ISLAM

EYEWITNESS GUIDESDORLING KINDERSLEY

Water pitcher presented to Charlemagne byeighth-century caliph, Harun al-Rashid

Arabic quadrant, formeasuring the height ofstars, with instructions

Seventh-century coin, mintedwhen the Umayyad dynastyruled from Damascus, Syria

A poetry reading

Star lantern

Mosque finial ofSelimiye Mosque,

Turkey

Map of the world byMoroccan-born writer and

geographer, Al-Idrisi(1099–1180)

Guidebook to the hajj (the pilgrimage)

Lute decorated withtraditional Islamic patterns

Written by

PHILIP WILKINSONEditorial consultant

BATUL SALAZAR

EYEWITNESS GUIDES

ISLAM

Bedouin wearingtraditional costume

Ubudiah Mosque, Malaysia

Islamic star-shapeddecorative tile

Gold bracelet

Thirteenth-century book illustrationof Ramadan procession

Prayer beads

The Qutb Minar,Delhi, India

Project editor Kitty Blount

Art editor Clair Watson

Editor Fran Baines

Production Kate Oliver

Special photography Steve Teague

Picture research Angela Anderson, Alex Pepper,

Deborah Pownall, and Sarah Pownall

DTP designer Siu Yin Ho

Jacket designer Dean Price

This Eyewitness ® Guide has been conceived by Dorling Kindersley Limited and Editions Gallimard

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A book rest supportinga copy of the Qur’an

Sixteenth-century paintingof Muslim astronomers

Bronze bird from Persia

Saudi Arabianwoman wearing aface veil

A caravan of pilgrims, including a camelcarrying a pavillion called a mahmal.

Coffeepot

Tenth-century Arabic copy of aherbal encyclopedia by Greek

surgeon Dioscorides

Two of the Rightly Guided Caliphs,Companions of the Prophet

Traditional silk costumefrom China

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LONDON, NEW YORK, MUNICH,

MELBOURNE, and DELHI

Contents

6Early Arabia

8The Prophet Muhammad

10The Qur’an

12The Five Pillars of Islam

18The mosque

20The caliphate

22First conquests

24Scholars and teachers

28The spread of learning

32Nomadic or settled

34Islamic culture

36The Islamic city

38Merchants and travelers

42The crusades

44Arms and armor

46Spain

48Africa

50Mongols and Turks

52Central Asia, Iran, and India

54China and Southeast Asia

56Costume and jewelry

58Islamic society

60Festivals and ceremonies

64Index and acknowledgments

Mamluk mosque lamp

5

Early ArabiaTHE ARABIAN PENINSULA is home to the Arab people. There had already beenadvanced cultures in this area before thebirth of Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam,in the sixth century. Arabia’s position at acrossroads between Asia, Africa, and Europeallowed many Arabs to make fortunestrading. Although most of the Arab tribesworshiped their own idols, Christians, Jews,and followers of Abraham worshiped OneGod. When Muhammad told them that thereligion of the One God had been revealedto him and that at last theyhad a message, theQur’an, in their ownlanguage and areligion called Islam,some wereenthusiastic.

DATE HARVESTSettlements grew up at thesmall oases that are dottedaround the ArabianPeninsula. Here there was areliable water supply anddate palms grew, providinga succulent harvest for thelocal people.

SOUTH ARABIC INSCRIPTIONThe Sabaeans, who ruled southern Arabiabetween the eighth and second centuries BCE,used a script called South Arabic. Archaeologistshave found many inscriptions in this angularscript, which passed out of use after theSabaeans lost power.

DESERT DUNESMuch of Arabia is desert –either vast expanses of sandwith rolling dunes or thedesert of black volcanic rocksaround the city of Mecca. The name Arab means“nomad” because, in such anenvironment, many Arabpeople adopted a nomadicway of life in order to survive.

WOMAN FROM PALMYRAThe city of Palmyra in the Syrian

desert was built where several traderoutes met. Its people became richbecause they charged merchants a tax when they passed through. This

Palmyra woman is displaying her wealth in the form of gold jewelry.

PETRIFIED FORESTThe Arabian Peninsula is, for themost part, an inhospitable terrain ofdesert and harsh landscapes, such asthese jagged rocks. The most fertilearea is Yemen, which gets monsoonrains from the Indian Ocean.

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THE ARAB WORLDThe Arabian Peninsula liesbetween the Red Sea and thePersian Gulf. The Arabpeoples built towns in thefertile area of Yemen, at oases,and on the coasts. To thenortheast, the Sasanid Empireof the Persians occupied Iran.To the northwest lay theChristian Byzantine Empire.

WALLS AT MA’RIBMa’rib, in Yemen, wasthe capital city of theSabaeans, and some of its ancient wallssurvive. Ma’rib wasbuilt on a trade routeand grew into a large,thriving city, with apalace (home of theQueen of Sheba) andmany houses. Therewas also a famous

dam, an amazing featof engineering for theseventh century BCE.

PRECIOUS PERFUMEFrankincense was one of Arabia’smost prized products, and it waswidely traded. Trade routes criss-crossed the peninsula and many ofthe area’s early cities, such asMa’rib and the Nabatean town ofPetra (in modern Jordan), grew upalong the roads. Trade has beenvital to the area ever since.

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Altar for burning frankincense

The Arab world at the time of the birth of the Prophet Muhammad in 570

ARCHANGEL GABRIEL

The Qur’an (pp. 10–11) was revealed to Muhammad bythe archangel Gabriel, the angel of revelation. On anoccasion known as the Night of Destiny, the revelationbegan. Then the Qur’an was communicated in smallparts over a number of years.

THE PROPHET

Muhammad, whosename is shown here in stylized form, is the Prophet of Islam.Muslims see him as the last of a series ofprophets, includingAbraham, Moses, andJesus, all of whom were mortal.

ON THE MOUNTAIN

When visiting Jabal an-Nur,Muhammad stayed in a cave calledHirah, at the top of the rocky peak.The cave, with an opening that facedtoward Mecca, was very small, butthere was enough space forMuhammad to pray. One of theProphet’s daughters used to climbthe mountain to bring him food sothat he could stay in the cave for thewhole month of Ramadan.

THE LIFE OF A TRADER

As a young man, Muhammad became a merchant, working for awealthy widow called Khadija. Arabia was crisscrossed with tradingroutes linking the peninsula with the Mediterranean and the IndianOcean. Muhammad traveled with camel caravans along these routesand made several trading journeys as far as Syria. Khadija wasimpressed with Muhammad, and, although she was considerablyolder than he was, the two married.

WRITTEN OR SPOKEN

This calligraphyrepresents the name

of the Prophet,Muhammad. Accordingto tradition, he actually

has 200 names,including Habib Allah(Beloved of God) and

Miftah al-Jannah (Key of Paradise). When

referring to Muhammad,Muslims usually add the

phrase ‘alayhi-s-salam(peace be upon him).

The Prophet MuhammadMUHAMMAD WAS BORN IN 570 in the city of Mecca(in what is now Saudi Arabia). He was a member ofthe Quraysh tribe. Orphaned as a boy, he was broughtup by his grandfather and uncle. His mission asProphet of Islam began in 610, when the Qur’an wasfirst revealed to him. Three years later, Muhammadbegan to preach. He attracted some followers, but histeachings about the one God were not widelywelcomed in Mecca, where most of the peopleworshiped idols, many different pagan gods.Eventually he moved to the city of Medina, whichbecame the center of a great Islamic civilization.

JABAL AN-NUR

Jabal an-Nur (the Mountain of Light) a few milesfrom Mecca, is the place where Muhammad

went to meditate. Every year, during themonth of Ramadan (p. 15), Muhammad

retired to the mountain to pray, fast,and give to the poor. It was on one

of these retreats that theProphet received the first

revelation of the Qur’an.

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The word “Muhammad” written in calligraphy

9

COMPANIONS

The Prophet’sCompanionswere his closest

followers. They listenedcarefully to his teachings,memorized the Qur’an, andpassed it on to others before itwas written down.

MEDINA

Muhammad was persecuted in his native Mecca and some ofhis followers took refuge in Abyssinia (present-day Ethiopia)under the Christian ruler there. In 622, people from the cityof Yathrib, later called Medina, to the north of Mecca, invitedMuhammad to go and live there. The Prophet and hisfollowers took up the invitation. Their migration, known asthe hijrah, forms the start of the Islamic era. EventuallyMuhammad defeated the pagans and cleared the idols fromthe Ka‘ba, so Islam could flourish in Mecca, too.

THE NIGHT JOURNEY

One night the archangel Gabriel wokeMuhammad and led him to a steed calledthe Buraq, which the Prophet mounted (p. 61). The Buraq carried Muhammad to the “Furthest Mosque” in Jerusalem, fromwhere he ascended to heaven.

MUHAMMAD’S TOMB

The Prophet died inthe lap of his favoritewife, ‘A’isha, in herapartment near themosque at Medina.His tomb was built where he died. Later, his closeCompanions Abu Bakr and‘Umar, the first two caliphs, wereburied on either side.

ALLAH

Allah is the name of the one God in whom Muslimsbelieve and upon whom all

life and all existencedepends. He is unique andinfinitely greater than anything He has created. The

Qur’an says that He is“unbegotten.” In other

words, He is eternal, havingno origin and no end. He is

and always will be.

Star patternbased on “Allah”

in Arabic script

TheProphet’smosque

Pattern based on names of theCompanions

The Buraq

Muhammad’sface is veiled

because Islamdoes not allow

him to bedepicted.

Thearchangel

Gabriel

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The Qur’anIN THE YEAR 610, the archangelGabriel appeared to the ProphetMuhammad and through Gabriel,Allah began to reveal the Qur’an,the holy book of Islam. Thiscontinued for 22 years. Muslimsbelieve that the Qur’an, Allah’s finalrevelation to humanity, completesthe sacred writings of the Jews andChristians, but is on a higher levelbecause its text consists of Allah’sactual words. Ever since the Qur’anwas revealed, Muslims havepreserved its words, first learning

them by heart, and lateralso writing them

down. They aimto live by theQur’an.

Bold Kuficscript

Eastern Kuficscript

This box gives the numberof verses in the sura. Thebox at the top gives thename of the sura.

DECORATED QUR’ANThis copy of the Qur’an is open at the beginning ofone of its 114 chapters, or suras. Each sura has a namethat comes from a notable word that occurs in its text.

QUR’AN CONTAINERThis beautiful inlaid boxis designed to contain a copy of the Qur’andivided into 30 sections.One section is read oneach night of Ramadan,the month of fasting, atime when the Qur’an is read intensively.

KUFIC SCRIPTArabic can be writtenusing several differenttypes of script, theearliest of which iscalled Kufic, from thetown of Kufah (inmodern Iraq). Thisexample of easternKufic is from a copy ofthe Qur’an written outbefore the year 1000.The script has anangular but elegantappearance with longupright and horizontalstrokes.

“Praise belongs to Allah, the Lord of the worlds,the Merciful, the Compassionate, the Master ofthe Day of Judgment. Thee only do we serve; to

Thee alone we pray for help. Guide us on thestraight path, the path of those whom Thou hast

blessed, not of those against whom Thou arewrathful, nor of those who are astray.”

SURA AL-FATIHA, OPENING CHAPTER, THE QUR’AN

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The text on this page is the opening chapter,Sura al-Fatiha, which istranslated below to the left.

MUSHAFWhen people talk about“the Qur’an,” they areusually referring to abook that has the Qur’anwritten in it. However,originally the Qur’an wasrecited only and Muslimslearned it by heart. Later,it was written down andthe written version wascalled a mushaf, whichmeans a collection ofpages. A mushaf willusually indicate whethereach sura was revealed at Mecca or Medina.

WRITING IT DOWNCopying the text of the Qur’an issomething that must be done withcare and reverence – none ofAllah’s words must be altered. Tomake a handwritten copy of theQur’an like this is an activity ofgreat religious devotion.

ON A GEMSTONE In the eyes of a Muslim, this

gemstone (below) has been madefar more valuable as it has a

Qur’anic inscription on it, whichis translated below.

TILE AND TEXTAll over the Muslim

world, beautifullywritten quotations fromthe Qur’an are used for

artistic decoration.Muslims everywhere

learn Arabic, thelanguage of the Qur’an.This shared knowledge

brings together Muslimsfrom all countries and

backgrounds.

“Allah – there is no god but He,the Living, the Everlasting.

Slumber seizes Him not, neithersleep; to Him belongs all that isin the Heavens and the Earth...”

AYAT AL-KURSI, THRONE VERSE, THE QUR’AN

The Five Pillars of IslamTHERE ARE FIVE FUNDAMENTAL requirements ofIslam, called the Five Pillars of Islam. The firstand most important is the profession of faith.Islam, which means “submission” and comesfrom the word “peace,” is considered byMuslims to be a restating of the same truth –belief in the one God – that was revealed to theChristians and the Jews. This faith was revealedthrough all God’s prophets, including Moses andJesus, or Musa and ‘Isa as they are known inArabic. Muslims believe that God’s final andmost universal message was revealed to the lastof the prophets – the Prophet Muhammad. Faithin this one God is the basic belief of the Islamicreligion. The remaining four Pillars of Islamrequire all Muslims to be committed to prayer,almsgiving, fasting, and the pilgrimage to Mecca.

CRESCENT MOON AND STAR

A crescent moon with a star aboveit was used as a symbol by theTurks in the 15th century. Sincethen it has become the symbol ofIslam. The words of the Shahada inArabic calligraphy have been usedhere to form the shape of the moon.The words, “In the name of Allah,the Merciful, the Compassionate,”make the star.

RISE UP FOR PRAYER

Five times each day the adhan, or call to prayer, is heard in Muslimcommunities. The times for prayerare between first light and sunrise(fajr), just after noon (zuhr), in lateafternoon (‘asr), after sunset(maghrib), and evening (‘isha). Thetraditional practice is for someone tomake the call from the minaret. Thefirst muezzin was Bilal, a freed blackslave, chosen for his fine voice.

PREPARING FOR PRAYER

Before prayer, a Muslim mustprepare by ridding the mind of

distracting thoughts and bycleansing the body. Ritual washing isnormally done using running water –

either at the fountain at the mosqueor using a tap and basin in the

home. In places where there is no water, such as the desert,

Muslims may use sand or astone for ritual cleansing.

PrayerMuslims must pray at five set times duringthe day. These regular prayers, known as salah,make up the second Pillar of Islam. Muslimsmay pray on their own or in a group, butevery Friday at midday, Muslim men arerequired to gather together for salat al-juma‘a,or Friday prayers. Friday prayers are led by an imam (literally “one who stands in front”),who will also give a sermon, or khutba.

SHAHADA

The Muslim profession offaith is called the Shahada. The

English translation of it is:“There is no god but God;Muhammad is themessenger of God.”Muslims use the Arabicword for God, which is“Allah.” When Muslimsuse the term Allah, theyare referring to the same

God that is worshipped byChristians and Jews. The

words of the Shahada areheard often in the Muslimworld because they arerepeated during the call toprayer. The Shahada isnormally whispered in aMuslim baby’s ear at birthand at the time of death.

“In the name of Allah,the Merciful, theCompassionate.”

All members of the community are considered equal in the eyes ofAllah so they all perform the samerituals of ablution and prayer.

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2BOWING DOWN

When another passagefrom the Qur’an has beenrecited, the worshipper

bows down, to showrespect for Allah. This

motion, called ruku‘, isfollowed by qiyam,

standing andpraising Allah.

Continued on next page

1THE RAK‘A BEGINS

The words Allahu Akbar – Allahis greater (than all else) – openthe rak‘a. Then Allah is praised,

and the first sura, or chapter, ofthe Qur’an, called al-Fatiha – the

Opening – is spoken, togetherwith a second sura.

3PROSTRATION

This position,known as sujud, showsthe Muslim’s humility.The worshipper sayssilently, “Glory to myLord the Most High.

Allah is greater.”

4SITTING

This seatedposition, called julus,gives the opportunity

for a short silent prayer.Then the prostration isrepeated. The sequenceconcludes with a shortprayer for thecommunity of Muslimsand for the worshipper’ssins to be forgiven.

5PEACE

The finalstage is called

salam, or peace.The person looksto left and right,and then says,“Peace be withyou and themercy of Allah.”These words areaddressed to allpresent, seen andunseen.

Iranianprayer mat

Qiblaindicator

PRAYER MAT

The majority of Muslimspray on a mat, and some

people take this with themwherever they go, so that they

are always able to use it. Prayerrugs are often beautifully made,but any mat, from a silk rug to a

piece of reed matting, may beused. It is also permissible to

pray on the uncovered ground,provided that it is clean.

PRAYER BEADS

Allah is referred to in manydifferent ways, known as al-asma

al-husna, meaning the 99 beautifulnames. Many Muslim names, such

as ‘Abd al-Rahman, servant of the Merciful One, are based on

one of these names. The string of99 beads, like a rosary, that a

Muslim uses in private prayer, is areminder of the 99 Divine names.

IN THE DIRECTION OF MECCA

Because Muslims face the Ka’ba in Mecca duringprayers, they need to know the direction,qibla, of the city. In the Middle Ages,people made instruments to determinethe direction. In mosques, a niche,mihrab, in the wall indicates thedirection of Mecca.

Stages of prayerPrayer is performed following a precise order ofwords and motions. Each unit of this order is calleda rak‘a and is composed of several stages. Duringprayers the rak‘a is repeated two, three, or four times– the exact number depends on which of the fivedaily prayers is being performed.

Prayer beads may be usedto repeat the 99 beautifulnames, or to repeat otherphrases used in prayer.

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Continued from previous page

AlmsgivingThe giving of alms (gifts) to the poor and needy isvery important in Islam. Of all the ways in which onecan give to the poor, the most formal is by paying atax called zakat, which is one of the Five Pillars ofIslam. The amount of zakat that a person has to pay isworked out as a percentage of their wealth. The tax isdistributed among the poor and may also be used tohelp other needy members of society.

PUBLIC BATHS

Hygiene is very important in Islam, andbaths are a common sight in towns inMuslim countries. They are often paid for bydonations. A typical public bath has achanging room, often roofed with a shallowdome, connected to a series of rooms atdifferent temperatures. The hottest of all isthe steam room, where the bather works upa sweat before being cleaned and massaged.

FOOD FOR THE POOR

In some parts of Muslim India,large cooking pots, or deghs, areused to prepare food outdoors.

At the shrine of Ajmer, twodeghs are used to make food for

the needy, and people visitingthe shrine make charitable gifts

of food for the pots.

WATER SUPPLY

In addition to paying zakat, a personmay make other personal donations

to help the community. These canprovide useful facilities such as this

public drinking fountain in Istanbul,Turkey. Many Muslim countries are

in dry areas where water can behard to come by, so giving moneyfor a fountain is especially useful.

MONEY OR GOODS

Zakat is commonly paid in money butmay also be given in the form ofgoods. In both cases, rates of paymentare laid down, starting at 2.5 percentof a person’s wealth. A person’s homeand other essential items are notcounted when determining what theywill pay. The word zakat means“purification”, because it is believedthat giving up part of your wealthpurifies what remains.

HOSPITALS

The places where the sick aretreated are another group of

facilities that have beenpaid for by almsgiving.This beautiful latticedwindow is part of ahospital originallyfinanced withalmsgiving contributions.

Medicine was one areawhere the Muslim world

made many advances beforethe West (p. 30).

FOR LASTING GOOD

This document details a gift madeto the state for good works. Thistype of gift is known as a waqf, andonce given, it cannot be reclaimed.Gifts like this go toward theupkeep of mosques and buildingssuch as hospitals.

15 Continued on next page

FastingMuhammad received the first revelation ofthe Qur’an during the month of Ramadan,and this month has a special significance inIslam. Every day during Ramadan, Muslimsfast from dawn to sunset, avoiding food,drink, and sexual relations. Although thisfast, or sawm, is one of the Pillars of Islam,not everyone has to go without food. Forexample, those who are too sick to fast,women who are pregnant, and very youngchildren may be excused.

A PROPER MEAL

During Ramadan,Muslims break their fast

after sunset with a light snack,which may consist simply of a

few dates with water. Sunsetprayers are followed by the main

meal. This is a bigger meal, but shouldnot be too large because Muslims are

not encouraged to eat heavily after theday’s fast. In addition, the snack should

have already taken the edge off a person’shunger, so a simple dish, such as vegetable

soup with bread, may be eaten.

SIGNALING RAMADAN

In many Muslim countries, it is thecustom to fire cannons before thefirst day of Ramadan, to signal thebeginning of the month. Cannonsare also used to signal the

beginning and end of each dayof Ramadan.

ENDING RAMADAN

The end of Ramadan ismarked by the festival of ‘Id al-Fitr – the feast of thebreaking of the fast – (p. 60). At the beginning of this festival, the wholecommunity gathers at anoutdoor prayer area (or at amosque) to perform the ‘Idprayer. Celebrations last forthree days, during whichtime alms are given to thepoor and friends mayexchange gifts.

JOYFUL PROCESSION

When the great solemnity of the month ofRamadan comes to an end, there may be aprocession. This illustration, from a 13th-centurybook from Baghdad, shows a processionaccompanied with trumpets and banners.

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PilgrimageThe final Pillar of Islam ispilgrimage, or hajj. All Muslimsaim to perform this “greaterpilgrimage” once in their lives.Hajj involves a series of ritesthat take place annually overseveral days at the SacredMosque at Mecca and thenearby areas of Mina,Muzdalifa, and Arafat. Ashorter pilgrimage to Mecca,known as ‘umrah, forms part of the hajj, but may beperformed by itself at anytime of the year.

HAJJ

After performing ‘umrah, the pilgrims leaveMecca and travel to the valley of Mina. On thesecond day, they go to Arafat and pray forforgiveness. This is said to give pilgrims aforetaste of the Day of Judgment, when theywill rise from the dead, have their souls judgedby Allah, and enter paradise if they are worthy.On their way back, they stop at Muzdalifa,where they spend part of the night resting,praying, and gathering small pebbles beforereturning to Mina. On the third day, they throwseven of the pebbles at the largest of the threestone pillars, which represents the temptationsof Satan. For the following two days, thepilgrims stay at Mina and throw furtherpebbles at the pillars. They must also make ananimal sacrifice. They then wash, and clip theirhair or shave their heads, to symbolize a newbeginning, before returning to Mecca to makethe final seven circuits around the Ka’ba.

GUIDEBOOK

An ancient guidebook to Mecca illustratesfeatures of the Sacred Mosque. It shows thestepped minbar, from which the sermon ispreached (p. 19), together with a hanging lamp.

CLOTHS OF THE KA’BA

The Ka’ba (below) is a stonebuilding, roughly 43 ft (13 m)across, that stands at thecenter of the Sacred Mosqueat Mecca. It is a sanctuarydedicated to God that datesback to the time of Adam.The Ka’ba is covered with ablack cloth embroidered withverses of the Qur’an. Everyyear, the cloth is renewed,and pieces of the old cloth(left) are given away. Thesefragments are treated withreverence, as is this cloth thatonce hung inside the Ka’ba.

AT THE KA’BA

Upon arrival in Mecca, thepilgrims perform ‘umrah, whenthey circle seven times around

the Ka’ba and then pray nearthe Station of Abraham. In

memory of Hagar, the motherof Abraham’s eldest son,

Ishmael, the pilgrims then runback and forth between two

small hills known as Safa andMarwa after drinking water

from the well of Zamzam.

Quotation from the Qur’ansaying that the pilgrimage toMecca is a duty for all whocan make their way there

Tile with the Planof the SacredMosque at Mecca,known in Arabicas the Masjid al-Haram

Piece of cloth from the Ka’ba

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PILGRIM’S HOUSE

In some places it is traditionalfor pilgrims to commemoratetheir journey by decorating thewalls of their houses when theyreturn home. The paintings onthis Egyptian house show theairplane on which the pilgrimflew to Saudi Arabia, the Ka‘ba,and the Grand Mosque atMecca, and the pilgrim himself,wearing the costume of ihram.

PLACE OF ABRAHAM

The Ka’ba is said to have beenfounded by Adam, the father ofhumankind, who is consideredby Muslims to be the firstprophet. It was rebuilt by Abrahamand his son, Ishmael. Set into onecorner of the Ka‘ba is the Black Stone, ameteorite, said to have been used by Adamwhen the Ka‘ba was first built. The BlackStone was lost, and then found again byAbraham and put in its present position.

IHRAM

Pilgrims must be in a special state ofconsecration, or holiness,known as ihram, achieved

by washing and declaringtheir intention. Malepilgrims wear a simplecostume that symbolizesihram. It consists of two

large pieces of seamless,unstitched, white

cloth.

THE ROAD TO MECCA

This 13th-century picture shows the colorfultents of a group of rich pilgrims. They are ontheir way to Mecca and have not yet put onthe costume of ihram. Pilgrims still use tentstoday. At the time of hajj, the area aroundMina is filled with thousands of pure whitetents. Pilgrims will usually also visit theProphet’s Mosque in Medina during their stay.

The Station ofAbraham, fromwhich Abrahamdirected therebuilding of the Ka‘ba

Rows of archessurrounding theKa‘ba were hungwith oil lights.Today the Mosqueis lit electrically.

The multazam –an area of wallthought to beparticularly holy

The Ka’ba

The BlackStone

Theminbar

STYLES OF MINARETAminaret is the highest point of amosque, from which the muezzin

traditionally gives the call to prayer (p. 12). Minarets have been built in many

different styles. They can be lavishlydecorated or plain; square, many-sided,

or round; slender or stocky.

A fountain or area for washing is found inside.

Entranceto mosque

The courtyard is a place tomeditate or read.

Mosquedome

The call to prayeris given from theminaret.

Crescent finial

Prayer hallfloor iscoveredwithcarpets.

MOSQUES ARE BUILDINGS that are specifically usedfor prayer and are open for prayer all the waythrough the week. In addition, mosques fulfill severalother functions in the Muslim community. Theyprovide places where religious discussions can takeplace, and where education and charitable work canbe organized. Most mosques serve their local areaand form the spiritual center of the community. They are builtand run by local people, though they may be funded bydonations from the wealthy. In addition, a town has one mainmosque, where Friday prayers are held.

The mosque

Minaret ofSamarraGreat

Mosque, Iraq

Minaretof Giralda,Mosque,Spain

Minaret of SalihiyeMosque,Syria

Minaretof Sinan’sMosque,Damascus

BRITISH MOSQUEMosques are oftenbuilt in the local styleof architecture, likethis example in aBritish city.

Prayer hall The mihrab is aniche indicating thedirection of Mecca.

CENTERS OF LEARNINGMany big mosques have libraries,which contain books on religioussubjects, including Islamic law. In addition, it is common formosques to have schools wherechildren learn to memorize andrecite the Qur’an.

Model of amosque

18

INSIDE A MOSQUEMosques vary enormously in design, fromsimple plain rooms to vast ornate buildings– there is no one standard design. All thatis really needed is a space in which thecommunity can pray and some way ofindicating the direction of Mecca. But thereare standards of behavior and dress thatmust be observed inside every mosque.People take off their shoes and cover theirheads before going in, and often an area ofthe mosque is reserved for women.

Continued on next page

15th-centurymosque lamp

SYDNEY MOSQUEThe first Muslims to reach Australiawere Afghan and Punjabi camel drivers,arriving between 1867 and 1918 toprovide essential outback transportationservices. Many more Muslims arrivedduring the late 20th century.

OIL LAMPThe traditional way of

lighting a mosque was touse oil lamps. These large,hanging lamps could bebrightly decorated, likethis example of bronzecovered with gold and

silver, so that theyreflected the lightand shone more

brightly. People whowanted to give almsoften made gifts ofmoney for oil forthe lamps in their

mosque.

Elaborate tiledecoration

Mosque finial ofSelimiye Mosque

in Turkey

MINBARAt Friday prayers thecongregation listens tothe khutba, a sermon

given by the imam froma raised pulpit called the

minbar. Some minbars,which can be beautifullyadorned with inlay andcarving, have survivedfrom 1,000 years ago.

BLUE MOSQUE IN ISTANBULIn 1453, the Ottomans took over Constantinople(modern Istanbul). The Christian churches there werelavishly decorated and roofed with domes. Ottomanarchitects built their mosques in a similar style. One of the greatest is the Sultan Ahmed Mosque, known as the Blue Mosque because of its blue-tiled interior.

MOSQUE DECORATIONAs Muslims prospered, they devotedmore of their wealth to their faith, andsome mosques were adorned with

sumptuous decoration, like these tilesatop a minaret in Turkey. Carpets for theprayer hall were another favorite gift.

AFRICAN MOSQUEThe earliest mosques had more simple designs, like

this 16th-century mosque in Africa. Domes and intricatedecoration developed later. The nature of the building,

however, is not significant in a mosque. Its function as ameeting place to pray is the most important thing.

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The caliphateIN 632, THE PROHET MUHAMMAD died leaving no obvioussuccessor, so prominent Muslims came together to choosea leader. They elected Abu Bakr and gave him the titlekhalifa (caliph), which means “successor” or “viceroy.”Some people thought that the right candidate was ‘Ali,the Prophet’s cousin, who had married Fatima, theProphet’s daughter. Those who favored ‘Ali as caliphbecame known as Shi’i Muslims, “supporters” of ‘Ali. In656, ‘Ali became caliph, but Muslims were still dividedabout how the caliph should be chosen. Sunni Muslimssupported the system of an elected caliphate. Shi’i

Muslims believed that the caliphsshould be descended from ‘Ali and Fatima.

EARLY CALIPH

Representation of livingcreatures is discouraged in

Islam because it is believedthat Allah alone should

have the divine right ofcreation. However,this early portrait

shows a caliph, in astyle imitated from

pre-IslamicPersian coins.

THE FIRST FOUR CALIPHS

Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, ‘Uthman,and ‘Ali were the first fourcaliphs and are greatlyrevered. As closeCompanions of the Prophet,they followed his example.Because of this they areknown as the RightlyGuided Caliphs.

“Allah is the Light of theHeavens and the Earth;the likeness of His Light

is as a niche wherein is a lamp.”

SURA AL-NUR, LIGHT CHAPTER, THE QUR’AN

THE ROUND CITY OF BAGHDAD

The first dynasty of Islam was the Umayyad, whoruled from Damascus, Syria. In 749, they werereplaced by the Abbasid caliphs who ruled forover 500 years from their capital in Baghdad, Iraq.The city was founded in 763 and was planned as agreat circle. This shape, with gates aligned with thecompass points, was like a map of the universe.

THE ROLE OF THE CALIPH

The caliph was the symbolic head of theMuslim community throughout the world.He was expected to rule in accordance withIslamic principles and to lead the army. Healso gave authority to Muslim leaders whowere often very powerful in their own right.

The Mamluk sultanate, for example, ruled in Egyptuntil the 16th century. This is a Mamluk mosque

lamp. Such lamps were often decorated with scriptfrom the Sura al-Nur of the Qur’an (right).

Dhu’l-Faqar, thetwin-bladedsword of ‘Ali

SyrianGate

BasraGate

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Outer wall

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guardhouse

guardhouse

palace

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21

UMAYYAD COIN

Abd al-Malik, one of theUmayyad caliphs, mintedthis coin when they ruled

from Damascus, Syria. Aftertheir defeat by the Abbasids,an offshoot of the Umayyad

caliphate ruled Muslim landsin the West from Spain.

ATATURK

The last caliphs werethe Ottoman rulers ofTurkey. In 1923,Turkey’s firstpresident, KemalAtatürk, came topower. He decided tomodernize his countryand in 1924 heabolished thecaliphate.

SHI’I STANDARD

In 680 at Kerbala, the army of the Umayyadcaliph killed Hussayn, son of ‘Ali and Fatima.The battle standard (above) was used to mark thepoint at which the Shi’i army collected before thebattle began and was then a focal point for thearmy. What happened at Kerbala divided Shi’iand Sunni Muslims still more deeply. Today,around one-tenth of all Muslims are Shi’i.

LADEN WITH GIFTS

One of the duties of the caliph was to protectthe holy cities of Mecca and Medina, togetherwith pilgrims journeying there. Pilgrims oftentraveled with camels heavily loaded with gifts.

TIRAZ

Some caliphs gave courtiers,ambassadors, and foreign rulerslengths of specially made cloth – tiraz– or robes, woven with calligraphy. Inparticular, this was a custom of theShi’i Fatimid caliphs (who claimed tobe descendents of ‘Ali and Fatima) ofCairo. The cloths were inscribed withthe caliphs’ names, Islamic prayers, or poems, and were highly prized.

CALIPH’S GIFT

Rulers like eighth-century caliph Harunal-Rashid were verypowerful. Harunexchanged gifts withCharlemagne, theFrankish emperor whoruled a vast area ofWestern Europe. Hesent Charlemagne this jeweled pitcher, with an elephant.

Calligraphy reads,“Allah, Muhammad,Fatima, and ‘Ali, Hasanand Husayn.”

Repeating calligraphicinscription

Inscriptionproclaiming theunity of Allah

22

First conquestsTHE FIRST THREE CALIPHS

Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and‘Uthman, expanded theirterritory quickly, creating anempire that eventuallystretched from the ArabianPeninsula to Spain. Muchland was gained by militaryconquest, but Islam also spread peacefully intoareas where local rulers made alliances with thecaliphs. People of other religions living in theseareas – Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians –became known as dhimmis (protected people)because they were protected in return for thepayment of a tax. Later, other peoples, includingHindus in western India, also became dhimmis.

MAP OF JERUSALEM

This mosaic map shows Jerusalem in the sixth century. Itmust have looked like this in 638 when, during the reignof caliph ‘Umar, the Muslims conquered the city. For manycenturies, the city’s Islamic rulers governed Jerusalem in away that was tolerant of the Jews and Christians who livedthere and regarded it as a holy place.

MOSQUE DECORATION

Mosques were built allaround the empire, andmany were lavishlydecorated. This arch, abovea doorway at the GreatMosque in Damascus,shows how Muslimstone masons useddifferent marbles,together with inlays and mosaics made of other brightlycolored stones.

EXPANDING EMPIRE

By the end of ‘Uthman’s reign in656, the empire included Arabia,Palestine, Syria, Egypt, Libya, Iraq,large parts of Persia (modern-dayIran), and Sind (modern-dayPakistan). The Umayyad dynasty(661–750) expanded into the rest of North Africa and Spain andpushed eastward.

MOSQUE AT DAMASCUS

Under the Umayyaddynasty, the city ofDamascus in Syriabecame the capital of the Islamic empire. TheUmayyads built theGreat Mosque in theearly eighth century.

CROWN OF RECCESUINTH

This crown was worn by anearly Muslim ruler of Spain, at the request of his wife, who was a princess of theGermanic people, the Visigoths.

ROCK OF GIBRALTAR

Muslim forces landed in Spain in 711, arriving firston the Rock of Gibraltar under their commander, a

Berber former slave, Tariq, from whom Gibraltartakes its name (Jebel Tariq). By 715, they had taken

over most of Spain, settling mainly in the south,and soon their armies were entering France.

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ARABIA

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SPAIN

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BYZANTINE EMPIRE

Arab Empireby 632

by 661

by 750

23

OUT IN FORCE

This image from an early manuscript showsMuslim soldiers gathering near their tents.Soldiers like these, efficient and well

disciplined, were greatly feared inWestern Europe. They advanced as far as France to conquer areas such as Languedoc and

Burgundy.

BATTLE STANDARD

In 1212, Spain saw a battle at Navas de Tolosa, between theAlmohads, the local Muslim dynasty, and a Christian army. TheAlmohads, who marched behind this standard, were defeated,and Muslim power in Spain was weakened.

RUINS OF CARTHAGE

The great North African city of Carthage, first the home of the Phoenicians,had been ruled by the Romans before it became an outpost of the ChristianByzantine empire for a short time. The victim of many battles, in 697–8Carthage fell to Muslim armies. The native Berber population who lived theresoon accepted Islam and joined the westward drive of the Muslim forces.

CHARLES MARTEL, KING OF THE FRANKS

In the eighth century, much of Western Europewas ruled by a Germanic people called theFranks, under their king, Charles Martel. In 732,Charles defeated the Muslim army betweenTours and Poitiers, France, which marked thenorthwestern limit of the Muslim empire. Fiveyears later, he also drove the Muslims out ofsouthern France.

Roman triumphalarch, Carthage

24

Scholars and teachers

SCHOLAR’S TOMB

Sometimes a famous scholar iscommemorated with a large tomb. Bin Ali, a notable scholar of the 14th century fromYemen, was buried in this striking double-domed tomb near Dhofar, Oman.

AL-AZHAR UNIVERSITY

Cairo’s al-Azhar University was founded in the10th century and became the world’s mostfamous Islamic university. Renowned for itsphilosophical and theological scholarship, itsname means “the resplendent.” Many academictraditions, such as the distinction betweengraduates and undergraduates, began at al-Azhar.

LEARNING HAS ALWAYS PLAYED a hugepart in the Islamic world. A system ofeducation developed in which childrenlearned to memorize and recite the textof the Qur’an at school. When they hadmastered this, they could becomestudents at a higher-level school calleda madrasah. Still more advancedstudy could be followed atuniversity level. Muslim educationhas always had a religious basis,and the high standards producedscholars in a range of fields, frommathematics to poetry.

GLOBE

By the 13thcentury,Muslim scholarsknew a vastamount aboutastronomy (p. 29). They produced celestialglobes like this to show the positions of stars in the sky.

MADRASAH AT CAIRO

A madrasah was a school in whichsubjects such as law, logic,mathematics, and history weretaught. Madrasahs were usuallyarranged around a courtyard,with large halls for teaching andsmaller rooms for the students.

AVICENNA

The scholar Ibn Sina (980–1037), knownin the West as Avicenna, wrote manyimportant books on medicine andphilosophy. In both fields, he developedthe work of the ancient Greeks.

LAW BOOK

Muslim scholarsproduced somevery advancedlaws. From theearliest times, forexample, Muslimwomen – unlikewomen in the West –had the right to ownand inherit property.This book containsinformation about howinheritance wascalculated.

QUR’AN

Arabic scholarship has always been centralto Islam. Muslims traditionally learn to recitethe entire Qur’an by heart, and they always

recite it in the original Arabic, no matterwhat language they use in everyday life.

LIBRARY BOOKS

Centers of learning grew up in big citiessuch as Baghdad, Iraq, and Damascus,Syria, and these had libraries that wereoften much larger than the collections inWestern cities and universities.

Continued on next page

POETRY READING

Recited or set to music, poetry wasimportant in Arabia even before the

time of Muhammad. It continued tobe popular. In addition to religious

subjects, common poetic themeswere love and politics.

25

AGATE INKPOT

Calligraphy was an important andrespected art. While most writing materialswere simple, some very fine pieces, like this19th century inkpot, were also made.

A MULLAH

A mullah is a person who is learnedin religion. Most mullahs have hada formal religious training, but thetitle can be given to someone with areputation for religious scholarship.

Inkpotmade ofgold andagate

26

Continued from previous page

Writing For Muslims, writing is one of the most important of allskills. Because Muslims believe that the Qur’an containsthe words of Allah, scribes wish to reproduce thosewords correctly and with as much beauty as possible.Many Muslims therefore practice calligraphy, the art of beautiful writing. Calligraphy does not onlyappear in books. It is also used to adornbuildings and other objects, providingdecoration that carries a meaning.

Inscriptionwritten inlegible form

PEN AND INK Early calligraphers usedpens made out of piecesof reed (left), cut to apoint with a sharp knife.Black ink was made fromsoot, mixed with a littlewater to make it flow.

REED PENS IN BOXCaption text ut laoreet dolore magnaaliquam erat volutpat. Ut wisi enimcaption text italic veniam, quis nostrudexerci tation ullam corper suscipitlobortis nisl ut aliquip ex ea commodoconsequat.

HORSE CALLIGRAPHYSome Muslimcalligraphers can makebeautiful pictures usingthe curving forms ofArabic script. Thishorse is made upentirely of Arabicscript, adorned withdifferent colored inks.

STONE BANNERSCalligraphy is used on many Islamicbuildings. At this madrasah in Konya,Turkey, bands of carved calligraphy curvearound the doorway and cross in a knot-like form above it, like fabric banners.

STUDENTS AT WORKSome Muslim children, like these in Uzbekistan,still attend traditional Qur’anic schools. In many places, modern schooling has replacedthis as the main type of education, thoughchildren may attend both kinds of school.

EARLY SCHOLARSThis illustration from a

16th-century Persian textshows two children at

Qur’anic school. Here theywould receive the

traditional education ofyoung Muslims, learning to

read, write, and recite thetext of the Qur’an by heart.

Flowing maghribiscript is onepopular style ofIslamic calligraphy.

Animal-haircalligraphybrushes for

larger characters

27

BOOKBINDERAn Indian craftsman holds thepages of a book together tobind them. Bookbindingbecame an importantcraft because of the need to protect copies of the Qur’an.

INKWELLTwo bands of

calligraphy decoratethis inkwell, which was

made in Iran in the16th century. It would

have inspired its user toproduce writing of

beauty and elegance.

BOOK OF KINGSThis book is an epicpoem composed inIran. It is written in aflowing form of Arabicscript called nasta’liq.The long curves in thescript are said to looklike birds’ wings.

ARABIAN NIGHTSThe Thousand and One Nights, or Arabian Nights,is a collection of stories said to have been toldto a king, Shahryar, by his wife Shahrazad. Fullof adventure, these magical stories are stillentertaining readers today.

BROAD-BRUSH EFFECTSAlthough a lot of calligraphy is done withpen and ink, an animal-hair brush is anotheruseful tool for broad strokes and for fillingin colors between black outlines. Thesebrushes are made with goat and wolf hair.

Animal-haircalligraphybrushes for smallercharacters

AL-IDRISIWriter and

traveler al-Idrisi

(1099–1180) wasborn in Ceuta,

Morocco, but workedfor much of his life for

the Norman king, Roger II of Sicily. He drew this map of the

known world for King Roger and alsowrote a book on geography, describing theworld north of the equator.

28

ISLAMIC SCHOLARSHIP IS NOT just based on thestudy of the Qur’an. In a famous saying, Muslimscholars are told to “Seek knowledge, even unto China.”In the Middle Ages, there were well-known Muslimscholars in many fields, from astronomy andmathematics to medicine and natural science, and inmost areas their ideas were among the most advancedin the world. The Islamic scholars gained much of theirknowledge from the ancient world. They translated theworks of ancient Greek scholars, preserving informationthat had been lost or forgotten. The Muslim scholarsthen built on this with their own original work, carefullyrecording all their discoveries.

Horseshoe Arch,Cordoba,

Andalusia, Spain

ARCHITECTURAL STYLEWherever Islamic people have settled for any

length of time, they have built using thedistinctive Islamic architectural style.

These buildings often had simple exteriors whichconcealed lavish interiors decorated with

geometric patterns and calligraphy. The horseshoe arch was also popular because it

was elegant and withstood stress and strain well.

Scoop raises water intosystem of channelsthrough fields

Shaft turnedby donkey tooperate scoop

The spread of learning

IRRIGATION TECHNIQUESWith water in short supply inmany parts of the Islamic world,inventors used their skill to buildirrigation devices. These rangedfrom simple systems, such as thisdonkey-powered water scoop, to anetwork of irrigation channels inIran, which were builtunderground to reduce loss ofwater from evaporation. Thesechannels are called qanat, and some are 12 miles (19 km) long.

BAGHDADUnder the Abbasids, the walled city of Baghdad

became an important center of learning, with its ownuniversity and numerous schools. The city was at itsheight during the reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid,

who ruled from 786–809. At this time, it was theintellectual center of the Muslim world.

Africa

Arabia

Asia

Europe

Unlike modern westernmaps, south is at the top

and north is at the bottom.

Al-Idrisi map showingwhat was thought to be

the shape of theknown world in

the 12th century

ASTROLABEThe astrolabe is aninstrument for measuringthe height of a star or planetin the sky. It was probablyinvented by the ancientGreeks, but Muslim scholarsand craft workers developedthe instrument, making itmore accurate andincorporating more data to

show the positions of avariety of different stars. It was

especially useful to travelersbecause it could help them to

determine their position at sea.

29 Continued on next page

Plumb line

Arabic quadrant

ISTANBUL OBSERVATORYIn 1575, when the Ottoman empire wasat its height, the astronomer Taqi ad-Din founded an observatory at Galata(now part of Istanbul, Turkey). This painting of the time shows the astronomers with theirequipment, which includesa globe, a sand glass fortiming, items fordrawing, and all kindsof sighting devices.

QUADRANTThis was the simplest instrument formeasuring the height of a star. It consisted of a quarter-circle-shapedframework with a scale on thecurving part of the frame and aplumb line hanging down vertically.The user looked at a star through ahole in the frame. The height of thestar was shown at the point wherethe plumb line touched the scale.

AstronomyThe science of astronomy was important to Muslimsbecause it could be used to figure out the direction ofMecca, so that people knew which way to face duringprayers. It also helped them to determine the correcttimes to pray. As a result, Islamic astronomy becamehighly advanced. Astronomers developed betterinstruments, made precise tables showing themovements of the planets, and put together accuratecalendars. We are still influenced by these scientists –the names of certain stars derive from Arabic words.

JAIPUR OBSERVATORYThis observatory at Jaipur,India, was built during the18th century. Many of its

instruments are built ofstone. These includegreat curving quadrants,which astronomers

used to measure the height ofplanets as they moved across thesky. The astronomers at Jaipurwere successful becausethey drew on knowledgefrom both the Arab world and from earlierIndian scientists.

Central pivot

Rotating armwith pointer

Scales showingthe positions ofdifferent stars

ASTRONOMY LESSONThis group of scholars is watching as their teacher demonstrates an astrolabe. There were many observatories where lessonslike this would have been held. These centers expandedrapidly in the ninth century, during the reign ofCaliph ‘Abd Allah al-Ma’mun. The caliph founded

the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, whichincluded an observatory, and ordered

the scientists there to producemore accurate

astronomical tables.

Written instructionsfor using quadrant

Scale

Persianastrolabe

3030

Continued from previous page

MedicineEarly Islamic medicine wasvery sophisticated for its time.Doctors knew a great dealabout the diagnosis andtreatment of diseases, anatomy,childcare, public health, andeven psychiatry – and much ofthis knowledge is still relevanttoday. Medicine was also well taught, with studentstraveling thousands of miles to study at famouscenters such as Baghdad’s‘Adudi hospital.

Title page ofthe Canon ofMedicine

Eighteenth-century surgical knives

Scalpel

Scissors

Metal handledecorated with a ram’s head

Blade foldsinto handlefor safety.

Foldinghandles

BLOODLETTINGLike the ancient Greeks, Muslim physiciansbelieved that bleeding a patient could cure manydiseases. Although this practice seems crudetoday, the early Islamic doctors knew a great dealabout blood and how it traveled around thebody. One 13th-century Egyptian writer, Ibn an-Nafis, wrote about the circulation of blood, some400 years before this was “discovered” in Europe.

UNDER THE KNIFEThe great 10th-century surgeon az-Zahrawi, from IslamicSpain, wrote a book describing techniques such astreating wounds, setting bones, and removingarrows. Not all these operations were painfulbecause Muslim surgeons were the first to usepainkillers. Az-Zahrawi designed many types of surgicalinstruments and similar ones were used for hundreds of years.

CANON OF MEDICINEThe most famous book by scholar Ibn Sina (p. 24)is the Canon of Medicine. Ibn Sina based much ofthis book on the writings of ancient Greekphysicians. A huge work, it covers such basicsubjects as anatomy and hygiene, describes a vastrange of diseases and injuries, and lists hundredsof different medicines.

THE ART OF THE PHARMACISTThe Islamic world produced the first skilled,specially trained pharmacists, who made their ownmedicines and worked closely with physicians. Bythe early ninth century, privately owned pharmacieswere opening in Baghdad, where a flourishing tradewith Asia and Africa provided a variety ofmedicinal herbs and spices. Pharmacies were soon appearing in other cities.

Ivory handledecorated with a lion head motif

3131

MathematicsModern mathematics was madepossible by Islamic scholars.This was because Muslimmathematicians in Baghdadgathered ideas from both ancientGreece and India, as well asadding contributions of theirown. In addition to studyingsubjects such as arithmetic andgeometry, they also founded thescience of algebra – a word thatcomes from the Arabic al-jabr, a term describing a method ofsolving equations.

Potterystorage

jars

Pointed blade forpiercing and thencutting the skin

Dark colorto keep outlight

IN STORAGE Many medicines were made withfresh herbs, but these could notalways be found all year round.Herbalists therefore dried leaves,seeds, and other plant parts, sothat they were available for use atany time of the year. Herbs werestored in glass or pottery jars,and these were usually sealedwith a cork or stopper.

ARABIC NUMBERSThe numbers we use today

began life in India. The Indiansused place-value (which gives avalue to a number according to

its position) and the zero,which was unknown in the

West. These ideas, which madearithmetic much easier than

before, were in use in India inthe 6th century. They were

taken up by Muslims by the 9thcentury and probably passed to

Europe in a 12th-centurytranslation of an Arabic book

on mathematics.

HERBAL MEDICINEThe ancient Greek surgeon Dioscorideswrote a famous herbal encyclopedia thatwas translated into Arabic. Its five booksdescribe all kinds of herbs, spices, roots,juices, and seeds that were used to makemedicines and other preparations. Thispage from a 10th-century Arabic version ofDioscorides shows henna, a plant usedwidely in the Arab world as a dye.

Italian

Spanish

Arabic

Indic

WELL-PREPAREDPharmacists and physicians often preparedmedicines by grinding the ingredientstogether using a mortar and pestle. Theymade their preparations carefully, oftenfollowing a standard textbook such as the 11th-century al-Aqrabadhin, whichdescribes many different medications.

Vessel has roundedbottom to aid mixing

Mortar and pestle

Nomadic or settledAS ISLAM SPREAD, the faith came topeople with many different lifestyles.Some were nomads, living in tents andmoving from one place to another insearch of new grazing lands for theiranimals. Others lived in settlements that

varied from small oasis villages to some of theworld’s most sophisticated cities. Even town-dwellers were often on the move, for many weremerchants, taking caravans of camels across thedesert from one market to the next. In this way,both nomadic and settled people helped to spreadIslam across western Asia and North Africa.

ON THE THRESHOLDIn Islamic tradition, thedoor forms the meetingpoint between the privatehouse interior and thepublic outside world andmay have beautiful carvedor painted decoration.

OASISWater trapped deep under theground comes to the surface atoases, small patches of greenamong the desert’s rocks and sand.People can settle here and cultivatecrops such as date palms. Oases arealso vital water sources fornomadic desert peoples.

TRADING PLACESFrom Tangier in North Africa to Muscat in Arabia,most Muslim cities have always had markets thatformed meeting places for traders all over the Islamicworld. Everyone came to trade here – nomads,settled farmers and craft workers, and merchantsfrom near and far. This coming together of peoplesmade markets prime places for the spread of Islam.

PERCHED ALOFTFor centuries, Yemen has been a prosperous part of

Arabia. The area was ideally placed to allow thepeople to make money from the water-

borne trade in the Red Sea andbuild cities with beautiful tallbrick houses like these. Thecomings and goings in suchcities made Yemen a meltingpot of ideas where both mainbranches of Islam – Sunni

and Shi’i – becamewell established.

Wooden poles, supported byguy ropes, hold up the tent.

LIVES OF THE MONGOLSThe Mongols of CentralAsia, nomads whotraditionally lived in roundtents called yurts or gers,conquered Islamic lands inthe 13th and 14th centuries,after which many Mongolsbecame Muslims.

RIDER AND CAMELCamels provide ideal desert

transportation because theycan go for days without food or

water, living off the fat in theirhumps. This one carries tasselled

saddlebags beneath a sheepskinsaddle blanket. The rider wears

traditional Bedouin costume – a longwhite tunic covered by a sleeveless cloakwith a headcloth secured by two woolencoils. These clothes protect him from both sun and wind.

BEDOUIN TENTThe Bedouins of Arabia and NorthAfrica are desert-dwellers whosetraditional life involves nomadiccamel-herding. They were amongthe first to convert to Islam and to

spread the faith. Some Bedouinstill live in long, low tents,

though few are now nomads.

SUPER SADDLEHorses have always been important to theArab people, especially those living a nomadiclifestyle. Arabian horses are still widely prizedtoday. This saddle with matching saddle clothis fit for the finest Arabian horse.

Flat, wide feetdo not sinkinto the sand.

34

Islamic cultureISLAM QUICKLY DEVELOPED its own style, which found uniqueexpression in each of the diverse cultures that flourished withinits empire. One famous hadith (Islamic saying) declares, “Allah is beautiful and loves beauty.” Beauty was thereforevery important, and the visual arts such as architecture,calligraphy, painting, textiles, metalwork, andceramics were encouraged. One striking feature of Islamic art is the widespread use of pattern in decoration, inspired by the love of geometry.Poetry and music were among other important forms of art.

PATTERNED RUGThe brightly colored

patterns on this rug showhow Islamic artists adapt

shapes and other motifsfrom the natural world.

The design is based onflowers, but they have been

simplified, to give them amore abstract quality.

BRONZE BIRDThis small statuette ofa bird is an example of themetalwork of Persia and datesfrom the 12th or 13th century. The patterns on the bird’s wingand body are typical of the period.

DECORATED QUR’ANThis copy of the Qur’an, made inthe 17th century in Delhi, India,has patterns picked out in goldleaf. Not all copies are as richlydecorated as this, but whencopying the Qur’an, Muslimcalligraphers always try to maketheir script as beautiful as possible.

FIT FOR A SULTANThe Topkapi Palace in Istanbul washome to the rulers of the Ottomanempire from the 15th to the 19thcenturies. The beautifully decoratedprivate apartments include the diningroom of Sultan Ahmet III, adorned with colorful paintings of flowerarrangements and bowls of fruit. WRITING BOX

Decorated with inlay andcalligraphy, this writing box wouldhave belonged to a very wealthyperson. It contains pens, knives,brushes, inks, and other equipmentfor the calligrapher. The superbcraftsmanship and luxuriousmaterials of this object show thegreat importance placed oncalligraphy in Islamic culture.

Ivory-handled knives

Brushes

Pear-shapedbody

STAR TILECeramic tiles are a favoritekind ofdecoration onIslamic buildings.They usually haveabstract or calligraphic patterns and can come inintricate shapes, like this star.

LUTEArab music has its own

instruments, and one of the mostpopular is the ‘ud, the ancestor of

the Western lute. The ‘ud is used forboth solos and playing in a group ofinstruments. Its warm sound, and thesubtle effects that skilled players canproduce, have earned the instrument thetitle amir al-tarab (prince of enchantment).

SUFISSufism is the name given today to thespiritual way at the heart of Islam. Thosewho follow it have their own spiritualpractices and a distinctive culture ofpoetry and music. Sufis aim to discoverthe inner meaning of Islam. They studyunder a spiritual teacher in order tocome closer to Allah. Their practicessometimes include ecstatic singing andsacred dance rituals that have earnedone group of Sufis the nickname “whirling dervishes”.

TUNICThe bold zigzag design on this tunic

was made using a technique calledikat. Ikat involves tie-dyeing the

threads before weaving. This methodis used widely in Central Asia toproduce bold, dramatic patterns.

Five doublecourses ofstrings

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Inlaid decoration

The Islamic cityMUSLIMS INHERITED ideas about cityplanning from early civilizations such asancient Rome, and they built large citieswith facilities that were far in advance ofthose in Europe. A typical city in theyear 1000 would have had a largemosque – usually with a school andlibrary – and a market and baths.There were also caravanseries,

which were hotels providingaccommodation for traveling

merchants and their animals.

MARKET PLACES

Suqs, or covered markets, are usually large,busy places. They are arranged so that shopsselling similar goods are close together, sopurchasers can compare quality and prices,and so that the official market inspectors (p. 58) can do their job effectively.

Metaldrinkingcups

WATER FOR SALE

Water sellers were a commonsight in many Middle Eastern

cities before reliable watersupplies were installed.They can still be seenin some places.

Mainmosque

City walls

Centralsquare

SEEKING A CURE

Medicine was advanced in the Muslimworld (pp. 30–31) and some Islamic citiesbecame renowned for their able doctors.Travelers would often return home with

news of remarkable cures using remediessuch as herbs and spices, and spread thisknowledge further

around theIslamic worldand beyond.

Lookout tower gives agood vantage point and

firing platform.THE CITY GRAVEYARD

Burial places were usually outside the citywalls. They were pleasant, green spaceswith trees, which provided somewhere towalk, meditate, or enjoy the fresh air. Mostpeople had simple graves, marked with asingle stone.

TOWN PLAN

Houses in an old Islamic city, such as Fez,were tightly packed, but each house had a private

courtyard with a small garden and a fountain, as well asa flat rooftop. Many cities, especially in Turkey and Mughul

India (pp. 52–53), had public gardens beyond the walls.

Battlements toconceal defenders

TELLING A STORY

In some cities, comfortable coffee housesprovided entertainment. People went tothis coffee house in Istanbul both forrefreshments and to while away thehours listening to the local storyteller.

PUBLIC BATHS

Going to the baths was a social occasion– an opportunity to meet friends andexchange news – as well as a chance toget clean. This painting from Persiashows men visiting the baths. Womenwould use the baths at a different time of day.

PIGEON POST

Major Islamic cities wereconnected with an efficientpostal service. Mail was transported by camels, mules, or horses,and in 1150, the Sultan ofBaghdad even started apostal service using carrier pigeons.

CITY WALLS

Walls enclosed many Muslim cities. They had to be strong enough to keep out attackers, givesomewhere for defenders to stand safely, andprovide a good view of the surroundingcountryside. Gates could be locked to keep outenemies, or opened, when guards could keep aneye on who was entering and leaving the city.

WATERWHEELS

Bringing water into the city was sometimes a major task. In Hamah, Syria, two huge

wooden waterwheels mounted on massivestone arches were built to raise water from

the river to supply the town. Building wheelslike this required great engineering skill.

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Merchants and travellersTRADE HAS ALWAYS played a key role inthe Islamic world. The Prophet himselfcame from a people who had long agoestablished the two great caravanjourneys from Mecca, the WinterCaravan to the Yemen and the SummerCaravan to the outskirts of the RomanEmpire. When Muslim armies took overterritory, traders were quick to follow,opening up routes that led east toChina, south into Africa, northwest toEurope, and southeast across the IndianOcean. The faith of Islam was soonspread by merchants as far as Malaysiaand Indonesia. Muslims did not onlytravel for trade, they also went in searchof knowledge, on diplomatic missions,and of course to make the Pilgrimage.

Silver coins from Baghdad

found in a Vikinggrave in Sweden

Islamic traderoutes

MERCHANTS ON THE MOVE

This 13th-century illustration of merchants comesfrom a book by the writer al-Hariri, who came fromBasra, Iraq. Men like these didn’t just carry items forsale; they also carried ideas, inventions, and Islamitself, which was often introduced to new areas bymerchants who settled far from home.

SALT CARAVAN

This salt caravan is traveling to Timbuktu in Mali (p. 48). Salt was essential for seasoning and preservingfood, and early Muslims sold it for vast sums. There wererich sources of salt in Africa, at places such as Taghaza,today in Algeria, where the locals even constructedbuildings from salt. From here, caravans carried saltsouth, and the merchants spread Islam as they traveled.

TRADE ROUTES

Official reports, travelers’ tales, and archeology have allprovided clues about the routes taken by Muslim traders. One route stood out above all – the Silk Road. It was actually a number of roads across Central Asia,linking China and Europe, passing through many parts of the Muslim world on the way.

IBN BATTUTA

Among the early Muslimtravelers, Ibn Battuta, fromTangier (in present-dayMorocco), was the mostremarkable. Setting out onthe Pilgrimage in 1325, hecontinued traveling, going75,000 miles (120,000 km) in29 years. He visited Westand East Africa, Arabia,India, and China, and whenhe returned he told the storyof his adventures to theSultan of Morocco.

COINS FOR TRADE

Archeologists have found out whereIslamic traders went by unearthingtheir coins. The Viking lands, SriLanka, and the heart of China arethree places where Muslim coins havebeen discovered. Islamic coins werewidely respected because of the highproportion of precious metals theycontained. These currencies greatlyhelped the growth of world trade.

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Furled lateen(triangular) sail

DHOW

The most common trading vessels in theIndian Ocean were dhows, which are stillused today. With their triangular sails, theseboats are easy to maneuver and sail inheadwinds. Their captains navigated bylooking at the stars and many of themalso used themagnetic compass.They also had anexcellentknowledge ofcurrents, sea-marks, andwinds.

CANDY FOR SALE

In countries such as Saudi Arabia, stores andmarkets have extremely enticing candy counters.

For centuries, the Arab world has had a reputationfor its confectioneries, and English words such as

“sugar” and “candy” come from Arabic.

NOMAD WOMAN SPINNING

This painting shows an Egyptian livestockherder and his wife outside their tent. The

woman is spinning wool to make thread.She uses some of this to make clothes for

herself and her family. What is left overcan be sold at a local market.

Ropes helpsupport mast

Main mast

Stern rudder

BACTRIAN CAMEL

With their greatstaying power andtheir ability toproduce milk on adiet of bittervegetation and foul-tasting water, camelsenabled the Muslimsto survive and travel ininhospitable places. The two-humped Bactrian camel was found on the northernroutes, the one-humpeddromedary in the south.

Tasseledsaddlebag

DYES Blue was a very popular colorfor fabrics and there was avaluable trade in indigo, ablue dye made from plantsand used today in clothes suchas denim jeans. Other dyes,such as Roman purple madefrom murex shellfish, wererarer and more expensive.

THE IVORY TRADEElephant ivory was brought across

the Sahara and through Ethiopia tobe exported from the ports of

North Africa. Much of it went toMuslim Spain, where craft

workers produced stunningivory objects, such as

decorated horns andintricately carved

caskets.

NARWHAL TUSKSAmong the marvels on sale in medieval markets were tusks taken from the narwhal, a small species of whale. Stories of the unicorn, the mythical beast with a single horn, fascinated

people in the Middle Ages andunscrupulous traders claimed that

narwhal tusks were unicorn horns.

COTTONGrown originally in Egypt andIraq, cotton wasa popularmaterial forclothing because it was cool,

comfortable, andcheaper than linen.

Oyster shellwith pearl

Pearlnecklace

SILKSMuslimmerchantsbrought silkyarns andfinished fabricsfrom China alongthe Silk Road (p. 38).The yarns were woveninto cloth in cities such asDamascus (which gave usthe word damask), in Syria,and sold on to Western traders.

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Exotic goodsThe Muslim world had two enormous businessadvantages. Muslim merchants had a huge range ofcontacts over land and sea, so they could trade ineverything from African gold and Chinese porcelain toEuropean amber and furs. Muslim craft workers werealso highly skilled, so merchants could bring back rawmaterials, which workers then transformed into all

kinds of items – leather goods,metalwork, textiles, glass –

that always found aready market.

FRANKINCENSEA resin from trees growing insouthern Arabia, frankincense isburned for its perfume and was alsoan ingredient in medieval medicines.Frankincense was in great demandin Christian Europe because it wasused in religious services. It becamea major trading item for Muslimmerchants.

OILSUsed in cooking, for

soaps and cosmetics, andin lamps like this, oil was

traded widely. The fine plant-based oils of the Muslim world were

far more pleasant to use than the smellyfish oil that was often found in Europe.

Elephant ivory

Robe dyedusing indigo

CAMELCARAVAN

Before modernforms of transportation

appeared, camel caravans,each beast loaded with bags

containing trade goods, werea common sight in Arabia,

the Sahara, and on the Silk Road across Asia.

HUNTING BIRDSNobles in both East and West enjoyed hunting with

falcons, and the Arab world produced some of thebest, and most expensive, birds. When Muslim

envoys visited the Chinese emperor duringthe Ming dynasty, he asked them to

bring him falcons.

PEARL FISHINGDiving for pearls was dangerous work, butdivers risked their lives in the fine pearlbeds of the Arabian Gulf and Indian Oceanbecause of the huge demand. There werethriving pearl markets in Bahrain, SriLanka, and around the Strait of Hormuz,between Oman and Iran.

Cotton plant

Silk fabric

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Food tradeThe Muslim world developed a vigorous trade invarious types of foods, and this business still continuestoday. The trade was beneficial in several ways. Notonly was there great financial gain for the merchants,but Western Europe was also introduced to foodstuffsfrom all over Asia. Without Muslim merchants,Europeans would have had no rice, sugar, or coffee. In addition, the merchants set up trading colonies inmany parts of the world, and this helped Islam tospread eastward as far as Southeast Asia.

PRECIOUS SPICESGrown on the islands of Indonesia,spices fetched high prices in Europeand western Asia, where they wereused in both food and medicines.From the time of Muhammad until the16th century, Muslim merchants ranthe spice trade, bringing nutmeg,cloves, cinnamon, and other spices toArabia by sea and selling them at ahuge profit to European traders.

TEA AND COFFEEIndia and China were sources of tea, while coffeewas grown in Yemen and traded from the townof Mocha, which gave its name to a type of high-quality coffee. Both drinks came late to worldtrade but became very fashionable in the 18thcentury.

RICEThe Muslims broughtrice from SoutheastAsia and it soon became apopular food in parts ofEurope. Later, Westerngrowers learned how to grow rice for themselves.

Peppercorns

Cinnamon sticks

Ginger

Nutmeg

Boiledcandies

Sherbet

LiquoriceTurkishdelight

Sugaredalmonds

Tea leaves

Cloves

Apricots

THE FRUIT TRADEMuslim travelers introduced new species of fruit,such as the apricot, into Europe. Dried fruit, such asdates, kept for a long time and could be carried formonths. Fresh fruit did not travel so well, althoughhighly valued melons were sometimes wrapped inlead to preserve them.

Cherries

Thai rice pot

Bedouin bag forcoffee beans andcardamom pods

SUGARA great luxury in the Middle Ages,sugar was brought west from Iran andIraq to Muslim Spain. Access to thisexpensive ingredient gave Muslimconfectioners the chance to create theirown specialities – sherbet from Persia,various types of candy, sweets madefrom the liquorice plant, and Turkishdelight – all of which eventuallyreached Europe through trade.

Dates

Figs

Green coffee beans

THE CITY OF JERUSALEM is sacred to followers of three faiths --Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. From the seventh century,Jerusalem and the surrounding area were ruled by Muslims, whohad mostly lived in harmony with the Christians and Jews of thecity. But in the late 11th century, the Christian Byzantine Empire,based in Turkey on the pilgrimage route to Jerusalem, was at warwith the Muslim Seljuk Turks, and Christian pilgrims reporteddifficulties in visiting Jerusalem. The Europeans launched a series

of largely unsuccessful wars called the crusadesto try and defeat the Muslims and take over

Jerusalem and other nearby lands.

Bolt readyto fire

Winding mechanismto pull back string

The crusades

PREACHING THE CRUSADEIn 1095, Pope Urban II preached atClermont, France. He called for aChristian army to capture Jerusalem.A number of European lords saw thisas an opportunity to create powerbases in and around the city.

SELJUK BOWLIn the 11th century, Turkish

warriors called the Seljuks,portrayed on this painted bowl,

ruled a Muslim empire thatstretched from Iran and Iraq to

the eastern Mediterranean.

INTO THE BATTLEIn the first crusade(1096–99), a number ofFrench and Normanknights, such as Godfreyof Bouillon, took armiesto Jerusalem. Afternumerous battles withthe Muslims, they wereable to set up smallkingdoms for themselvesin the East.

ENGINE OF BATTLEThe crusades involved many sieges when theEuropean armies attacked fortified cities suchas Antioch and Damascus. These attacks wereoften ruthless, bloodthirsty assaults,and the crusaders sometimesused powerful, outsizeweapons, like this giantcrossbow, when besiegingMuslim cities.

JERUSALEMThe first crusade ended when Jerusalem

fell to the Europeans in July 1099, andCount Baldwin of Flanders was

crowned king of the city.Christians remained in power

here for over 80 years.

Handle foraimingcrossbow

Painting of battlingChristians andMuslims

43

Woodenwheel

Aqueduct forwater supply

THE MAMLUKSThe Mamluks were originally slaveswho were recruited to fight for theMuslims. Eventually they became a military ruling class, defeatingChristians in the later crusades.After overthrowing the Ayyubids in the 13th century, they ruled theirown empire for over 250 years.

SALADINSalah ad-Din, known in theWest as Saladin, was aMuslim leader who fought ajihad (a struggle in accordancewith strict limitations set outin the Qur’an) against thecrusaders under Richard theLionheart. In 1187, he

recaptured Jerusalem,which would remain

under Muslim rule forthe next 800 years.

RICHARD “THE LIONHEART”This English king was one ofthe leaders of the third crusade

(1188–92). Although he was a bravefighter and captured Acre, the

crusade was badly organized andachieved little.

KRAK DES CHEVALIERSThe European knights who occupiedthe Holy Land during the crusadesbuilt impressive castles as militarybases. The strongest and biggestof these castles was Krak desChevaliers in Syria. It wasrebuilt by French knights inthe early 12th century, and itsmassive walls kept outmany attackers.

Tall tower givesgood lookoutposition

SALADIN’S LEGACYSaladin, who is buried in thistomb in Damascus, Syria,was a fearless fighter whowas always just to hisenemies. He built upan empire in Syria,Palestine, andEgypt, and foundedthe Ayyubiddynasty, whichruled until 1260.

Illustration from a 13th-century

French manuscriptHistoria Major

44

Sword and sheath ofShah Tamasp of

Persia

GRENADE

First used in China, grenadescontaining gunpowder were

used by both Muslims andChristians in the Middle Ages.

This 13th-century example was made of clay in Damascus, Syria.

Arms and armor

TURKISH HELMET

This Turkish helmet dates from around1500. It is made of iron and patternedwith silver. It carries the mark of the

“Arsenal of Constantinople” (nowIstanbul) where the weapons and

armor of the Turkish army were held.SHIELD OF STEEL

The Mongols developed small, round shieldsmade of leather. When enemy archers fired,their arrows stuck in the leather and could bepulled out and reused. Later round shieldswere made of steel with a curving surface, toprotect the user from both bullets and swordblows. Shields like this were popular in Indiaand Iran from the 18th century onward.

19th-centuryIndian steelshield with giltdecorationCANNON MINIATURE

By the early 14th century, Europeanarmorers were starting to make cannonsand these powerful weapons were quicklytaken up by Muslim armies. This paintingshows cannons being used by Muslimtroops at the Siege of Vienna in 1529.

BY THE 11TH CENTURY, Muslims were highly skilled in metalcraftsmanship – and this included weapon production. For afighting man, good arms and armor were often a matter of lifeand death, so soldiers wanted the best equipment that they couldafford. The mounted warriors of the Islamic world used thesword, lance, and mace. Most were also skilled archers. Beautifuland intricate swords, shields, and other weaponry were the envyof the non-Muslim world. However, Muslim armies were also quick toadopt weapons that originated in the West, such as cannonsand firearms.

Handle hides a slender dagger.

45

MUSKET

When they were first imported to theEast, guns like this European flintlockmusket were resisted by high-rankingMuslim soldiers, who preferred the bowand the curved sword. But when theirenemies began to take up firearms,Muslim warriors were forced to do thesame, and weapons like the musket were valued all over Asia.

SHOOTING LESSON

Handheld guns first appeared inWestern Europe in the 15th centuryand Muslim soldiers soon began touse them. It was not long beforeMuslim craft workers started tomake such weapons for themselves,often in workshops run by master-armorers from Portugal. In thispicture, 16th century IndianEmperor Akbar is learning how tohandle one of the latest weapons.

SWORDS AND BATTLE-AXES

The tabar, or battle-ax, was a widespread weapon. Such axes hadsteel blades and were not always as ornate as this one, which isadorned with silver and gilding. Muslim soldiers also fought withdistinctive swords with curved blades that broadened toward thetip. In Europe these were known as scimitars (above).

Gold-barreled musket

JAMBIYA

First made in theArabian Peninsula,

the jambiya was a curved dagger.It proved popular – either as aplain fighting dagger or as anornate ceremonial weapon – andspread all over the Muslim world.

KHANJAR

In many parts of the Muslimworld it was common for

men, and even boys, tocarry weapons. This is a

20th-century dagger fromYemen, called a khanjar.

Khanjar anddecorated sheath

Jambiya (and sheath,below right)

Steel macefrom Persia

MACE

Maces weresometimes carried

as a sign of rank, butthey were also fightingweapons used bymounted warriors. Inskilled hands, a macecould break an opponent’sbones, even if he waswearing armor.

46

MOORISH COINThe Moors – the nameChristians gave to theMuslims from Morocco– brought with themtheir own coinage andsystems of government.After the defeat of theMoors, early SpanishChristian kingscontinued to use Islamicdesigns on coins.

CALIPH’S BOXA great Moorish

craftsman produced this box during the 10th

century. It is inscribedwith the name of Al-

Mughira, son of ‘Abd al-Rahman III, who reunitedIslamic Spain after a time

of disorder and ruled asCaliph of Cordoba.

MINSTRELSThe musicians of Muslim

Spain were among the best inEurope. Some of them were

wandering minstrels whointroduced European players to

the lute, and to the use of the bowto play stringed instruments.

SpainDURING THE EARLY EIGHTH century,Muslims from Morocco invaded Spain –soon they controlled most of the IberianPeninsula. Muslims ruled in Spain untilthe 15th century, although they nevergoverned the entire peninsula, asChristian kingdoms survived in thenorth. After the fall of the caliphate inthe 11th century, Moorish Spain beganto be conquered by the Christians of the north and the east, but southerncities such as Cordoba and Seville werecenters of Islamic art and learning.

GREAT MOSQUE AT CORDOBABegun in the ninth century and later extended,the Great Mosque, or Mezquita, in Cordoba wasa symbol of Muslim power in Spain. It is adazzling example of Islamic architecture. Over850 columns of granite, jasper, and marblesupport a ceiling raised on double arches.

THE ALHAMBRA, GRANADAIn the 14th century, Spain wasruled by the Nasrid dynasty who were based in Granada, insouthern Spain. Here they builtthe great fortified palace calledthe Alhambra, which means “redpalace,” after the warm color ofits stone. It was designed torepresent paradise on Earth andits tall towers and strong outerwalls hide luxurious interiors.

Scenes showingpleasures ofcourtly life

47

MUDEJAR TOWERIn many parts of Spain, Muslimcraftsmen carried on working underChristian rule. They developed astyle, now known as mudéjar, whichused Islamic patterns to decoratebrick-built wall surfaces, as in thistower at Teruel.

ALHAMBRA COURTYARDSThe beauty of theAlhambra lies not only inits exquisite Islamicdecoration, but in the cleveruse of light and water tocreate a sense of space.Courtyards fill the palacewith light, and many havetranquil pools that gentlyreflect the light. Archedwalkways create shadedareas where the Nasridscould walk or relax.

THE GARDENS OF THE GENERALIFEIn the Qur’an, paradise is described as agarden – usually an enclosed or shadedgarden in which water flows. To escape fromthe political life of the palace, the Nasridcaliphs created a tranquil garden paradise ontheir country estate, the Generalife, whichlooked down over the city of Granada.

THE LAST MUSLIM KINGDOMAs the Christians gradually conqueredSpain, the Muslim rulers were pushedsouth. By the 15th century, only thekingdom of Granada, the area in southernSpain around the walled city of the samename, remained in Muslim hands.

MOORISH INFLUENCEThis metalwork decorates a doorin the royal palace in Seville. Thepalace was not built by a caliphbut by a Spanish king, Pedro I,and shows the great influence ofIslamic art in Spain.

THE LAST CALIPH Boabdil became caliph

in 1482, after a powerstruggle with his father

that weakened Granada.In 1490, the Christianforces of Aragon and

Castille laid siege to thecity and, after two years,

Granada surrendered.On his way to exile in

Morocco, Boabdillooked back at the

Alhambra and wept atits beauty. This spot

is now called “theMoor’s last sigh.”

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AfricaBY THE END OF THE UMAYYAD dynasty ofcaliphs in 750, Islam had spread across NorthAfrica from Egypt to Morocco. From here, the

faith spread southward, as Muslim Berberand Tuareg merchants crossed Africa

carrying not just goods, but also ideas.Great cities of Islamic scholarship wereestablished at Timbuktu and Djenne(both in Mali) and Chingetti, inMauritania. Today Muslims – most ofthem Sunnis – are in the majority inNorth and West Africa, and many EastAfrican countries. Africa is a vast andvaried continent, in which Islam existsside by side with many different localcultures and with political systems thatrange from socialism to monarchy.

Earth pinnaclebuilt aroundwooden post

BERBER WOMANThe Berbers are the peoplesof the mountains anddeserts of North Africa.They are Muslims whohave held on to many oftheir local traditions,such as wearing bright-colored costumes andsilver jewelry.

MINARET AT SOUSSE When the Muslimconquerors took overareas like Tunisia, theyfounded cities and builtmosques in which topray. The ninth-centurymosque at Sousse, withits round stone minaret, is one early example.

WOMAN WARRIOROne of the best known accounts ofthe Muslim conquests in NorthAfrica is an epic called the Sirat BeniHilal. One especially popularcharacter is the heroine Jazia, awarrior who is shown here ridingher camel.

DJENNE MOSQUEEarth is the traditional building materialin many parts of Africa. In addition to

being used for houses, largebuildings, like this mosque at

Djenne in Mali, can be made ofearth. Djenne was one of the

most important trading centersalong the Niger River.

ILLUMINATED COPY OF THE QUR’AN Calligraphy and other scholarly skillswere as highly valued in Africa as in the rest of the Muslim world, and Africahad some famous centers of learning.One of the largest of these was 15th-and 16th-century Timbuktu. Scholarsfrom all over North Africa came to the city’s library to consult preciousmanuscripts like this copy of the Qur’an.

Wide margin allowsthe pages to beturned withouttouching the text.

49

Leather pouchcontaining versefrom the Qur’an

Smooth outercoating of mudprotects walls.

Wooden beamsstrengthen thestructure.

A FAMOUS PILGRIMAGE Mali was the center of a large West African empireduring the 14th century. Its ruler, Mansa Musa, madethe pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324–25, and his longjourney is recorded on this map.

WEARING THE QUR’ANThis tunic was worn by a warrior ofthe Asante people of West Africa. Thepouches each contain a text from theQur’an, which warriors believedwould protect them in battle.

TILE PATTERNSThese hexagonal wall tiles

from North Africa bearpatterns that are based onplant forms. The flowers,

leaves, and twining stemshave been made into abstract

designs in typical Islamic style.

MEMORIZING THE QUR’ANIslam brought formal education to many

parts of Africa for the first time. ThisMauritanian student is reading asura (chapter) of the Qur’an,and learning it by heart.

DOMED TOMBMost Muslims have simple graves, but there is a traditionof building larger tombs for caliphs and other notablepeople. The small tomb above, near Khartoum in Sudan,was probably built for a local saint. It is marked by a simpledome so that people can visit to pay their respects.

PRECIOUS METALThe people of West Africa were

skilled gold workers before thearrival of Islam. The Muslimsput these skills to work toproduce gold coinage.

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THE RUTHLESS TIMURPerhaps the cruelest of all

the Mongol conquerorswas Timur, or Tamerlane.

He was a Turkish-Mongolleader who claimed to be a

descendant of GenghisKhan. In the 14th century

he conquered much of thewestern part of the Mongolempire, taking Baghdad in

1390. He liked to displayhis victims’ skulls after

major battles and thispainting, of his victory at

Baghdad, shows agruesome tower of skulls.

Mongols and Turks

MONGOL SOLDIERThe Mongol warriors were skilled horsemen andruthless fighters. Moving at great speed, theykilled millions and destroyed hundreds of

settlements to bring much of Asia underthe control of Mongol rulers.

Embroideredcloth

Pillar ofskulls

THE NEW MONGOL CAPITALAfter the death of Genghis Khan, his empirewas divided between his three sons and hisgrandson, Kublai Khan. The eastern empireprospered under Kublai Khan, and he foundedthe Yüan dynasty in China where he built anew capital, called Khanbaliq, now Beijing.

GENGHIS KHANGenghis Khan was a Mongol warlordwho came to power in 1206 when hesucceeded in uniting warring Mongoltribes. He then began a campaign ofraiding and conquest. At his death in1227, his empire stretched fromChina to the borders of Europe.

50

IN 1219 THE LANDS OF ISLAM were invaded byMongol armies from the north. By 1258, theMongols – great warriors from the steppes

of Mongolia – had sacked Baghdad andkilled the caliph, devastating Islam’spolitical center. But in 1260, the Mongolswere defeated by the Mamluks, and many converted to Islam. The next great Muslim power was the Ottomanempire, founded by the Turks in 1290.They conquered part of Eastern Europeand, like the Arabs before them, became the dominant political force in Islam.

WARRIOR BOWLThe Mongols were proud

of their warriors, as thisdecorated bowl from theninth century shows.Because they began as a nomadic people, theMongols’ detailedknowledge of the land

meant that they were able tovanish into the countryside,

reappearing again suddenly totake their enemies by surprise.

51

FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLEConstantinople (modern Istanbul) was the capital

of the Christian Byzantine Empire. During theMiddle Ages, the Turks took over more and more of

this empire, and in 1453, Constantinople itself fellto the sultan Mehmet II. The city became the new

center of the Ottoman Empire.

THE CONQUEROROttoman Sultan Mehmet II,

was known as “theConqueror,” after his

capture of Constantinoplein 1453. He was a

broadminded man,interested in all types of

culture. His courtattracted scholars and

craftsmen from allover the Muslim

world and he had hisportrait painted by the

Italian artist Bellini.

Suleiman 1

SIGN OF THE SULTANEach Ottoman sultan had a tughra,or official signature, speciallycreated for him. It was designed toprevent forgery and could only beused by the sultan’s staff. These staffwere part of a huge civil service thatthe Ottomans developed forrunning their empire. Able civilservants could be promoted and riseto high social rank.

Tughra ofSuleiman I

SULEIMAN THE MAGNIFICENTSuleiman I, known in the West as “the Magnificent” andin the East as “the Lawgiver,” ruled with absolute powerfrom 1520 to 1566, when the Ottoman Empire was at itsheight. Determined to extend the empire, he advancedinto Europe and in 1529 he besieged Vienna, in Austria.Despite his powerful army, he failed to capture Vienna.

Text reads:“Suleiman Shahson of Salim ShahKhan alwaystriumphant.”

Recurved bow,the favorite

Mongol weapon

Fortress of RumeliHisari, built by

Mehmet II as a basefrom which to attack

Constantinople

52

QUTB MINAR, DELHIIn 1193, Afghan rulerMuhammad al-Ghuriconquered northern India.He built a capital at Delhifrom which Muslim sultansruled, putting up buildingslike this tall minaret. For themost part, the rule of theDelhi sultans was ended bythe campaigns of Timur in1398–9, but carried on insome areas until 1526.

TIMUR’S TOMBThe Mongol war leaderTimur (p. 50) was a highlysuccessful soldier whohad victories in Iran,India, Syria, and Turkey.When he died in 1405, hewas trying to add Chinato his list of militarytriumphs. The greatwealth he amassed fromhis conquests is reflectedby the rich decoration ofhis tomb at Samarkand inCentral Asia.

FRIDAY MOSQUE, ISFAHANIsfahan, Iran, was the capital

of the powerful Safaviddynasty (1501–1732),which unified the areaand made Shi’i Islam the state religion. TheSafavid sultans built aseries of stunningbuildings in the city,including a largepalace complex, severalmosques, and the largeFriday Mosque. The

red-and-blue glazedtilework of the 16th and

17th centuries is in typicalSafavid style.

KHWAJU BRIDGEOne of the achievements of the Safavid dynasty was theconstruction of the Khwaju Bridge in Isfahan. The bridge isabout 440 ft (133 m) long and spans theZayandeh River with 23 arches.In addition to providing a rivercrossing, this amazing structureacted as a dam to irrigate thenearby gardens.

Central Asia, Iran, and IndiaBURNING BRIGHTThe Ghaznavids, whose craftsmen madeelaborate metalworklike this lamp, were Seljukrulers who controlledAfghanistan and much ofIran. They were at theheight of their power inthe early 11th century. TheGhaznavids were SunniMuslims who opposed therival Shi’i dynasty, theBuyids, in Iran.

Pierceddecoration

Lamp ismade of castbronze

Openings allow passersbyto enjoy river views in the shade.

ISLAM CAME EARLY TO IRAN, an area that was completelyconquered by Muslim rulers by the year 641. In the following

centuries, a series of ruling dynasties reigned in Iran, includingthe Seljuks from Turkey, the Mongols from Central Asia, the

Timurids (the dynasty of the war leader Timur), and theSafavids. India was also a region of huge variety,

with many different religions. Muslims –from the first conquests in

Sind in 712 to the Mughalemperors – controlled all or part

of India from 1193 to the 19thcentury, when the subcontinent became

part of the vast British Empire. When thecountry won its independence from Britain in1947, it was split up and the new Muslim

state of Pakistan was created. A growingMuslim minority remains in India.

Akbar leadshis armyinto battle

Babur discussesbuilding progresswith his architects

BABURThe first Mughal emperor was Babur, who came from Iran andwas descended from Timur and Genghis Khan. The wordMughal comes from “Mongol,” because of Babur’s origins.Babur was just 11 when he became a ruler in Transoxiana, andaged 14 when he conquered Samarkand. He established akingdom in Iran, which he lost, and another in Afghanistan. In 1526, Babur conquered India. A well-educated man, he was a poet and historian who encouraged the arts.

AKBARThe greatest Mughal emperor was Akbar, who ruled from 1556 to 1605. Skilled ingovernment, Akbar set up an efficientbureaucracy, the structure of which stillinfluences Indian government today. Akbarwas also known as one of the most tolerant of rulers. He abolished a tax on the Hindupopulation, and encouraged artists to combineHindu and Islamic styles in their work.

AURANGZEBThis book contains the letters of the last important

Mughal leader, emperor Aurangzeb (1658–1070),whose rule saw a decline in the health of the

Mughal state. He expanded the empire but failedto invest in agriculture and so did not make

enough money to support his army or court. He persecuted non-Muslims, taxing Hindus

heavily and destroying many of their temples.

The Mughal empireThe Muslim Mughal dynasty ruled in India from 1526 to 1858, withthe greatest emperors in power toward the beginning of this period.Under their rule, the diverse Indian subcontinent was united andunderwent a unique period of achievement in art, music, literatureand architecture. Under the later Mughal rulers, however, the empirebegan to fall apart.

54

China and Southeast AsiaISLAM HAS BEEN PRACTICED in Chinasince the seventh century when it wasintroduced to coastal cities by Arabtraders. Over the next 200 years,merchants traveling the SilkRoad took Islam into the interior.The Muslims of China today are adiverse people descended frommany different ethnic groups,including ethnic Chinese, Mongols, andPersians, each with their own customs andcultures. Islam also reached Southeast Asia

through trade, and today the largestMuslim population in the world

is in Indonesia.

GRAND MOSQUE IN THE CITY OF XI’AN,

When China became communist in 1949, Muslims weregiven some religious freedom, but during the CulturalRevolution (1966–1976) all religions were outlawed, andmosques were destroyed or closed. In the 1980s, however,many mosques were reopened or rebuilt. China’s oldestmosque, the Grand Mosque in Xi’an, can be visited today.

MOSQUE INTERIOR, BEIJING

By the early 20th century there was asizeable Muslim minority in China. In

the larger cities there are lavish mosqueslike the Niu Jie mosque (above), whichhas pillars lacquered in black and gold,

and walls decorated with both Arabicand Chinese motifs. Most of China’s

Muslims live in the rural northwesternprovince of Xinjiang, where the

mosques are usually much plainer.

Carved stonedecorationfrom Xi’an

mosque

Typical Chineseupward-curvingroof

Outline of bird wherewax covered the fabricduring dyeing

Name of Allah

BY SEA

Some Muslimmerchants traveledfrom the mainland to

Southeast Asia intraditional boatswith strikingcurved prows.

BATIK

China and Southeast Asia have alwaystraded in beautiful fabrics, such as silks. Thispiece has been dyed using the process calledbatik, which was invented in Java. The dyerapplies wax to the parts of the fabric whichare to remain uncolored, then soaks thematerial in dye. When dry, the material isboiled or scraped to remove the wax.

MALAYSIAN MOSQUE

Because Islam was broughtto Southeast Asia by well-traveled merchants, the areahas always been influencedby a mix of cultures. This Malaysian mosque isdecorated in the style of

mosques in Iranand India.

MIX OF STYLES

This modern mosque in Kuala Kangsar,Malaysia, was built after the countrybecame independent in 1957. This wasa good time for Muslims in Malaysiabecause Islam was recognized as thestate’s official religion.

CARAVANSERAI

Merchants traveling by land neededplaces to stay, so the locals builtcaravanserais (p. 36) on the routesthrough Asia to China. In these simplestone buildings, merchants could find abed and somewhere to stable their camels.

ROD PUPPET

The shadow puppet theatercalled wayang golek isperformed with carved andpainted wooden figures thatare manipulated with rods.

Wayang is a traditional Javaneseentertainment, widely enjoyed

by Muslims at festivals andcelebrations.

55

Wooden rod isused to movepuppet’s arm.

Articulated arm

BOWL FOR RICE

Rice is the staplefood in both China

and Southeast Asia.It is eaten from small

round bowls made ofporcelain – a type of

pottery that was widelytraded, forging an important link between China, theMuslim world, and the West.

WEARING THE TUDONG

These schoolgirls from Brunei arewearing the tudong, a form of head-covering that extends down to concealthe neck and upper body. Wearing thetudong is just one way in which womencan obey the Qur’an’s instruction todress modestly (p. 56).

Clothing conceals stickused to hold puppet.

THE VEILIn some Muslimcommunities, it istraditional for women toveil their faces. The veilmay cover the lower partof the face, up to the eyes,or may cover the whole

face, as here.

COIN ROBEIn Arabia and westernAsia it is an old customto wear much of yourwealth. This Bedouinrobe has coins stitchedto it. It is made ofnatural cotton, which iscomfortable to wear inthe desert heat.

AT SCHOOLMany Muslimchildren wearmodern dress, likethese Chinesechildren inkindergarten. Onlytheir headgear – theboys’ caps and thegirls’ headdresses –differ from thekinds of clothesworn by childrenall over the world.

A MODERN TWISTMuslim boys often wear this

type of brightly colored cap. Theshape is traditional, as is the

technique of embroidery used todecorate it. But the pattern canbe modern, like the helicopter

design used here.

UZBEK BRIDEIn many places, weddingcelebrations are a time to put onelaborate traditional costumes.This bride from Uzbekistanwears a gold headdress, a dressof rich fabrics woven with goldthreads, and a long embroideredhead-covering that falls almostto the floor.

Costume and jewelryTHERE IS NO ONE Muslim style of dress, althoughthe Qur’an instructs women and men to dressmodestly. As a result, Muslims wear all types ofdifferent clothes, from the traditional garments ofthe Arabian desert to modern Western dress. Arich variety of traditional costumes is still worntoday, particularly on special occasions such as

family celebrations. Thesebeautiful garments showhow skills such as weaving,dyeing, and embroideryhave been refined and

handed on from onegeneration to the nextthroughout the Islamicworld, from NorthAfrica to eastern Asia.

Saudi Arabianwoman wearing

a face veil

56

TWO-WAY PATTERNThe outside of the Central Asian robeabove is produced using the ikat technique(p. 35). The lining stands out as its flowerpatterns contrast well with the zigzag ikat.

DAZZLING DESIGNThis North African robe showstwo forms of bright, colorfuldecoration. The stripes are madeby sewing different coloredfabrics together. But what reallymakes the robe stand out is theencrustation of brilliantlycolored beads.

CHINESE ROBEFine silks, often with addedembroidered decoration, areamong the most elegant ofChinese traditional garments.The example below has widesleeves, which are typical ofOriental designs.

HEAD DECORATIONThis is a traditionalform of jewelry in the ArabianPeninsula. A womanwears a pair of headdecorations, oneover each ear.

GOLD BRACELETArab metalworkers pridethemselves on their jewelry. For centuries, they worked mostlyin silver, but now gold is apopular material for the braceletsand other pieces that are boughtfor a bride when she marries.

Chains androundelsmade ofsilver

AMULETSSome Muslims carry an ornament

or piece of jewelry to protectthem from evil, called an amulet.

This might be a stone carvedwith a verse from the Qur’an, ora box containing Qur’anic texts.

57

ENAMELED NECKLACEJewelry can be given bright red, blue,and green colors by enameling. This

involves applying a mixture ofpowdered colored glass to the

metalwork and heating the piece in akiln to make the decoration hard and

permanent.

58

MARCHING TOGETHERMany Muslims live side by sidewith people of very differentbeliefs. For the most part, theylive in harmony, like theseMuslims and Buddhists in China.

SPIRES AND MINARETSIn Zanzibar, Tanzania, themosque and the Christian churchare close neighbors. Here, as inmany places, Muslimslive in a diversecommunity, side byside withChristians andthose who followother religions.

SULTAN AND HIS SUBJECTSMuslim countries aregoverned in different ways.In the past, many hadheads of state who ruledwith absolute power, likethis Moroccan sultan. SinceWorld War II and theabolition of the caliphate(p. 20), most Muslims now live in modern nation states.

THE QUR’AN TELLS MUSLIMS that man is God’s vice regent on Earth andis responsible for taking good care of everything from the environmentto the people around him. Muslims are told to be tolerant of otherpeoples and to create societies in whichjustice, personal kindness, and theavoidance of wrongdoing are upheld.Virtues such as these start within thefamily and the Qur’an describes clearlythe roles of men, women, and children.Within these guidelines, which areknown as the sharia, Muslim society can take a variety of forms.

Islamic society

“Allah created nothing finer onEarth than justice. Justice is

Allah's balance on Earth, and anyman who upholds this balance will

be carried by Him to Paradise.”THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD

TOLERANCEThe Qur’an stresses that there

should be tolerance betweenMuslims and non-Muslims. Jewsand Christians, people who, like

Muslims, believe in the OneGod, are given particular respect

in the Qur’an. They should beable to coexist peacefully, like

the Muslim and Christian chess-players in this Spanish picture.

SCALES OF JUSTICEIslamic law also covers business, encouragingtrade, but setting guidelines that ensure fairness.Since Abbasid times (p. 20), markets in Muslimcountries have had officials who checked weightsand measures and the quality of merchandise. TheMuhtasib, as this public official was called, is stillfound in some traditional markets.

SELLING SLAVESSlavery had been an

important part of the socialsystem since ancient times,

and was still common in thetime of Muhammad. It

continued to be a part of life inmedieval times as this picture

of a North African slavemarket shows. The Qur’an

encouraged the freeing ofslaves and insisted that they

be treated with kindness.

59

WESTERN WOMENIn many societies, Muslimwomen are educated to a highlevel, are employed inprofessions such as medicineor law, and may even take aprominent part in public life.Baroness Uddin, a Muslimmember of the British Houseof Lords, is a good example.

MEN’S ROLEIslam makes a cleardistinction between theroles of men and womenin the home. The man’sjob is to deal withrelations between thefamily and the outsideworld, as this man isdoing when heentertains his guests.

Local terra-cotta pot

Pattern is saidto symbolizestrength andlove.

SUDANESE WOMANIn traditional Muslim

societies such as Sudan,women usually keep to

their roles of homemakingand childcare. Even in

early Muslim societies,however, there were

notable women whoworked as scholars

and occasionallyruled. Many

learned Muslimwomen, such as

the great Egyptianscholar Umm Hani

(1376–1466), werefamous in the

Middle Ages.

DOWRY BOXA Muslim mangives his bride-to-be adowry, a payment inmoney or property, whichmay be presented in a boxlike this. The amount ofthe dowry can varyaccording to the man’swealth.

HENNAED HANDHenna is used in a traditional

ritual that is usually performedon the day before a marriage.

The bride’s hands and feet areadorned with beautiful

patterns using a dye madefrom henna leaves. This may

be done by the bride’s femalefriends and relatives.

MARRIED LIFEMuslims are usually expected tomarry and have children.Marriage not only unitesindividuals, but it alsobrings togetherfamilies, making theMuslim communitymore unified andreflecting theharmony ofAllah’screation.

CHILDREN AND FAMILYMuslims regard children as gifts ofAllah and as one of the great joysof life. Parents are expected tocare for their children and togive them a good start in life,making sure they have a properupbringing and education.Children are expected torespect and obey theirparents and to show qualitiesof kindness, virtue, andconscientiousnesstoward them.

MAN AT PRAYERAccording to Islam, everything

comes from Allah and willeventually return to Allah.Qualities that are loved infamily members, friends,and the wider society are

all qualities that have come from Allah. So the

individual’s relationshipwith Allah is paramount.

Each Muslim turns toAllah for guidance,

forgiveness, and support.

60

Festivals and ceremonies

KERBALA

Kerbala, Iraq, is where Muhammad’sgrandson Husayn was killed in 680.Husayn’s shrine (above) is sacred to theShi’i Muslims, who are the largestreligious group in Iran and Iraq. Thedeath of Husayn is marked by thefestival of Ashura (see opposite).

LUNAR CALENDAR

The Islamic calendar isbased on the phases of theMoon. Each year has 12lunar months of 29 or 30days each, and a total of354 days. Each monthbegins with the sightingof the new Moon.

RAMADAN

During the month of Ramadan,Muslims fast between sunrise andsunset (p.15). At sunset each day,people first pray and then eat.Special lights, such as this star-shaped lantern, may be lit duringthe evening meal.

‘ID BALLOONS

Colorful balloons are a popular feature of the

celebrations of ‘Id al-Fitr,which marks the end of

Ramadan (p. 15). Celebrationsinclude a festival prayer, a

substantial breakfast, and thegiving of alms to the poor.

“EID MUBARAK”

During the festival of ‘Id al-Fitr, peopleknock on the doors of neighbors,greeting them with the phrase “EidMubarak” (Blessed Eid). Friends orrelatives living away are sent Eidgreeting cards (left).

Eid greetingcard

MUHARRAM

The sacred month, 30 days1: Ra’s al-’Am (New Year)10: Ashura

SAFAR

The month which is void29 days

RABI’ AL-AWWAL

The first spring30 days12: Mawlid an-Nabi (birthday of the Prophet)

THE MUSLIM CALENDAR contains a numberof yearly festivals. Some commemorate keyevents in the history of the faith, such asthe birthday of the Prophet or the Night

Journey. Others are connected with the FivePillars of Islam: ‘Id al-Adha (the feast of the

sacrifice) takes place during the time of thepilgrimage, and ‘Id al-Fitr marks the end ofRamadan, the month of fasting. There are alsofestivals such as Nauruz in Iran to celebrate theNew Year, and celebrations, from birth tomarriage, to mark key points in a Muslim’s life.

MAWLID AN-NABI

These boys from Kenya aretaking part in a processioncelebrating Mawlid an-Nabi, thebirthday of the Prophet. Thisday is a public holiday and is

also marked with recitations of apoem called the Burdah, in praiseof Muhammad.

THE ISLAMIC CALENDAR

Stained glasspanel

61

LAYLAT AL-ISRA’ WA’L-MI‘RAJ

On the 27th day of the monthof Rajab, Muslims celebrate

Muhammad’s Night Journey,when he rode the beast called

the Buraq, and his Ascensionto Heaven (p. 9). This is called

Laylat al-Isra’ wa’l-mi‘raj, theNight of the Journey

and Ascension.

KHITAN

Muslim boys are usuallycircumcised in a ceremony calledkhitan. This is often done aroundage seven, though it may be doneany time before a boy reaches 12years old. These Turkish boys areattending a mosque before theirkhitan ceremony.

SALLAH FESTIVAL

Some Muslim festivalsare local celebrationsthat take part in justone country or regionof the Islamic world.For example, the Sallahfestival is held innorthern Nigeria aspart of the ritualsmarking the end ofRamadan. Thehighlight is a colorfulprocession featuringchiefs in ceremonialrobes, brightlycostumed horsemen,and lute players.

RABI’ATH-THANI

The second spring29 days

JUMADA-L-ULA

The first month of dryness30 days

WHIRLING DERVISH

Members of the Sufi Mevleviorder (p. 35) hold festivals atwhich they perform their“whirling” dance, known assama‘. One such festivalmarks the death of theirfounder, the great Sufipoet and mystic,Jalaluddin Rumi(1207–73).

ASHURA

The festival of Ashuramarks the death of

Husayn and, in one ofthe ceremonies, models

of Husayn’s tomb arecarried through the

streets. Plays reenactingthe death of Husayn

may also be performed.

WEDDING CELEBRATIONS

In Islam, a contract of marriage is made bythe groom giving the bride-to-be a dowry,

and the bride then giving consent tomarriage before witnesses. The dowrymay be presented in an embroidered

wallet. Wedding celebrations varyaccording to the local traditions of the

different areas of the Muslim world, butwill usually include recitations from the

Qur’an and a great feast.

JUMADA-TH-THANIYYAH

The second month of dryness29 days

The Buraq is a“miraculous steed,”although depictionsof the beast vary.

Continued on next page

Dowry wallet

62

Cardamom

CANDY TRAYThe availability of sugar meant that manyMuslim areas developed their owntraditional types of candy. These examplescome from Malaysia. Known as kuch, theyare rich cookies flavored with palm sugarand coconut.

MINT TEATea is widely drunk in manyMuslim countries. Usuallyserved in a glass, hot, sweetmint tea is very popular andrefreshing. Lemon tea is acommon alternative.

ON SALEThis mother and

daughter in Isfahan,Iran, are buying food from a

local dealer in dried fruit andspices. In this traditional

shop, most of the goods aredisplayed loose, so that

purchasers can see exactlywhat they are buying.

DATE PALMDate palms are one of thefew crops that grown all over the dryareas of western Asia and northernAfrica. Tasty and rich in carbohydrates,dates are a popular staple food.

FAST FOODThe idea of fast, ready-to-eat food is

nothing new in the Islamic world,and street sellers cooking and

selling their own food are acommon sight. In Egypt,

street vendors like this mansell passersby fava bean

patties cooked in the openair and flavored with

local herbs.

SHA’BANThe month of division29 days15: Laylat al-Bara’ah (memory of the dead – Iran and India)

RAMADANMonth of great heat30 days27: Laylat al-Qadr (Night of the Descent of the Qur’an)

RAJABThe revered month30 days27: Laylat al-Mi’raj (Night Journey)

Cumin

FoodA rich variety of food originated in theIslamic countries, and many of these foodshave spread far and wide. This variety is onlyslightly limited by some simple dietary rulesthat restrict what a Muslim may eat. Islamforbids the drinking of alcohol, and Muslimsare not allowed to eat pork which, as in othertraditions, is considered to be unclean. Otheranimals may be eaten, provided that they areslaughtered in the correct way, with theName of God pronounced as the creature’slife is taken. Meat that is slaughtered in thisway is described as halal, or lawful to eat.

Continued from previous page

Turmeric

SPICESThe spice trade was always important to Muslim merchants, so many spices from India andSoutheast Asia found their way into the cooking ofthe Middle East. Ingredients such as cumin andcardamom were valued for their fragrance, flavorand as aids to digestion.

63

ORANGESOranges came to Europe along trade routesfrom the Islamic world, and their juices werequenching thirsts in Western Europe byabout the 14th century. The very term orangeis derived from the Arabic word naranj.

FAMILY FOODThis family in Senegal

is cooking their mealover an open fire.

When it is ready, theywill all eat the food

from the one pot.Everyone looks

forward to this dailyfamily gathering. It is

a chance to catch upon the news as

well as to enjoy a welcome meal.

BREADMAKERUnleavened bread – bread baked without yeast, so that itstays flat and does not rise – is a common staple foodthroughout the Islamic world. This woman in Kyrgyzstanis making it on an open fire, which is one of the traditionalways to bake bread. Bread like this may also be baked on ahot stone.

COFFEE POTAnother item introduced to theWest by the Muslims is coffee.Excellent coffee has been grownfor centuries in the southwesterncorner of the Arabian Peninsulaand is still served there today,usually very strong and sweet,from elegant pots like this.

SHARING A MEALHospitality has always been avirtue in Islam, especially in thedesert, where food is hard tocome by. This early illustrationshows some Persians sharingfood with a stranger.

SHAWWALThe month of hunting29 days1: ‘Id al-Fitr (Feast of Fast-breaking)

DHU L-QA’DAHThe month of rest30 days

DHU L-HIJJAHMonth of the Pilgrimage29 days (sometimes 30)10: ‘Id al-Adha (Feast of Sacrifice)

LAMB KEBOBSThe technique of grilling small pieces ofmeat on a skewer to make a kebob is usedin the eastern Mediterranean and Turkey.Kebobs made with ground lamb, cubes oflamb, or pieces of chicken, are now popularall over Europe and beyond.

FOR THE SWEET TOOTHSweet pastries are one ofthe delights of westernAsia. This shop is in Syria.It is selling local pastriescalled hama, which get theirsweetness from a coveringof honey. Several differentvarieties are displayed inthe shop window to temptpassersby.

AAbraham 17Adam 17Africa 23, 48-49Akbar 45, 53‘Ali 20, 21al-Idrisi 28Allah 9, 10, 12, 13almsgiving 12, 14, 19Arab Empire 22Arabia 6-7Arabian Nights 27Arabic: numbers 31;

script see script, ArabicArabs 6Ashura 60, 61astronomy 24, 29Ataturk 21Avicenna 24

B CBabur 53Baghdad 20, 28, 29, 50Bedouin people 33, 56Boabdil 47Buraq 9, 61Byzantine Empire 7, 22calendar, Muslim 60-63 caliphs, caliphate 20-21calligraphy 8, 26, 27, 48camels 33, 39, 55;

caravans 8, 21, 38, 40

caranvanserai 36, 55Carthage 23ceremonies 60-61China 54-55, 57Christians 12, 42, 46, 58circumcision 61cities 36-37; walls 37Constantinople see

IstanbulCordoba 46costume 17, 48, 56-57crusades 42-43

D FDamascus 22, 40dhows 39dietary rules 62dowry 59, 61faith see Shahadafamily life 58-59fasting 12, 15festivals 15, 60-61Five Pillars of Islam 12-17food 15, 41, 62-63France 23frankincense 7, 40

G H IGabriel, archangel 8, 9,

10, 17Genghis Khan 50God, One see Allahgovernment, Muslim 58Granada 47; Alhambra

46, 47; Generalife 47

hajj 16halal meat 62houses 17, 32Husayn 21, 60Ibn Battuta 38Ibn Sina 24, 30‘Id al-Adha 60‘Id al-Fitr 15, 60ikat 35, 57iman 12India 52, 53Indonesia 54Iran 52Isfahan 52Islam, basic belief 12 Islamic: art/decoration

11, 20, 26, 34-35, 53; city36-37; culture 34-35

Istanbul 51: Blue Mosque19; Hagia Sofia 51;observatory 29;Topkapi Palace 34

J K LJerusalem 22, 42, 43;

Temple Mount 9jewelry 56-57Jews/Judaism 12, 42, 58Ka’ba 16, 17; Black Stone

17Kerbala 60Khadija 8Khalifa 20khanjar 45khitan 61khutba 12, 19Krak des Chevaliers 43

Kublai Khan 50, 54law, Muslim, see sharialearning 24, 28libraries 18, 25

M madrasah 24Mali 48, 49Mamluks 43, 50Ma‘rib 7markets 32, 36marriage 59, 61Martel, Charles 23mathematics 31Mawlid an-Nabi 60Mecca 13, 16, 17; Sacred

Mosque 16medicine 30-31, 36Medina 9Mehmet II 51men 59merchants 8, 32, 38-41,

54, 55metalwork 34, 47, 52, 57mihrab 13, 18minarets 12, 18, 48, 52minbar 19Mongols 20, 33, 50-51, 52Moors 46mosques 18-19, 22, 48, 54,

55muezzin 12Mughal Empire 53Muhammad, Prophet 8-9,

10, 20mullah 25music, Arab 35, 46

N O P QNight Journey 60, 61Night of Destiny 8nomads 6, 32-33oases 6, 7, 32observatories 29Ottomans 19, 50pharmacists 30, 31pilgrimage to Mecca 13,

16-17pilgrims 16, 17, 42poetry 25prayer 12-13, 15, 18, 59;

call to 12, 18; directionof 13; stages of 13

Prophet of Islam, The seeMuhammad

prophets 8public baths/fountains

14, 37Qur’an 8, 10-11, 25, 34;

copying out/writingdown 8, 11, 48;memorizing 8, 49;wearing 49

R S Ramadan 8, 10, 15, 60 Richard the Lionheart 43Saladin (Salah-ad-Din) 43scholars 24-27, 28schools 24, 26, 56script: Arabic 9, 10, 26,

27; Kufic 10; SouthArabic 6

Shahada 12sharia 58Shi‘i Muslims 20, 21,

52, 60Silk Road 38, 39, 40society 58-59soldiers 23, 50Southeast Asia 54-55Spain 22, 23, 46-47spices 41, 62Sufism 35, 61sugar 41, 62Sunni 20, 21suqs 36

T U W Y Ztents 17, 33Timur (Tamerlane) 50, 52tombs 9, 24, 49, 52trade/traders 6, 8, 32, 38-

41, 54trade routes 6, 7, 38, 39travelers 38-41Turks 12, 44, 50-51universities, Islamic 24waqf 14, 18weapons 42, 44-45wedding/brides 56, 57,

59, 61whirling dervishes 35, 61women 55, 56, 59writing 26-27;

ink/inkwells 25, 26, 27,34; pens/brushes 26,27, 34; set/box 25, 34

Yemen 6, 7, 32zakat 14

Dorling Kindersley would like tothank: Philip Letsu and Wilfrid Woodfor design assistance.

The author would like to thank:Batul Salazar for correcting errors andmistakes of judgment, and for sharingknowledge and sources of informationwith such generosity and good humor.

Picture CreditsKey: a=above, b=below, c=center, l=left,r=right, t=top; Abbreviations: BAL:Bridgeman Art Library, London/NewYork; CO: Christine Osborne; DKPL:DK Picture Library; PS: Peter Sanders;C: Corbis; RHPL: Robert HardingPicture Library; V&A: Victoria andAlbert Museum, London; SHP: SoniaHalliday Photographs; HL: HutchisonLibrary; PP: Panos Pictures.

1 Ancient Art & ArchitectureCollection: c. 2 Bodleian Library,University of Oxford: bc. BAL: Giraudontr; Giraudon/ Topkapi Palace Museum,Istanbul tl. PS: tc. 3 AKG London: bl.C: tl. DKPL: Glasgow Museums br. CO:c. 4 BAL: cr, crb, bc; Stapleton Collectioncr. Werner Forman Archive: crb.Sanderson: bl. 5 DKPL: Ashmolean tr. 6 C: Araldo de Luca br; Paul Almasy bl. DKPL: British Museum tl. PS: cl.Photograph by Paul Lunde: tr. 7 C:Archivo Iconografico br. DKPL: BritishMuseum tr. 8 DKPL: British Museum tl.Impact Photos: Alan Keohane cr. Salazar:bl. PS: cl, bc. 9 AKG London: BritishMuseum, London tr. Salazar: cl. PS: bl. 10 Ancient Art & ArchitectureCollection: tl. BAL: Musee Conde,Chantilly, France: 10-11. DKPL: BritishLibrary cl, bl. 11 DKPL: Ashmolean tr;

British Library cr; Glasgow Museum cr.Private Collection: bl. 12 BAL: Stapletoncollection tl, bc. PS: cl. 13 DKPL:National Maratime Museum tc. PS: c, c, cr, cr, bl. Private Collection: tr. 14 Photograph by Alexander StoneLunde: cr. Private Collection: bl. 15AKG London: cr. HL: John Egan br. PS:cl. Nomad, King’s Parade, Cambridge:tr. 16 Private Collection: tl. PS: bl (both)16-17 V&A: c. 17 BAL: Insititute ofOriental Studies, St Petersburg, Russiabc. Salazar: bl. Photograph by PaulLunde: br. 18 CO: br. Private Collection:tl. Photograph by Alexander StoneLunde: bl. 19 BAL: tc. CO: cr. V&A: tr. 20 BAL: Kunsthistorisches Meseum,Vienna, Austria br; Stapleton Collectionbl. DKPL: Ashmolean c; BritishMuseum: 20-21. 21 AKG London: br.BAL: Le Tresor de L@Abbaye de Saint-Maurice, France tl; Stapleton Collectionbl. PS: cb. V&A: tr. 22 Photograph byPaul Lunde: bl. C: Roger Wood br. TheArt Archive: Archaeological Museum,Madrid tl. SHP: Jane Taylor cl. ImpactPhotos: Jerry Flynn cr. 23 BAL: Volubilis,Morocco tl. Monasterio de El Escorial,Spain bl. C: Archivo Iconografico tr.Archivo Fotgrafico: br. 24 BAL: bl;Louvre, Paris cr; Museo Real Academiade Medicina, Madrid tr. CO: br. 25 BAL:bl; Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul,Turkey br. CO: cr. Private Collection: tl, tr. 26 BAL: British Library, London tr.C: Adam Woolfit cr. British Museum bl.26-27 RHPL: David Beatty tl. 27 BAL:Royal Asiastic Society, London bc. DKPL:British Library tl. Mary Evans PictureLibrary: br. V&A: tr. 28 BodleianLibrary, University of Oxford: c. BAL:British Library tr. CO: bl. 29 BAL:Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul,Turkey br; University Library,

Istanbul, Turkey tl. DKPL: National Maritime Museum cr. CO: tr. 30 BAL:Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, France tl; Eton College, Windsor tr; Institute of Oriental Studies, St Petersburg,Russia bl. DKPL: Science Museum br. 31 DKPL: Museum of the RoyalPharmaceutical Society cb; ScienceMuseum r. Werner Forman Archive: ct; Oriental Collection, State UniversityLibrary, Leiden tl. James Stone Lunde:br. 32 BAL: tr. C: Abbie Enock: TravelInk cl; Charles and Josette Lenars 32-33.CO: cr. PS: tl. 33 DKPL: BarnabasKindersley cl. 34 Ahuzan Gallery,Ahuzan Islamic Art, London: c. BAL: tr.DKPL: Aditya Patankar bl. John Gillow:br. 35 Bodleian Library, University ofOxford: cl. DKPL: Glasgow Museum br.BAL: Egyptian National Library, Cairo,Egypt cr. John Gillow: tr. 36 PanosPictures: D. Sanson c. Private Collection:clb. 37 BAL: British Library, London tl.SHP: 1840 Engraving by Thomas Allom,hand painted by Laura Lushington cl.CO: r. 38 BAL: Institute of OrientalStudies, St. Petersberg, Russia tr. DKPL:National Maritime Museum 38-39;Royal Museum of Scotland cl. MaryEvans Picture Library: tl. CO: bl. 39DKPL: David Gower tc. SHP: TopkapiPalace Museum cr. PS: tr. 40 DKPL:British Library cr; Natural HistoryMuseum tr; Pitt Rivers Museum bl. CO:tr. Property of Nomad, Kings Parade,Cambridge: c. John Gillow: cb. 41James Stone Lunde: tr. 42 BAL:Bibliotheque Nationale tl; Bibliothequenationale, Paris cl. C: Dave G.Houser b. 43 AKG London: tr. BAL: Bonhams,London br; British Library, London cr;BritishLibrary, London bc. CO: cl. 44DKPL: Arbour Antiques 44-45; PittRivers Museum c. SHP: tl. Photographby Alexander Stone Lunde: bl. V&A: c,44-45. 45 BAL: tc, tr; Bargello Museum,Florence l. James Stone Lunde: cla. 46BAL: Louvre, Paris, France cr;

Monasterio de El Escorial, Spain c. C:Adam Woolfit tr; John Hesletine 46-47.DKPL: British Museum tl. 47 ArchivoFotografico: br. C: cl; Edifice bc; MichaelBusselle tr; Ric Ergenbright tl. 47 HL:Juliet Highet c. 48 AKG London: c. CO:tl. PP: Marcus Rose 48-49. O. Clasen: tr,Paul Lunde: bl. 49 C: Gerard Degeorgetr. DKPL: Pavillion Musem and ArtGalleries tl. Fotomas Index: cr. PS: cl, br.50 AKG London: tl. BAL: cl, br; BritishMuseum bl. 51 BAL: tr, bl. The ArtArchive: Topkapi Musuem, Istanbul br.SHP: c. 52 C: Paul Almasy b; SheldanCollins cr. DKPL: Ashmolean Museumtl. RHPL: cl, c. 53 AKG London: V&Atr, cl. 54 CO: tl. John Gillow: tr. PS: cr,bl, bc. 55 C: Janet Wishnetsky br. RHPL:David Holdsworth tr. CO: bl. PS: cr.James Stone Lunde: tl. PrivateCollection: c. 56 RHPL: F Jack Jackson l. PS: tr, bc. 56-57 Property of Nomad,Kings Parade, Cambridge: c (robes andhat). 57 Sudhir Kasilwal: cr. Property of Nomad, Kings Parade, Cambridge:tl. 58 BAL: Biblioteca Monasterio delEscorial, Madrid, Spain cr; BibliothequeNationale, Paris c. C: Earl & NazimaKowall bl. SHP: tl. Panos Pictures: MarcSchlossman br. Science Photo Library:Erich Schrempp tr. 59 RHPL: BrunoMorandi c; David Poole br. PP: CliveShirley tl; Liba Taylor bl; Piers Benatartr. Salazar: cr. PS: cl. BaronessUdin/Universal Pictorial Press: clb. 60 CO: tr, cb. PS: c, br. Property ofNomad, King’s Parade, Cambridge: br. 61 RHPL: Adam Woolfitt cl; J H CWilson tr. HL: tl. PP: Mark McEvoy bl.Property of John Gillow: cr. CollectionAli Bellagha: br. 62 A-Z BotanicalCollection: Matt Johnston bl. PP:Trygve Bolstad cr. 63 BAL: BritishLibrary, London bl. DKPL: DavidMurray & Jules Selmes cl. RHPL:Christopher Rennie tl. HL: SarahErrington tr. James Stone Lunde: c. PP: Jeremy Hartley br.

Acknowledgments

Index

64