JPN494: Japanese Language and LinguisticsJPN543: Advanced Japanese Language and Linguistics

Phonology & Phonetics (4)

Phonological Rules

A phoneme (or a sequence of phonemes) may be realized in different ways (as different phones/sequences of phones).

The alternation between allophones is generally conditioned by phonological (or morpho-phonological) rule.

Phonological Rules

Phonological rules refer to phonological contexts (surrounding the target phoneme) only.

E.g. “A voiceless stop sound becomes aspirated when it occurs in the initial position of a stressed syllable (in English)”– /p/, /t/, /k/ [p⇒ h], [th], [kh]

Phonological Rules

Morpho-phonological rules refer to specific expressions or classes of expressions.

E.g. The plural marker -s /z/ is realized as:– [əz] when it follows (a noun that ends with) /s/, /z/,

/ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ʧ/, or /ʤ/ (aces, quizzes, churches)– otherwise:

[s] when it follows a voiceless consonant (chips, kicks)

– otherwise: [z] (sofas, kegs)

(Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese

#1 Devoicing Rule

1. A high vowel (/i/ or /ɯ/) is voiceless when (i) it follows a voiceless consonant and (ii) either it precedes a voiceless consonant or it occurs at the end of a word

2. Otherwise, it is voiced.

(Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese

くさ : /kɯsa/ → [kɯsa] くま : /kɯma/ → [kɯma] くし : /kɯsi/ → [kɯʃi] 　 きし : /kisi/ → [kjiʃi] キス : /kisɯ/ → [kjisɯ] ストライク : /sɯtoraikɯ/ → [sɯtoɾaikɯ]

(Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese

#2 Nasal Assimilation1. /N/ is realized the nasal sound that shares the sam

e place of articulation as the immediately preceding consonant.

2. When /N/ is not followed by any consonant, it is realized either as [ɴ] or [ŋ]

“Assimilation” is a phenomenon whereby a phonetic feature (p-o-a, voicing, etc.) extends to a neighboring sound.

(Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese

本 ( ほん ) /hoN/ [hoɴ] (⇒ ～ [hoŋ]) 散歩 ( さんぽ ) /saNpo/ [sampo]⇒ 引退 ( いんたい ) /iNtai/ [intai]⇒ 天気 ( てんき ) /teNki/ [teŋki]⇒ こんにちは /koNnitiwa/ [kon⇒ jnjiʧiwa]

(Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese

#3 Alveolar Alternation (1)1. /t/ is realized as [ʦ] when it is followed by /ɯ/. 2. /t/ is realized as [ʧ] when it is followed by /i/ (or /j/).3. Otherwise, /t/ is realized as [t]. #4 Alveolar Alternation (2)1. /s/ is realized as [ʃ] when it is followed by /i/ (or /j/). 2. Otherwise, /s/ is realized as [s].#5 Alveolar Alternation (3)1. /z/ is realized as [ʒ] (or [ʤ]) when it is followed by /i/ (or /j/). 2. Otherwise, /z/ is realized as [z] (or [ʣ]).

(Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese

ik-ɯ ( 行く ; u-verb) 　– 行かない : ik-ana-i ikanai⇒– 行きます : ik-imas-ɯ ik⇒ (j)imasɯ– 行く : ik-ɯ ikɯ⇒– 行けば : ik-eba ikeba⇒

kat-ɯ ( 勝つ ; u-verb) 　– 勝たない : kat-ana-i katanai⇒– 勝ちます : kat-imas-ɯ ka⇒ ʧimasɯ– 勝つ : kat-ɯ ka⇒ ʦɯ– 勝てば : kat-eba kateba⇒

(Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese

kas-ɯ ( 貸す ; u-verb) 　– 貸さない : kas-ana-i → kasanai– 貸します : kas-imas-ɯ → kaʃimasɯ– 貸す : kas-ɯ → kasɯ– 貸せば : kas-eba → kaseba

判ずる ( はんずる , infer) [hanzɯrɯ] vs. 判じ物　 ( はんじもの , puzzle) [hanʒimono]

[asi] vs. [aʃi]; [azi] vs. [aʒi]

(Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese

堺 ( さかい ) [sakai] vs. 社会 ( しゃかい ) [ʃakai]– 堺 : /sakai/– 社会 : /ʃakai/ (option 1) or /sjakai/ (option 2)

田 ( た ) 　 [ta] vs. 茶 ( ちゃ ) [ʧa]– 田 : /ta/– 茶 : /ʧa/ or /tja/

(Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese

#6 「ハ行」 Alternation

1. /h/ is realized as [ɸ] when it is followed by /ɯ/.

2. /h/ is realized as [ç] when it is followed by /i/ (or /j/).

3. Otherwise, /t/ is realized as [h].

(Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese

[hɯ] vs. [ɸɯ]; [hi] vs. [çi] 判 [haɴ] vs. ファン [ɸaɴ]

– 判 : /haN/– ファン : /ɸaN/ (option 1) or /hwaN/ (option 2)

履く [hakɯ] vs. 百 [çakɯ]– 履く : /hakɯ/– 百 : /çakɯ/ (option 1) or /hjakɯ/ (option 2)

(Morpho-)phonological Rules in Japanese

#7 Conjugation Rules (morpho-phonological rules)– Verbal roots ending with a consonant (ru-verbs; 一段動詞 )

借りる (kari-rɯ), やめる (jame-rɯ), 助ける (tasuke-rɯ), …

– Verbal roots ending with a consonant (u-verbs; 五段動詞 ) 書く (kak-ɯ), 待つ (mat-ɯ), 知る (sir-ɯ), 買う (kaw-ɯ), …

– Irregulars 来る する (, 批判する , 勉強する , …)

7-1. plain present (non-past) form

The sequence of a verb root (VR; 語幹 ( ごかん )) and the present marker (morpheme) /rɯ/ is realized as:

1. [VR + rɯ] when the verb root ends with a vowel;

2. [VR + ɯ] when the verb root ends with a consonant.

Pairs (tuples) of forms like [rɯ] and [ɯ] are called allomorphs.

Similar pairs of allomorphs– [na] (tabe-na-i) and [ana] (kak-ana-i)– [ɾeba] (tabe-ɾeba) and [eba] (kak-eba)– [sase] (tabe-sase-ɾɯ) and [ase] (kak-ase-ɾɯ)– [ɾaɾe] (tabe-ɾaɾe-ɾɯ) and [aɾe] (kak-aɾe-ɾɯ)– [mas] (tabe-mas-ɯ) and [imas] (kak-imas-ɯ)

7-2. plain past form

The sequence of a verb root (VR) and the past marker (morpheme) /ta/ is realized as:

1. [VR + ta] when the verb root ends with a vowel;

2. Otherwise …

If the root ends with a velar consonant (/k/ or /g/) or /s/, insert /i/ after it (insertion)

If the root ends with a sequence of a velar consonant and /i/, delete the velar consonant (deletion)– /kak+ta/ → /kaki+ta/ → /kai+ta/ [kaita] (⇒ 書いた )– /ojog+ta/ → /ojog+da/ → /ojogi+da/ → /ojoi+da/ ⇒

[ojoida] ( 泳いだ )– /hanas+ta/ → /hanas+i+ta/ [hanaʃita] (⇒ 泳いだ )

If the root ends with /t/, /r/, or /w/, replace it with /Q/ (trw→Q)– /kat+ta/ → /kaQ+ta/ [katta] (⇒ 勝った )– /kaer+ta/ → /kaeQ+ta/ [kaetta] (⇒ 帰った )– /kaw+ta/ → /kaQ+ta/ [katta] (⇒ 買った )

If the root ends with a voiced consonant, change /ta/ into /da/ (voicing)

If the root ends with /b/, /m/ or /n/, replace it with /N/ (bmn→N)– /job+ta/ → /job+da/ → /joN+da/ [jonda] (⇒ 呼んだ )– /jom+ta/ → /jom+da/ → /joN+da/ [jonda] (⇒ 読んだ )– /ʃin+ta/ → /ʃin+da/ → /ʃiN+da/ [jonda] (⇒ 読んだ )

A note on /Q/

If the root ends with /t/, /r/ or /w/, replace it with /Q/ (trw→Q)

– /kat+ta/ → /kaQ+ta/ [ka⇒ tta] ( 勝った )– /kaer+ta/ → /kaeQ+ta/ [kae⇒ tta] ( 帰った )– /kaw+ta/ → /kaQ+ta/ [ka⇒ tta] ( 買った )

If the root ends with /r/ or /w/, replace it with /t/ (rw→t)

– /kat+ta/ [katta] (⇒ 勝った )– /kaer+ta/ → /kaet+ta/ [kaetta] (⇒ 帰った )– /kaw+ta/ → /kat+ta/ [katta] (⇒ 買った )

A note on /Q/

Why do we want the phoneme /Q/? – いっぱい [ippai]: /ippai/ or /iQpai/?– いったい [ittai]: /ittai/ or /iQtai/?

an alternative rule: a sequence of two occurrences of the same consonant is realized as a single long consonant.

*[iptai] (cf. captain [cæptən]) coda: {φ, /N/, /Q/}

A note on /Q/

Transformation Rules: change a phonemic representation into another phonemic representation (→)

Realization Rules: connect a phonemic representation and a phonetic representation ( ) (e.g. /si/ [ʃi])⇒ ⇒

The サ・ザ・タ・ダ・ハ行 alternation rules & the nasal assimilation rule are “realization rules”

The final phase of transformations should not contain a syllable ending with a consonant other than /Q/ or /N/. 　

Rule orderingstrw→Q, voicing, bmn→N, insertion, deletion

/job+ta/ → (voicing) /job+da/ → (bmn→N) joN+da/

/job+ta/ → (bmn→N) /joN+ta/ → (voicing) /joN+da/

Rule Orderings- insertion should apply before deletion

/kak+ta/ → (deletion) (n/a) /kak+ta/ → (insertion) /kak+i+ta/ *[kak⇒ (j)ita]

/kak+ta/ → (insertion) /kak+i+ta/ → (deletion) /ka+i+ta/ [kaita]⇒

Rule Orderings- voicing should apply before insertion- insertion should apply before deletion

/ojog+ta/ → (insertion) /ojogi+ta/ → (deletion) /ojoi+ta/ → (voicing) (n/a) /ojoi+ta/ *[ojoita]⇒

/ojog+ta/ → (insertion) /ojogi+ta/ → (voicing) (n/a) /ojogi+ta/ → (deletion) /ojoi+ta/ *[ojoita]⇒

/ojog+ta/ → (voicing) /ojog+da/ → (insertion) /ojogi+da/ → (deletion) /ojoi+da/ [ojoida]⇒

Alternative past tense formation rules (from Yookoso):

– If the root ends with a vowel, put /ta/ after it.– If the root ends with /k/, delete it and put /ita/.– If the root ends with /g/, delete it and put /ida/.– If the root ends with /w/, /t/, or /r/, delete it and put /Qta/.– If the root ends with /n/, /m/, or /b/, delete it and put /Nda/.– If the root ends with /s/, put /ita/.

Alternative past tense formation rules:– If the root ends with a vowel, put /ta/ after it.– If the root ends with /k/, delete it and put /ita/.– If the root ends with /g/, delete it and put /ida/.– If the root ends with /w/, /t/, or /r/, delete it and put

/Qta/.– If the root ends with /n/, /m/, or /b/, delete it and p

ut /Nda/.– If the root ends with /s/, put /ita/.

Lessons

The purpose of a reference grammar (a grammar for learners) is to help learners acquire ability to speak the language.

Theoretical linguistics, on the other hand, seeks to identify grammatical rules that are stored in speakers’ minds. (e.g. Are there such things as phonological transformational rules?)

cf. coach vs. physiologist

A practical application?

trw→Q, voicing, bmn→N, insertion, deletion #1, #2, #3, #4, #5 (Dialect A) #1, #2, #3’, #5 (Dialect B) #1’, #2, #3’, #4, #5 (Dialect C) #1’, #3’, #6 (Dialect D)

Sequential Voicing ( 連濁 )

小 ko + 太鼓 taiko → 小太鼓 kodaiko 竹 take + さお sao → 竹ざお takezao 鼻 hana + 血 ʧi → 鼻血 hanaʒi (hanaʤi) 狸 tanɯkji + 汁 ʃiɾɯ → 狸汁 tanɯkjiʒiɾɯ (ta

nɯkiʤiɾɯ) 本 hoɴ + 箱 hako → 本箱 hombako 旅 tabji + 人 çito → 旅人 tabjibjito 草 kɯsa + 笛 ɸɯe → 草笛 kɯsabɯe

/s/ → /z/ /t/ → /d/ /k/ → /g/ /h/ → /b/

s → z/ʣ ʃ → ʒ/ʤ t → d ʧ → ʒ/ʤ ʦ → z/ʣ k → g h → b ç → b ɸ → b

Constraint #1: The SV rule applies only when the second member of a compound is a native word ( 和語 ), rather than a Sino-Japanese word ( 漢語 ) or a loan word ( 外来語 ).– 貧乏神 ( びんぼうがみ ) vs. 貧乏性 ( びんぼう

しょう )– 安部屋 ( やすべや ) vs. 安ホテル– Exceptions: 貿易会社 ( ぼうえきがいしゃ ), 歌

ガルタ , 山ギャンプ (?)

Constraint #2 (Lyman’s law): The SV rule does not apply when the second member of a compound has a voiced stop, fricative, or affricate. – 不思議 ( ふしぎ ) + 蜥蜴 ( とかげ ) = ??– 不思議 ( ふしぎ ) + 花 ( はな ) = ??

Constraint #3 (Right Branching Condition): The SV rule applies only when a potential target is in a right branch constituent at the lowest level.

1 2 3

4

5 6 7

8

[[ 塗り + 箸 ] 　 + 入れ ] vs. [ 塗り + [ 箸 + 入れ ]]

ぬり はし いれぬり ばし いれ

[ ふしぎ + とり ]? – 不思議鳥

[ ふしぎ + [ とり + もち ]]?– 不思議鳥もち

[ おお + [ ほし + いも ]]?– 大干し芋

[[ きちょう + ほん ] + たな ]?– 貴重本棚

[[ なま + こめ ] + はこ ]?– 生米箱

Constraint #4: The SV rule does not apply when two members of a compound are semantically juxtaposed.– 草木 ( くさき ) 　 vs. 草笛 ( くさぶえ )– 田畑 ( たはた ) 　 vs. 田亀 ( たがめ )