HobbesJustice & Power, session v

HobbesJustice & Power, session v

Topics in This Session

i. Introduction

ii.Wars of Religion & Early Stuarts

iii.Hobbes

iv.Leviathan, 1651

v.Criticism

Introduction

Introduction

Little more than a century separates Machiavelli and our next philosopher, Thomas Hobbes. The epicenter of Western Civilization has moved westward from Greece to Italy, and now to England•. Two major phenomena which were only beginning during the final years of Machiavelli’s life are of prime significance for Hobbes and all the thinkers who follow: the Reformation and the Scientific Revolution.

Thomas Hobbes, 1588-1679, Leviathan, 1651

Both of these complex movements stemmed from the breakup of medieval order. Both took shape in the intellectual climate of discovery which the printing press•

Both of these complex movements stemmed from the breakup of medieval order. Both took shape in the intellectual climate of discovery which the printing press•

Both of these complex movements stemmed from the breakup of medieval order. Both took shape in the intellectual climate of discovery which the printing press• and the voyages to the New World fostered.

Both of these complex movements stemmed from the breakup of medieval order. Both took shape in the intellectual climate of discovery which the printing press• and the voyages to the New World fostered. Both were bitterly resisted as intolerable challenges to the status quo. Both ushered in the conditions which we take for granted in America: no one “owns” the truth; ultimately, the individual is responsible for his own beliefs. The awesome power represented by knowledge is not a state monopoly administered by the state religion. Hobbes became an enthusiastic student of “the new learning.” He discussed his views with such luminaries as Francis Bacon• and Galileo.

Both of these complex movements stemmed from the breakup of medieval order. Both took shape in the intellectual climate of discovery which the printing press• and the voyages to the New World fostered. Both were bitterly resisted as intolerable challenges to the status quo. Both ushered in the conditions which we take for granted in America: no one “owns” the truth; ultimately, the individual is responsible for his own beliefs. The awesome power represented by knowledge is not a state monopoly administered by the state religion. Hobbes became an enthusiastic student of “the new learning.” He discussed his views with such luminaries as Francis Bacon• and Galileo. His efforts to develop theories of human behavior which didn’t require a theological foundation and his willingness to engage in academic disputes earned him the epithet “father of atheists.”

Both of these complex movements stemmed from the breakup of medieval order. Both took shape in the intellectual climate of discovery which the printing press• and the voyages to the New World fostered. Both were bitterly resisted as intolerable challenges to the status quo. Both ushered in the conditions which we take for granted in America: no one “owns” the truth; ultimately, the individual is responsible for his own beliefs. The awesome power represented by knowledge is not a state monopoly administered by the state religion. Hobbes became an enthusiastic student of “the new learning.” He discussed his views with such luminaries as Francis Bacon• and Galileo. His efforts to develop theories of human behavior which didn’t require a theological foundation and his willingness to engage in academic disputes earned him the epithet “father of atheists.”

Both of these complex movements stemmed from the breakup of medieval order. Both took shape in the intellectual climate of discovery which the printing press• and the voyages to the New World fostered. Both were bitterly resisted as intolerable challenges to the status quo. Both ushered in the conditions which we take for granted in America: no one “owns” the truth; ultimately, the individual is responsible for his own beliefs. The awesome power represented by knowledge is not a state monopoly administered by the state religion. Hobbes became an enthusiastic student of “the new learning.” He discussed his views with such luminaries as Francis Bacon• and Galileo. His efforts to develop theories of human behavior which didn’t require a theological foundation and his willingness to engage in academic disputes earned him the epithet “father of atheists.”

In an influential twentieth century study, The Structure of Scientific Revolution, Thomas S. Kuhn• describes what he calls “dominant paradigms.”

In an influential twentieth century study, The Structure of Scientific Revolution, Thomas S. Kuhn• describes what he calls “dominant paradigms.” Every period operates with a characteristic way of perceiving reality, according to Kuhn. This “dominant paradigm” is embodied in an unquestioned, tacit understanding widely shared and transmitted, not by overt “teaching” but by the type of models which people use to conceptualize everyday tasks. Hobbes’ age was the time when a traditional, organic paradigm was being replaced by a largely mechanical one as being the more useful image to have of the universe. Perhaps man is not the “political animal” of Aristotle. Perhaps he is a robot capable of a wholly mechanical explanation, if only we give the scientist enough data.

Hobbes lived during the final years of the Wars of Religion. Like all the men we will study, his interest was not narrowly focused on politics. Although most widely recognized today as a defender of absolutism, he is ironically the first writer to argue “scientifically” that all men are equal. The violence of his age should give us empathy for his stress on the primacy of order in society. A fitting tribute to his significance is given by William Ebenstein: “The Leviathan is not an apology for the Stuart monarchy, nor a grammar of despotic government, but the first general theory of politics in the English language.” (Great Political Thinkers, p. 358).

Hobbes lived during the final years of the Wars of Religion. Like all the men we will study, his interest was not narrowly focused on politics. Although most widely recognized today as a defender of absolutism, he is ironically the first writer to argue “scientifically” that all men are equal. The violence of his age should give us empathy for his stress on the primacy of order in society. A fitting tribute to his significance is given by William Ebenstein: “The Leviathan is not an apology for the Stuart monarchy, nor a grammar of despotic government, but the first general theory of politics in the English language.” (Great Political Thinkers, p. 358).

Hobbes use of language is reminiscent of Shakespeare’s. For both you must read carefully and be aware that meanings of some words have changed since the seventeenth century. Try to savor the irony and force which Hobbes achieves when he practices economy and careful choice of words. As you compare his conclusions with those of the three we have already studied, consider also how he has arrived at these views. How does he argue for them? Does he make his case?

Wars of Religion&

Early Stuarts

Wars of Religion&

Early Stuarts

II. Wars of Religion, 1524-1648; and Early Stuarts, 1603-49.A. James I, 1603-25

1. Spanish Armada, 1588a. “Fear and I were twins.”b. Elizabethan Settlement

2. Church of Englanda. sovereignty and prerogativeb. divine right of kingsc. Guy Fawkes, November 5, 1605d. King James Version (KJV), 1611e. C. of E., Anglican, Episcopalian

3. a. Puritans, Congregationalistsb. Calvinists, Presbyterians, and Covenantersc. Independentsd. Fifth Monarchy Men

B. the ContinentC. Charles I, 1625-49D. Interregnum, 1649-60

James StuartJames VI of Scotland,1567-1625

James I of England, 1603-1625

When the Virgin Queen, Elizabeth Idied, the Act of Settlement brought

her Protestant nephew, son of Catholic Mary Queen of Scots, to

the throne

II.A.1.a. “Fear and I were twins.”

The portrait was made in approximately 1588 to commemorate the defeat of the Spanish Armada (depicted in the background). Elizabeth I's international power is reflected by the hand resting on the globe

II.A.1.a. “Fear and I were twins.”

II.A.1.b. Elizabethan Settlement

Church ofEngland

sovereigntyprerogative

divine right of kings“No bishop, no king”-James I

Westminster AbbeyWest Side

Detail from a contemporary engraving of the Gunpowder Plotters. The Dutch artist probably never actually saw or met any of the conspirators, but it has become a popular representation nonetheless.

“Remember, remember the Fifth of

November…”

AV or KJV1611

Established Church = C. of E., Anglican, (Episcopal)

Non-conformists or Dissenters

Puritans, Congregationalists

Calvinists, Presbyterians, Covenanters

Independents

Fifth Monarchy Men

II. Wars of Religion, 1524-1648; and Early Stuarts, 1603-49.A. James I, 1603-25B. the Continent

1. France under Richelieu2. Thirty Years War, 1618-48

C. Charles I, 1625-491. Petition of Right, 16282. Personal Rule, 1629-40

a. Hampden and Ship Money, 1637b. Bishop’s War, 1638-40

3. Parliamentsa. Short, 1640b. Long, 1640-48c. Rump, 1648-53d. Bare-bones, 1659-60

D. Interregnum, 1649-601. Oliver Cromwell; Lord Protector, 1653-582. New Model Army and the Rule of Saints3. Restoration, 1660

II. Wars of Religion, 1524-1648; and Early Stuarts, 1603-49.A. James I, 1603-25B. the Continent

1. France under Richelieu2. Thirty Years War, 1618-48

C. Charles I, 1625-491. Petition of Right, 16282. Personal Rule, 1629-40

a. Hampden and Ship Moneyb. Bishop’s War, 1638-40

3. Parliamentsa. Short, 1640b. Long, 1640-48c. Rump, 1648-53d. Bare-bones, 1659-60

D. Interregnum, 1649-601. Oliver Cromwell; Lord Protector, 1653-582. New Model Army and the Rule of Saints3. Restoration, 1660

1625-at his father’s death, Charles inherited a furious Parliament. Franco-Spanish war

1628-he submitted to the Petition of Right-no taxes without Parliament’s approval

bitter at this check on his prerogative, Charles dismissed Parliament, vowing never to call them again

he vowed to raise what he needed by “creative” fiscal policy

Charles I

1600 – 1649

Portrait by Anthony van Dyck, 1636

Victorians chose him as the figure who inspired the English Revolution

1634-Charles began collecting a medieval levy called ship money to avoid having to reconvene Parliament

1637-Hampden led the opposition to this “end run” by refusing to pay

he lost his case but became the leader of the Parliament men’s opposition

“Would the payment of Ship Money have made Hampden a pauper? No, but the payment of it, because it was demanded, would have made him a slave.”--Edmund Burke, 1794

John Hampden

1595 – 1643

as depicted in the 1851 Illustrated London Reading Book

Victorians chose him as the figure who inspired the English Revolution

1634-Charles began collecting a medieval levy called ship money to avoid having to reconvene Parliament

1637-Hampden led the opposition to this “end run” by refusing to pay

he lost his case but became the leader of the Parliament men’s opposition

“Would the payment of Ship Money have made Hampden a pauper? No, but the payment of it, because it was demanded, would have made him a slave.”--Edmund Burke, 1794

John Hampden

1595 – 1643

as depicted in the 1851 Illustrated London Reading Book

Victorians chose him as the figure who inspired the English Revolution

1634-Charles began collecting a medieval levy called ship money to avoid having to reconvene Parliament

1637-Hampden led the opposition to this “end run” by refusing to pay

he lost his case but became the leader of the Parliament men’s opposition

“Would the payment of Ship Money have made Hampden a pauper? No, but the payment of it, because it was demanded, would have made him a slave.”--Edmund Burke, 1794

John Hampden

1595 – 1643

as depicted in the 1851 Illustrated London Reading Book

Statue of John Hampden in Market Square, Aylesbury

religious passions fueled the English Civil War. The Established church faced a variety of Dissenters

1638-Laud and Charles decided to crack down on the Scottish Presbyterians with a new prayerbook

1638-40--the resulting Bishop’s War produced two symbols: the Covenant & the fiery cross

its financial burden forced Charles to call Parliament back into session

1640-appalled by the rebellious nature of the men elected, Charles dismissed them and called for new elections--the so-called Short Parliament

the new election produced an even more militant Long Parliament and the stage was set for war. East Anglican Oliver Cromwell

William Laud

Archbishop of Canterbury

1573 –1633- 1645

Portrait by Anthony van Dyck, 1636

religious passions fueled the English Civil War. The Established church faced a variety of Dissenters

1638-Laud and Charles decided to crack down on the Scottish Presbyterians with a new prayerbook

1638-40--the resulting Bishop’s War produced two symbols: the Covenant & the fiery cross

its financial burden forced Charles to call Parliament back into session

1640-appalled by the rebellious nature of the men elected, Charles dismissed them and called for new elections--the so-called Short Parliament

the new election produced an even more militant Long Parliament and the stage was set for war. East Anglican Oliver Cromwell

William Laud

Archbishop of Canterbury

1573 –1633- 1645

Portrait by Anthony van Dyck, 1636

religious passions fueled the English Civil War. The Established church faced a variety of Dissenters

1638-Laud and Charles decided to crack down on the Scottish Presbyterians with a new prayerbook

1638-40--the resulting Bishop’s War produced two symbols: the Covenant & the fiery cross

its financial burden forced Charles to call Parliament back into session

1640-appalled by the rebellious nature of the men elected, Charles dismissed them and called for new elections--the so-called Short Parliament

the new election produced an even more militant Long Parliament and the stage was set for war. East Anglican Oliver Cromwell

William Laud

Archbishop of Canterbury

1573 –1633- 1645

Portrait by Anthony van Dyck, 1636Oliver Cromwell c. 1649 by Robert Walker

The trial of Charles I,20-29 January 1649

The trial of Charles I,20-29 January 1649

The trial of Charles I,20-29 January 1649

Charles’ beheadingJanuary 30, 1649

"[Cromwell] commanded the Speaker to leave the Chair, and told them they had sat long enough, unless they had done more good, crying out You are no longer a Parliament, I say you are no Parliament. He told Sir Henry Vane he was a Jugler [sic]; Henry Martin and Sir Peter Wentworth, that they were Whoremasters; Thomas Chaloner, he was a Drunkard; and Allen the Goldsmith that he cheated the Publick: Then he bid one of his Soldiers take away that Fool's Bauble the mace and Thomas Harrison pulled the Speaker of the Chair; and in short Cromwell having turned them all out of the House, lock'd up the Doors and returned to Whitehall."

Thomas Salmon in his Chronological Historian (London, 1723, 106

“You have sat too long for any good you have been doing lately ... Depart, I say; and let us have done with you. In the name of God, go!”

Cromwell dismisses the Rump , 1653

Hobbes

Hobbes

III. HobbesA. Early Years

1. Parson Hobbes2. Magdalen College, Oxford3. William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire

a. the Grand Tour, 1610b. patronage

B. Scientific Revolution1. astronomy: Copernicus to Galileo2. induction: Francis Bacon3. Cartesianism: Rene Descartes

a. doubt, cogito ergo sumb. analytic geometryc. deductive system building

C. Hobbes turns to science

Parson Hobbes

“an impecunious vicar and something of a “character”--Ebenstein

“after a Saturday evening at cards, he fell asleep in the pulpit, awoke with the cry “clubs is trump!”

after brawling with a fellow clergyman outside his church, he abandoned his wife and three children

Hobbes (jr.) was raised by his maternal uncle, a glover, who fostered his precocity

read and wrote at four

Greek and Latin at six

Oxford at fifteen Thomas Hobbes, Sr.(stock image)

III. HobbesA. Early Years

1. Parson Hobbes2. Magdalen College, Oxford3. William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire

a. the Grand Tour, 1610b. patronage

B. Scientific Revolution1. astronomy: Copernicus to Galileo2. induction: Francis Bacon3. Cartesianism: Rene Descartes

a. doubt, cogito ergo sumb. analytic geometryc. deductive system building

C. Hobbes turns to science

Paris, 1610

Although King Henry IV was a man of kindness, compassion and good humor, and was much loved by his people, Henry was the subject of attempts on his life by Pierre Barrière in August 1593 and Jean Châtel in December 1594.

He was ultimately assassinated in Paris on 14 May 1610 by a Catholic fanatic, François Ravaillac, who stabbed the king to death in Rue de la Ferronnerie, while his coach's progress was stopped by traffic congestion for the Queen's coronation ceremony, as depicted in the engraving by Gaspar Bouttats.

Wikipedia

Paris, 1610

Although King Henry IV was a man of kindness, compassion and good humor, and was much loved by his people, Henry was the subject of attempts on his life by Pierre Barrière in August 1593 and Jean Châtel in December 1594.

He was ultimately assassinated in Paris on 14 May 1610 by a Catholic fanatic, François Ravaillac, who stabbed the king to death in Rue de la Ferronnerie, while his coach's progress was stopped by traffic congestion for the Queen's coronation ceremony, as depicted in the engraving by Gaspar Bouttats.

Wikipedia

Paris, 1610

Although King Henry IV was a man of kindness, compassion and good humor, and was much loved by his people, Henry was the subject of attempts on his life by Pierre Barrière in August 1593 and Jean Châtel in December 1594.

He was ultimately assassinated in Paris on 14 May 1610 by a Catholic fanatic, François Ravaillac, who stabbed the king to death in Rue de la Ferronnerie, while his coach's progress was stopped by traffic congestion for the Queen's coronation ceremony, as depicted in the engraving by Gaspar Bouttats.

Wikipedia

Paris, 1610

Although King Henry IV was a man of kindness, compassion and good humor, and was much loved by his people, Henry was the subject of attempts on his life by Pierre Barrière in August 1593 and Jean Châtel in December 1594.

He was ultimately assassinated in Paris on 14 May 1610 by a Catholic fanatic, François Ravaillac, who stabbed the king to death in Rue de la Ferronnerie, while his coach's progress was stopped by traffic congestion for the Queen's coronation ceremony, as depicted in the engraving by Gaspar Bouttats.

Wikipedia

III. HobbesA. Early Years

1. Parson Hobbes2. Magdalen College, Oxford3. William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire

a. the Grand Tour, 1610b. patronage

B. Scientific Revolution1. astronomy: Copernicus to Galileo2. induction: Francis Bacon3. Cartesianism: Rene Descartes

a. doubt, cogito ergo sumb. analytic geometryc. deductive system building

C. Hobbes turns to science

III. HobbesA. Early Years

1. Parson Hobbes2. Magdalen College, Oxford3. William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire

a. the Grand Tour, 1610b. patronage

B. Scientific Revolution1. astronomy: Copernicus to Galileo2. induction: Francis Bacon3. Cartesianism: Rene Descartes

a. doubt, cogito ergo sumb. analytic geometryc. deductive system building

C. Hobbes turns to science

III. HobbesA. Early Years

1. Parson Hobbes2. Magdalen College, Oxford3. William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire

a. the Grand Tour, 1610b. patronage

B. Scientific Revolution1. astronomy: Copernicus to Galileo2. induction: Francis Bacon3. Cartesianism: Rene Descartes

a. doubt, cogito ergo sumb. analytic geometryc. deductive system building

C. Hobbes turns to science

ΑΓΕ$ΜΕΤΡΗΤΟΣ ΜΗΔΕΙΣ ΕΙΣΙΤ$AGEŌMETRĒTOS MĒDEIS EISITŌ

LET NO ONE UNTRAINED IN GEOMETRY ENTERMOTTO OVER THE GATEWAY TO PLATO’S

ACADEMY

III. HobbesA. Early Years

1. Parson Hobbes2. Magdalen College, Oxford3. William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire

a. the Grand Tour, 1610b. patronage

B. Scientific Revolution1. astronomy: Copernicus to Galileo2. induction: Francis Bacon3. Cartesianism: Rene Descartes

a. doubt, cogito ergo sumb. analytic geometryc. deductive system building

C. Hobbes turns to science

Galileo & heliocentrism1543-Copernicus had feared to publish during his lifetime

1600-Dominican friar Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake for his Copernican views

Galileo & heliocentrism1543-Copernicus had feared to publish during his lifetime

1600-Dominican friar Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake for his Copernican views

1610- “Starry Messenger” published the observations Galileo had made with his telescope

Venice 1610

Galileo & heliocentrism1543-Copernicus had feared to publish during his lifetime

1600-Dominican friar Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake for his Copernican views

1610- “Starry Messenger” published the observations Galileo had made with his telescope

1616- he was summoned to Rome and warned

Venice 1610

Galileo & heliocentrism1543-Copernicus had feared to publish during his lifetime

1600-Dominican friar Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake for his Copernican views

1610- “Starry Messenger” published the observations Galileo had made with his telescope

1616- he was summoned to Rome and warned

Venice 1610

Galileo & heliocentrism1543-Copernicus had feared to publish during his lifetime

1600-Dominican friar Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake for his Copernican views

1610- “Starry Messenger” published the observations Galileo had made with his telescope

1616- he was summoned to Rome and warned

1633- declared a heretic and put under house arrest for the rest of his life

Venice 1610

Francis Bacon--inductionBacon has been called the creator of empiricism

His works established and popularized inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry, often called simply the scientific method

His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper methodology today

his scientific works called for an universal reform of knowledge and the application of science and invention to improve mankind’s material conditions

1620-Hobbes met, admired him, and worked as his secretary

Francis Bacon 1st Viscount St Alban(s), KC

(1561 – 1626)

Novum Organum Scientiarum, 1620(The New Instrument of Science)

Aristotle’s treatise on logic had been called the Organon. It was primarily deductive

deduction argues from general principles to specific cases, e.g., “All men are mortal, Socrates is a man, therefore, we deduce, Socrates is mortal”

the Novum Organon proposes to seek general principles through experimentation, to induce them, from the specific finding to the general

thus, no principle was to be accepted on authority, not Aristotle’s, not the Church’s

the way was paved for doubt and modern science

Rene Descartes--deduction

amazingly enlightened education by the Jesuits at La Fleche

like the Greek Skeptics, Descartes began his intellectual adventure with doubt. He rejected all principles until he reached his famous “cogito ergo sum” (je pense, donc je suis)

analytic geometry: y=mx +b (Cartesian coordinates)

deductive system building

1641-Hobbes was invited by Descartes to give a critique of Descartes’ “First Philosophy”

as a thoroughgoing materialist, Hobbes rejected the spiritual aspects

Renatus Cartesius 1596 –1650

III. HobbesA. Early YearsB. Scientific RevolutionC. Hobbes turns to science

1. From Thucydides to Euclid, 16102. materialism

a. De Corpore, 1655: physicsb. De Homine, 1658: psychologyc. De Cive, 1642

3. emigration, 1640--51a. “the first of all that fled”b. Prince of Wales, 1646-47c. troubles in France

4. final years, 1651-79

ELEMENTORUMPHILOSOPHIAE

SECTIO TERTIAEDE CIVE

Proverbs 8:15

Per me Reges regnant et legum conditores iusta

decernunt[By me kings reign, and

rulers decree what is just]

Paris1642

De Cive is the first of a trilogy of works written by Hobbes dealing with human knowledge, the other two works in the trilogy being De Corpore (‘On the body’), published in 1655 and De Homine ('On man'), published in 1658. Because of the political turmoil of the time, namely the unrest leading up to the Civil War of 1642, Hobbes hastily "ripened and plucked" the work which would systematically come last: De Cive. This work comprises three parts: Libertas (liberty), Imperium (dominion), and Religio (religion). In the first part, he describes man’s natural condition, dealing with the natural laws; in the second, the necessity of establishing a stable government is indicated. Finally, in the third part, he writes something about religion.

The famous phrase Bellum omnium contra omnes (war of all against all) appeared first in De Cive.

Wikipedia

III. HobbesA. Early YearsB. Scientific RevolutionC. Hobbes turns to science

1. From Thucydides to Euclid, 16102. materialism

a. De Corpore, 1655: physicsb. De Homine, 1658: psychologyc. De Cive, 1642

3. emigration, 1640--51a. “the first of all that fled”b. Prince of Wales, 1646-47c. troubles in France

4. final years, 1651-79

Leviathan1651

Leviathan1651

Leviathan1651

IV. Leviathan, 1651; chaps., 47, pp. 240 (Great Books ed.)A. Introduction

1. meaning of title?2. analogy to the body

B. Chap 131. “proof” of human equality2. three causes of quarrels3. condition of war

a. description -- memorize (SPNBS)b. proofsc. indians and “state of nature”

C. Chap 14D. Chap 15E. Chap 17F. Other concepts

Nature (the art whereby God hath made and governes the world) is by the art of man, as in many other things, so in this also imitated, that it can make an Artificial Animal. For seeing life is but a motion of Limbs, the begining whereof is in some principall part within; why may we not say, that all Automata (Engines that move themselves by springs and wheeles as doth a watch) have an artificiall life? For what is the Heart, but a Spring; and the Nerves, but so many Strings; and the Joynts, but so many Wheeles, giving motion to the whole Body, such as was intended by the Artificer? Art goes yet further, imitating that Rationall and most excellent worke of Nature, Man. For by Art is created that great LEVIATHAN called a COMMON-WEALTH, or STATE, (in latine CIVITAS) which is but an Artificiall Man; though of greater stature and strength than the Naturall, for whose protection and defence it was intended; (cont.)

and in which, the Soveraignty is an Artificiall Soul, as giving life and motion to the whole body; The Magistrates, and other Officers of Judicature and Execution, artificiall Joynts; Reward and Punishment (by which fastned to the seat of the Soveraignty, every joynt and member is moved to performe his duty) are the Nerves, that do the same in the Body Naturall; The Wealth and Riches of all the particular members, are the Strength; Salus Populi (the Peoples Safety) its Businesse; Counsellors, by whom all things needfull for it to know, are suggested unto it, are the Memory; Equity and Lawes, an artificiall Reason and Will; Concord, Health; Sedition, Sicknesse; and Civill War, Death. Lastly, the Pacts and Covenants, by which the parts of this Body Politique were at first made, set together, and united, resemble that Fiat, or the Let Us Make Man, pronounced by God in the Creation.

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, “Introduction”

natural man mechanical man stateheart spring

nerves strings reward and punishment

joints wheels magistrates & others

soul sovereign

strength wealth of every member

safety business

memory counselors

reason & will equity & laws

health concord

sickness sedition

death civil war

As God’s Fiat (Latin for “let it be made”) created man, so the pacts and covenants create the “Body Politique.”Next, Hobbes will describe the need for a state arising from man’s condition in “the state of nature” and the covenant which he will make.

IV.B.1--”proof” of human equality

Nature hath made men so equall, in the faculties of body, and mind; as that though there bee found one man sometimes manifestly stronger in body, or of quicker mind then another; yet when all is reckoned together, the difference between man, and man, is not so considerable, as that one man can thereupon claim to himselfe any benefit, to which another may not pretend, as well as he. For as to the strength of body, the weakest has strength enough to kill the strongest, either by secret machination, or by confederacy with others, that are in the same danger with himselfe.

CHAPTER XIII. OF THE NATURALL CONDITION OF MANKIND, AS

CONCERNING THEIR FELICITY, AND MISERY

And as to the faculties of the mind, (setting aside the arts grounded upon words, and especially that skill of proceeding upon generall, and infallible rules, called Science; which very few have, and but in few things; as being not a native faculty, born with us; nor attained,(as Prudence,) while we look after somewhat els,) I find yet a greater equality amongst men, than that of strength. For Prudence, is but Experience; which equall time, equally bestowes on all men, in those things they equally apply themselves unto. That which may perhaps make such equality incredible, is but a vain conceipt of ones owne wisdome, which almost all men think they have in a greater degree, than the Vulgar; that is, than all men but themselves, and a few others, whom by Fame, or for concurring with themselves, they approve. For such is the nature of men, that howsoever they may acknowledge many others to be more witty, or more eloquent, or more learned; Yet they will hardly believe there be many so wise as themselves: For they see their own wit at hand, and other mens at a distance. But this proveth rather that men are in that point equall, than unequall. For there is not ordinarily a greater signe of the equall distribution of any thing, than that every man is contented with his share.

IV.B.2--three causes of quarrels

From this equality of ability, ariseth equality of hope in the attaining of our Ends. And therefore if any two men desire the same thing, which neverthelesse they cannot both enjoy, they become enemies; and in the way to their End, (which is principally their owne conservation, and sometimes their delectation only,) endeavour to destroy, or subdue one an other. And from hence it comes to passe, that where an Invader hath no more to feare, than an other mans single power; if one plant, sow, build, or possesse a convenient Seat, others may probably be expected to come prepared with forces united, to dispossesse, and deprive him, not only of the fruit of his labour, but also of his life, or liberty. And the Invader again is in the like danger of another.

So that in the nature of man, we find three principall causes of quarrel. First, Competition; Secondly, Diffidence; Thirdly, Glory.

The first, maketh men invade for Gain; the second, for Safety; and the third, for Reputation. The first use Violence, to make themselves Masters of other mens persons, wives, children, and cattell; the second, to defend them; the third, for trifles, as a word, a smile, a different opinion, and any other signe of undervalue, either direct in their Persons, or by reflexion in their Kindred, their Friends, their Nation, their Profession, or their Name.

IV.B.3--the condition of war

There Is Alwayes Warre Of Every One Against Every One Hereby it is manifest, that during the time men live without a common Power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called Warre; and such a warre, as is of every man, against every man. For WARRE, consisteth not in Battell onely, or the act of fighting; but in a tract of time, wherein the Will to contend by Battell is sufficiently known: and therefore the notion of Time, is to be considered in the nature of Warre; as it is in the nature of Weather. For as the nature of Foule weather, lyeth not in a showre or two of rain; but in an inclination thereto of many dayes together: So the nature of War, consisteth not in actuall fighting; but in the known disposition thereto, during all the time there is no assurance to the contrary. All other time is PEACE.

In such condition, there is no place for industry; because the fruit thereof is uncertain: and consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea; no commodious building; no instruments of moving, and removing, such things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of the earth; no account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.

IV.B.3.a--SPNBS

Before moving on to the solution to this condition of “war of all against all,” Hobbes offers proofs of his description:

the locked doors and armed travelers in “civilized “ England

the condition of the savages in North America

the attitude of European nation-states

“...in the state and posture of Gladiators;having their weapons pointing, and their eyes fixed on one another;that is, their Forts, Garrisons, and Guns upon the Frontiers of theirKingdomes; and continuall Spyes upon their neighbours; which is a posture of War.”

IV. Leviathan, 1651; chaps., 47, pp. 240 (Great Books ed.)A. IntroductionB. Chap 13C. Chap 14

1. definitions and contrastsa. rightb. libertyc. law

2. Three laws of natureD. Chap 15E. Chap 17F. Other concepts

IV.C.1.a.--the right of nature

The RIGHT OF NATURE, which Writers commonly call Jus Naturale, is the Liberty each man hath, to use his own power, as he will himselfe, for the preservation of his own Nature; that is to say, of his own Life; and consequently, of doing any thing, which in his own Judgement, and Reason, hee shall conceive to be the aptest means thereunto.

IV.C.1.b.--the liberty of nature

By LIBERTY, is understood, according to the proper signification of the word, the absence of externall Impediments: which Impediments, may oft take away part of a mans power to do what hee would; but cannot hinder him from using the power left him, according as his judgement, and reason shall dictate to him.

IV.C.1.c.--the law of nature

A LAW OF NATURE, (Lex Naturalis), is a Precept, or generall Rule, found out by Reason, by which a man is forbidden to do, that, which is destructive of his life, or taketh away the means of preserving the same; and to omit, that, by which he thinketh it may be best preserved. For though they that speak of this subject, use to confound Jus, and Lex, Right and Law; yet they ought to be distinguished; because RIGHT, consisteth in liberty to do, or to forbeare; Whereas LAW, determineth, and bindeth to one of them: so that Law, and Right, differ as much, as Obligation, and Liberty; which in one and the same matter are inconsistent.

IV.C.1.c.--the laws of nature described--Preamble

And because the condition of Man, (as hath been declared in the precedent Chapter) is a condition of Warre of every one against everyone; in which case every one is governed by his own Reason; and there is nothing he can make use of, that may not be a help unto him, in preserving his life against his enemyes; It followeth, that in such a condition, every man has a Right to every thing; even to one anothers body. And therefore, as long as this naturall Right of every man to every thing endureth, there can be no security to any man, (how strong or wise soever he be,) of living out the time, which Nature ordinarily alloweth men to live.

IV.C.1.c.--the fundamental law of nature

And consequently it is a precept, or generall rule of Reason, "That every man, ought to endeavour Peace, as farre as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek, and use, all helps, and advantages of Warre." The first branch, of which Rule, containeth the first, and Fundamentall Law of Nature; which is, "To seek Peace, and follow it." The Second, the summe of the Right of Nature; which is, "By all means we can, to defend our selves."

IV.C.1.c.--the second law of nature explained

From this Fundamentall Law of Nature, by which men are commanded to endeavour Peace, is derived this second Law; "That a man be willing, when others are so too, as farre-forth, as for Peace, and defence of himselfe he shall think it necessary, to lay down this right to all things; and be contented with so much liberty against other men, as he would allow other men against himselfe." For as long as every man holdeth this Right, of doing any thing he liketh; so long are all men in the condition of Warre. But if other men will not lay down their Right, as well as he; then there is no Reason for any one, to devest himselfe of his: For that were to expose himselfe to Prey, (which no man is bound to) rather than to dispose himselfe to Peace. This is that Law of the Gospell; "Whatsoever you require that others should do to you, that doye to them." And that Law of all men, "Quod tibi feiri non vis, alteri ne feceris."

IV. Leviathan, 1651; chaps., 47, pp. 240 (Great Books ed.)A. IntroductionB. Chap 13C. Chap 14D. Chap 15

1. definition of justice2. contrast with earlier thinkers

E. Chap 171. man’s end2. “covenants without the sword…”3. The social contract (covenant)

a. goal?b. terms? enforcement?c. duration?d. parties?

4. commonwealth and sovereign definedF. Other concepts

1. the sovereign -- one man or many?2. the “Kingdom of Darkness”

IV.D.1.--the third law of nature, justice

From that law of Nature, by which we are obliged to transferre to another, such Rights, as being retained, hinder the peace of Mankind, there followeth a Third; which is this, That Men Performe Their Covenants Made: without which, Covenants are in vain, and but Empty words; and the Right of all men to all things remaining, wee are still in the condition of Warre.

IV.D.1.-- justice and injustice defined

And in this law of Nature, consisteth the Fountain and Originall of JUSTICE. For where no Covenant hath preceded, there hath no Right been transferred, and every man has right to every thing; and consequently, no action can be Unjust. But when a Covenant is made, then to break it is Unjust: And the definition of INJUSTICE, is no other than The Not Performance Of Covenant. And whatsoever is not Unjust, is Just.

IV.E.1--man’s end (goal)

The finall Cause, End, or Designe of men, (who naturally love Liberty, and Dominion over others,) in the introduction of that restraint upon themselves, (in which wee see them live in Common-wealths,) is the foresight of their own preservation, and of a more contented life thereby; that is to say, of getting themselves out from that miserable condition of Warre, which is necessarily consequent (as hath been shewn) to the naturall Passions of men, when there is no visible Power to keep them in awe, and tye them by feare of punishment to the performance of their Covenants, and observation of these Lawes of Nature set down in the fourteenth and fifteenth Chapters.

CHAPTER XVII.-- OF THE CAUSES, GENERATION, AND DEFINITION OF A COMMON-WEALTH

IV.E.2--”covenants without the sword”

For the Lawes of Nature (as Justice, Equity, Modesty, Mercy, and (in summe) Doing To Others, As Wee Would Be Done To,) if themselves, without the terrour of some Power, to cause them to be observed, are contrary to our naturall Passions, that carry us to Partiality, Pride, Revenge, and the like. And Covenants, without the Sword, are but Words, and of no strength to secure a man at all.

CHAPTER XVII.-- OF THE CAUSES, GENERATION, AND DEFINITION OF A COMMON-WEALTH

IV.E.3--generation of the commonwealth

The only way to erect such a Common Power, as may be able to defend them from the invasion of Forraigners, and the injuries of one another, and thereby to secure them in such sort, as that by their owne industrie, and by the fruites of the Earth, they may nourish themselves and live contentedly; is, to conferre all their power and strength upon one Man, or upon one Assembly of men, that may reduce all their Wills, by plurality of voices, unto one Will: which is as much as to say, to appoint one man, or Assembly of men, to beare their Person; and every one to owne, and acknowledge himselfe to be Author of whatsoever he that so beareth their Person, shall Act, or cause to be Acted, in those things which concerne the Common Peace and Safetie; and therein to submit their Wills, every one to his Will, and their Judgements, to his Judgment. (cont.)

IV.E.3--generation of the commonwealth

submit their Wills, every one to his Will, and their Judgements, to his Judgment. This is more than Consent, or Concord; it is a reall Unitie of them all, in one and the same Person, made by Covenant of every man with every man, in such manner, as if every man should say to every man, "I Authorise and give up my Right of Governing my selfe, to this Man, or to this Assembly of men, on this condition, that thou give up thy Right to him, and Authorise all his Actions in like manner." This done, the Multitude so united in one Person, is called a COMMON-WEALTH, in latine CIVITAS. This is the Generation of that great LEVIATHAN, or rather (to speake more reverently) of that Mortall God, to which wee owe under the Immortall God, our peace and defence. For by this Authoritie, given him by every particular man in the Common-Wealth, he hath the use of so much Power and Strength conferred on him, that by terror thereof, he is inabled to forme the wills of them all, to Peace at home, and mutuall ayd against their enemies abroad.

IV.E.3. the social contract(covenant)

a. goal? security of life and property

b. terms? each surrenders his rights to the Sovereign

c. duration? permanent, once entered upon no going back

d. parties? every man with every man. NOTE WELL the Sovereign is not a party, he is “above” the contract

IV.E.4--commonwealth and sovereign defined

And in him [the Sovereign]consisteth the Essence of the Common-wealth; which (to define it,) is "One Person, of whose Acts a great Multitude, by mutuall Covenants one with another, have made themselves every one the Author, to the end he may use the strength and means of them all, as he shall think expedient, for their Peace and Common Defence.

And he that carryeth this Person, as called SOVERAIGNE, and said to haveSoveraigne Power; and every one besides, his SUBJECT.

CHAPTER XVII.-- OF THE CAUSES, GENERATION, AND DEFINITION OF A COMMON-WEALTH

The question of the best form of state is not one of logic, according to Hobbes, but of convenience, that is, of the aptitude of the state to produce the security and peace of the people for which a government is instituted. However, on purely practical grounds Hobbes considers monarchy the best form of state because it suffers less from competition for office and power than do aristocracies and democracies; also, it is easier for one than for many to act resolutely and consistently. Sovereign power is “incommunicable and inseparable,” and Hobbes attacks any institution, town or private corporation, that may weaken the omnipotence of the state. (cont.)

IV.F. other concepts1.the sovereign -- one or many?

Sovereign power is “incommunicable and inseparable,” and Hobbes attacks any institution, town or private corporation, that may weaken the omnipotence of the state. He is vehemently opposed to division of powers or mixed government, and he goes so far as to say that there would have been no civil war in England if it had not been for the widespread opinion that the sovereignty was divided between King, Lords, and Commons. There is particular danger in the liberty of the subject to challenge the wisdom or legality of the sovereign’s actions, the “poisonous doctrine” that “every private man is judge of good and evil actions,” and that “whatsoever a man does against his conscience is sin.” Against such “seditious doctrines” Hobbes demands the unqualified obedience of the subject.

Ebenstein, pp. 360-361

the sovereign -- one or many? (concluded)

For from the time that the Bishop of Rome had gotten to be acknowledged for bishop universal, by pretense of succession to St. Peter, their whole hierarchy, or kingdom of darkness, may be compared not unfitly to the kingdom of fairies ; that is, to old wives’ fables in England concerning ghosts and spirits, and the feats they play in the night. And if a man consider the original of this ecclesiastical dominion, he will easily perceive that the Papacy is no other than the ghost of the deceased Roman empire sitting crowned upon the grave thereof.

IV.F.2 --the Kingdom of Darkness

Criticism

Criticism

V. Criticism1. “father of totalitarianism?” Ebenstein’s seven points2. contributions3. weaknesses

V.1. Hobbes is NOT the father of totalitarianism

1. government is established by a contract

2. government establishes order for the benefit of the citizens

3. Hobbesian state is authoritarian NOT totalitarian

4.sovereign may be one or many. Totalitarians are one-man

5. there is no glorification of war (class war or imperialist)

6. Hobbes requires only outer conformity

7. Hobbesian stress on the inalienability of human life

Hobbes began the “great conversation” about political philosophy in English. His concepts of the state of nature, the laws of nature, and the social contract would lead in a direct line to the 18th century founders of the American Republic.

contributions

His materialism was the product of his fascination with the Scientific Revolution and his hostility towards the religious warfare of his age. His emphasis on order at the expense of liberty stemmed from his abhorrence of the violence of the Thirty Years’ War and the English Civil War. Both these qualities undercut the insightful analysis of his work.

weaknesses

As Hobbes lay dying in 1679 England was once again convulsed in political struggles between Crown and Parliament. The revolution which followed in 1688 was called Glorious because compared to the Civil War it was almost bloodless. This conflict would produce another great work of political philosophy, one even more influential on America’s founding fathers.But, that’s another story...