will be bare, the swaths with their "twined flowers" cut down, the cider-press dry, the skies empty. But "twined flowers" cut down, the cider-press dry, the skies empty. But the connection of this harvesting to the seasonal cycle softens the the connection of this harvesting to the seasonal cycle softens the edge of the tragedy. In time, spring will come again, the fields will edge of the tragedy. In time, spring will come again, the fields will grow again, and the birdsong will return. As the speaker knew in grow again, and the birdsong will return. As the speaker knew in "Melancholy," abundance and loss, joy and sorrow, song and silence "Melancholy," abundance and loss, joy and sorrow, song and silence are as intimately connected as the twined flowers in the fields. What are as intimately connected as the twined flowers in the fields. What makes "To Autumn" beautiful is that it brings an engagement with that makes "To Autumn" beautiful is that it brings an engagement with that connection out of the realm of mythology and fantasy and into the connection out of the realm of mythology and fantasy and into the everyday world. The development the speaker so strongly resisted in everyday world. The development the speaker so strongly resisted in "Indolence" is at last complete: He has learned that an acceptance of "Indolence" is at last complete: He has learned that an acceptance of mortality is not destructive to an appreciation of beauty and has mortality is not destructive to an appreciation of beauty and has gleaned wisdom by accepting the passage of time. gleaned wisdom by accepting the passage of time.