Kamrul Ahsan, A. - Problems of Coordination in Local Administration...

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Problems of Coordination in Local Administration in Bangladesh

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree ofMaster of Philosophy (M. Phil) in Public Administration

A. . M. !amrul Ahsan

"epartment of Administration and #rgani$ation Theory%ni&ersity of Bergen' or ay

*pring' +,-,


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"edicated........

To my parents and only belo&ed nephe '

ho are the sources of all my inspiration.

Md. Abdul ahed Miah

Mst. An/umanara Begum

A. !. M. 0ahid Bin A$ad ( !atha1)

i


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AC! # L2"32M2 T

All credits go to the Allah, the Almighty whose unlimited blessings have brought me to where I amtoday.

With gratitude, I acknowledge the contribution and support of Dr. Ishtiaq Jamil, my supervisor and

Associate rofessor at the Department of Administration and !rgani"ation #heory. $is guidance

and assistance enabled me to ponder on and perceive from different standpoints, as well as

accurately e%press my ideas. I would not have been able to do these without his generously sharing

his insights into the research problem throughout my thesis writing period.

I appreciate the inspiration provided by Dr. ranab &umar anday, my respectable teacher, during

my ''(month long studies at the )niversity of *ergen +)i* -I will always carry his inspiration

with me. pecial thanks to my father who helped me collect data by providing the support of his

personal network. I am grateful to my friend /ipon &umar aha who made data collection

convenient for me by providing his motorcycle. I am indebted to all the respondents, especially the

)0! of hadullapur )pa"ila for giving me their valuable time, patience, and attention. I also thank

officers(in(charge of libraries of Department of ublic Administration, )niversity of /a1shahi,

0ational Institute of 2ocal 3overnment, Dhaka, and *angladesh ublic Administration #raining

4entre, Dhaka for providing me with copies of relevant documents.

I also acknowledge institutional support from the Department of Administration and !rgani"ation

#heory and )i*. I am indebted to the 0orwegian 3overnment for providing financial support

through the 0orwegian tate 5ducational 2oan 6und +27nekassen and )niversity of /a1shahi,

*angladesh for allowing me to go on study leave.

I especially acknowledge the emotional support and encouragement provided by my parents, sister,

and brother(in(law throughout the period of my study at the Department of Administration and!rgani"ation #heory in )i*, 0orway.

#he views e%pressed in this thesis are mine and do not necessarily reflect those of )i*.

A. $. 8. &amrul Ahsan

Department of Administration and !rgani"ation #heory,

)niversity of *ergen, 0orway, pring '9:9.ii


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Table of Contents

Ac1no ledgement ii

Table of Contents iii

Lists of Tables' 4igures' Bo5s and Maps vii

List of Acronyms i%

Abstract %i

Chapter #ne6 7ntroductory "iscussion -

:.: Introduction :

:.'. tatement of the problem '

1.2.1. Coordination at the upazila level ;

:.;. ignificance of the study < :.=. /esearch ob1ectives >

:.

:.>. cope of the study ?

:.?. )nit of analysis ?

:.@. tructure of the thesis

Chapter T o6 Theoretical and Conceptual 4rame or1 -- '.:. Introduction ::

'.'. #he literature review ::

'.;. #heoretical point of departure :;

'.=. Dependent variable :=

2.4.1. Coordination :=

2.4.2. Inter-organisational coordination :. 4onclusion ;=

Chapter Three6 Methodology 89

;.:. Introduction ;>;.'. /esearch design ;>

".2.1. #ationale behind using the &ualitative approach ;>

a. #esearch proble ;?

b. 'ersonal e(perience ;?

;.;. /esearch strategy ;?

".".1 )he logic behind selecting particular polic* area ;@

;.=. /easons behind the selection of the unit of analysis ;;.. roblems of data collection =;

;.?. /eliability and validity of data =

;.@. 4onclusion =>

Chapter 4our6 "e&elopment of 4ield Administration in Bangladesh6

Pendulous or *tatic: ;and in #"a@ilas. !here is 7C >and in each #"a@ila, and the total n#mber o$ 7C >andsin &angladesh is 485, among which, only 8) "osts are c#rrently occ#"ied while the resthave long been vacant. Moreover, the 7C >and o$ an #"a@ila is also working in #" to$o#r other #"a@ilas. n some cases, D"a@ila Hirbahi (e*ec#tive $$icers (DH 1 workas 7C >and, des"ite being higher in rank. 7t times, the $#nctions assigned to the o$$iceo$ 7C >and are accom"lished witho#t "rior cons#ltation with 7C >and. Conse+#ently,

11 7n 7C >and is a


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"roblems arise in the midst o$ the accom"lishment o$ $#nctions as a res#lt o$ the lack o$coordination (!he rothom 7lo, 4.;8. ;;9 . ?vidence shows that des"ite being "ostedin an #"a@ila, one s#b%registrar 1) is working in other $o#r #"a@ilas at a time d#e to not

being "osted s#b%registrar in other $o#r #"a@ilas (!he rothom 7lo, .1;. ;;9 .

1.3. Significance of the study

ver the years, st#dies on coordination have been cond#cted both on international and national

levels. 7mong others, Mint@berg (1989 analysed coordination $rom the intra%organisational

"ers"ective, while Christensen and >Igreid ( ;; analysed coordination $rom both intra% and

inter%organisational "ers"ectives. n the conte*t o$ &angladesh, anday ( ;;4 analysed

coordination and its im"act on the "olicy im"lementation and #rban governance. 'hahna@ Jhan

(199: analysed coordination in terms o$ credit management and linkage among agencies involved./es"ite some good st#dies on coordination in &angladesh, research on how and why coordination

has become "roblematic in $ield administration and how the lack o$ coordination a$$ects "olicy

im"lementation is hardly available. !his research aims to shed light on these iss#es.

n addition, research on coordination "roblem is not only involved with s#ccess$#l "olicy

im"lementation, b#t may also hel" seek answers to some #nresolved +#estions with regard to the

ca#ses o$ "roblems "ertaining to coordination. n t#rn, this st#dy may not only be remedy $or

ens#ring so#nd coordination, b#t can also resolve other iss#es in "#blic administration. or

e*am"le, con$lict among the civil servants may be a "roblem o$ coordination and an #nhealthy

sit#ation may "revail in civil service beca#se o$ s#ch con$lict. !he lack o$ healthy atmos"here, in

t#rn, may lead to a $ail#re o$ the initiatives taken by the government in nation b#ilding. n this light,

the "resent st#dy may hel" identi$y those $actors ca#sing s#ch con$licts.

Given that the "resent research is concerned with the ma""ing o$ coordination "roblems in $ield

administration in &angladesh, the main ob


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#rthermore, the governments s#ccess is rooted in acc#rate "olicy im"lementation that, in t#rn,

$#lly de"ends on so#nd coordination among the government agencies involved. Honetheless,

des"ite the availability and ade+#acy o$ re+#ired com"onents, the im"lementation cannot be

s#ccess$#l #nless coordination among those involved takes "lace.

1.4. Research ob ecti!es

'#ccess$#l "olicy im"lementation largely de"ends on the degree to which coordination in

im"lementation activities is achieved. Coordination can be com"ared to an orchestra, in which a

collective e$$ort is indis"ensable in achieving a common goal. !he lack o$ coordination leads to

delays in "olicy im"lementation, ca#sing wastage o$ reso#rces and time. !h#s, the "resent st#dy

intends to address the $ollowing ob


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4. =ow do reso#rces contrib#te to coordination-

:. /oes colonial legacy in "#blic administration lead to di$$erent organisational c#lt#res in civil

service, s#ch as those between generalist 14 and s"ecialist 1: cadres, given that c#lt#ral

incom"atibility may im"ede coordination between the generalist and the s"ecialist-

1.$. Scope of the study

n #"a@ilas, vario#s de"artments are somehow interrelated in $acilitating "olicy im"lementation.

nterrelationshi" is develo"ed on the necessity o$ having de"endency on each other to get things

done. !he s#ccess o$ the e$$orts o$ de"artments de"ends on the e*tent to which coordination in their

activities is achieved. n this connection, it is im"ortant to ascertain whether coordination e*ists in

vario#s de"artments involved in "olicy im"lementation. !o do so, one #"a@ila, namely

'had#lla"#r 15 as an area o$ st#dy, is selected, a$ter which the 6#ral n$rastr#ct#re /evelo"ment

olicy o$ the Government, as im"lemented by the o$$ice o$ the >G?/ in D"a@ila, is chosen as an

area o$ "olicy $or this st#dy. n order to e*amine the e$$ects o$ the lack o$ inter%de"artmental

coordination on "olicy im"lementation, some res"ondents with direct involvement in the

im"lementation "rocess o$ r#ral in$rastr#ct#re develo"ment "olicy were interviewed while others

(e.g., chairman 18 o$ the #"a@ila "arishad1 (D 3 , chairman 19 o$ the #nion "arishad, and the general "#blic were interviewed with the aim o$ e*"loring in$ormation in getting overall "ict#re on the

iss#e o$ the "roblems o$ coordination in #"a@ila.

1.%. &nit of analysis

!he "resent st#dy is based on +#alitative research and the #nit o$ analysis is an #"a@ila. &angladesh

is administratively divided into two levels national ; or central administration and local or $ield

administration. ield administration consists o$ 5 divisions1

, 54 districts , and 4 #"[email protected]#s government de"artments or agencies have their own o$$ices in $ield administration thro#gh

14 $$icers who are mainly ed#cated in liberal arts and social sciences and are members o$ the administration cadre o$&angladesh civil service have the secretarial stat#s.

1: !hose who are basically known as technical o$$icers, s#ch as doctors, engineers, and those whose "ro$essionale*"ertise is develo"ed based on a "artic#lar $ield o$ knowledge like medicine, engineering, agric#lt#re

15 7 town in &angladesh.18 6e"resentative o$ #"a@ila elected by the ad#lt "o"#lation o$ the #"a@ila1 7nother tier o$ local government in &angladesh19 6e"resentative o$ the #nion elected by the ad#lt $ranchise o$ the #nion.; !he secretariat consisting o$ all ministries2 all "olicy decisions are made in this level.1 /ivision is the highest tier in $ield administration in &angladesh and is headed by a commissioner with the stat#s o$

a


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which government "olicies or "ro


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'igure 1 'igure 2

'o#rce 7#thor.

1.(. Structure of the thesis

!his thesis is com"osed o$ seven cha"ters, each o$ which contains short disc#ssions here.

Chapter One) Introductory Discussion % an overview o$ the disc#ssion that deals with research

"roblem, signi$icance o$ the st#dy, research ob


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in this cha"ter.

Chapter 'our) De!elopment of 'ield 6dministration in 7angladesh) 8endulous or Static9: "rovides a brie$ historical backgro#nd and the "resent stat#s o$ $ield administration as well as a

short disc#ssion abo#t the system o$ local governance in &angladesh.

Chapter 'i!e) 'actors 6ffecting Inter:departmental Coordination: "resents the analysis o$

"rimary as well as secondary data on three inde"endent variables (i.e., $ormal division o$ labo#r,

reso#rces, and in$ormal comm#nication . /isc#ssions on why inter%de"artmental coordination

matters when m#lti"le de"artments are involved in "olicy im"lementation and how and to what

e*tent $ormal division o$ labo#r, reso#rces, and in$ormal comm#nication a$$ect coordination are

dealt with in this cha"ter as well.

Chapter Si ) Inter:departmental Coordination) *he Role of Organisational Culture: theanalysis o$ "rimary as well as secondary data on another inde"endent variable, s#ch as

organisational c#lt#re. n this cha"ter, attem"ts are made to analyse the "rocess and the e*tent to

which organisational c#lt#re in$l#ences coordination among the de"artments involved in "olicy

im"lementation. Moreover, this cha"ter also disc#sses the im"acts o$ the lack o$ inter%de"artmentalcoordination on "olicy im"lementation.

Chapter Se!en) Discussion and Conclusion: disc#ssions o$ $indings and therea$ter the

concl#sion. n this connection, the iss#es on the ob


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Chapter *+o

*heoretical and Conceptual 'rame+or,

2.1. Introduction

'ince the "#r"ose o$ this st#dy mentioned in the $irst cha"ter is to analyse inter%organisational

coordination among de"artments at the local level in &angladesh, the main "#r"ose o$ this cha"ter

is to develo" a theoretical $ramework $or e*"loring and analysing the iss#e o$ coordination in $ield

administration in &angladesh. !o this end, this cha"ter "resents a brie$ disc#ssion or overview o$

literat#re on coordination in order to conce"t#alise the inter"lay o$ vario#s $actors that have an

im"ortant role in ens#ring coordination.

2.2. iterature re!ie+

!he s#ccess o$ organisations in terms o$ the $#nctions they "er$orm are inse"arably associated with

coordination, th#s, the iss#e o$ coordination has ca"t#red the attention o$ the scholars on "#blic

administration as well as organisation st#dies to a large e*tent. !here$ore, coordination, in terms o$

inter%organisation and intra%organisation is not new at all, b#t is as old as organisation st#dies.

'cholars s#ch as >#ther G#lick (19)8 , Chaster . &ernard (19) , rederick 0. !aylor (1911 , and

=enri ayol (1915 all em"hasised the iss#e o$ coordination. Moreover, vario#s st#dies on

coordination have been cond#cted in both the international and the local levels over the years.

7mong others, Mint@berg (1989 and Kan Meter and Kan =orn (198: are "rominent scholars who

analysed coordination $rom intra% and inter%organisational "ers"ectives, res"ectively. 6ecently,

Christensen and >Igreid ( ;; analysed coordination in the Central Government o$ Horway $rom

both intra% and inter%organisational "ers"ectives.

n the conte*t o$ &angladesh, there are some interesting st#dies on the iss#e o$ coordination. anday

( ;;4 basically em"hasises "olicy im"lementation and shows what ha""ens to "olicy

im"lementation when there is lack o$ coordination in terms o$ instit#tionalised r#les and

reg#lations, $inancial management, central local relationshi", and acco#ntability democratic vs.

b#rea#cratic. !he iss#e o$ coordination is #nderscored and analysed in order to assess the e$$ects o$

the above mentioned inde"endent variables on the de"endent variable (i.e., "olicy im"lementation .

!h#s, the "roblem o$ coordination is indicated as a very relevant and im"ortant research iss#e in the

conte*t o$ &angladesh.


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!heoretical a""roaches to the analysis o$ coordination irres"ective o$ discrete attem"ts to de$ine

coordination can be gro#"ed into two $irst is the classical hierarchical view or the $ormal

hierarchical str#ct#re ded#ced $rom the work o$ G#lick (19)8 , !aylor (1911 , /ahl (1948 , and

'imon (1948 (cited in Morris et al., ;;8 9: . n the traditional view o$ coordination, ens#ring

coordination is s#b


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2.4. Dependent !ariable

2.4.1. Coordination!he synergysm "rod#ced in h#man body is basically the res#lt o$ coordinated e$$orts o$

di$$erent organs. 7ny system, whether organi@ational, management or others havinginterrelated "arts or s#b"arts m#st coordinate with each other in order to "rod#cesynergysm( slam, 1994 1 .

ne o$ the ways thro#gh which str#ct#re and $#nctioning o$ organisations can be described and

analysed is coordination (Christensen and >aegreid, ;; 98 . Coordination is indis"ensable when

m#lti"le actors are involved in the "#rs#it o$ common goals. =owever, the obvio#s end o$

coordination is to have a harmonio#s relationshi" among actors by synchronising their actions to

avoid con$licts inevitably arising in their activities, and wastage o$ reso#rces incl#ding time and

energies. 7s to the im"lementation o$ a m#lti%actor "olicy, the "rocess o$ achieving coordination

and how it leads to s#ccess$#l "olicy im"lementation can be seen in ig#re ). !he lack o$

coordination leads to discord, $riction, chaos and con$#sion, #ltimately ca#sing ine$$iciency and

ine$$ectiveness in the activities o$ organisations involved (Jhan, 19 ; 9 .

Coordination is based on the common notion o$ r#le%reg#lation and hierarchical organisation,

associated with the state as a legitimate controller and coercer (6obinson et al., ;;; 8 . !his

notion o$ coordination is strongly resonated in the traditional view o$ management in which the roleo$ manager is to "lan, organise, command, coordinate, and control ( ayol, 1915, cited in 6obinson

et al., ;;; 8 . Coordination is an end%state in which the "olicies and "rogrammes o$ government

are characteri@ed by minimal red#ndancy, incoherence and lac#nae ( eters, 199 95 . !o Mooney

and 6eiley, coordination is the $irst "rinci"le o$ organisation and is the orderly arrangement o$

gro#" e$$ort to "rovide #nity o$ action in the "#rs#it o$ a common "#r"ose (cited in slam, 1994 .

=ere, coordination re$ers to a s#itable working relationshi" based on the ma""ing o$ "erce"tions o$

those involved in "olicy im"lementation towards coordination.

'igure 3) 6elationshi" between coordination and m#lti%organisational involvement in "olicy im"lementation'o#rce 7#thor.

rganisation &

rganisation /

Coordination'ystematic arrangement o$im"lementation $#nctions

distrib#ted to the organisations $rom 7 to /

'#ccess$#lim"lementation

o$ "olicies

rganisation 7

rganisation C


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2.4.2. Inter-organisational coordination

!ell me, and $orget2 show me, and remember2 involve me, and #nderstand.Chinese roverb (cited in &adir#, ;; 9

Coordination can take "lace either hori@ontally or vertically. =ori@ontal or inter%organisational

coordination can be between organi@ations on the same stat#s or line, while vertical or intra%

organisational coordination takes "lace within the organi@ation. n other words, coordination

concerned with managing the activities o$ di$$erent organisations and coordination concerned with

managing the activities o$ individ#als or s#b#nits o$ an organi@ation are considered as inter% and

intra%organisational coordination, res"ectively. Kerhoest and &o#ckaert ( ;;: state that inter%

organisational coordination is more network%based, while intra%organisational coordination is more

hierarchy%based (cited in Christensen and >Igreid, ;; 1; . 7s "roblems o$ coordination among

vario#s de"artments in an #"a@ila is highlighted and analy@ed, this st#dy $oc#ses on inter%

organisational coordination or the hori@ontal dimension o$ coordination.

nter%organisational coordination m#st be considered when a "olicy is im"lemented by m#lti"le

organisations. rganisations are considered as homogeneo#s entities, and large organisations have

other organisations nested within them. nter%organisational coordination may take "lace at any

level between ministries, between divisions within the same ministries or in di$$erent ministries, or between de"artments or o$$ices within the same or di$$erent divisions (Moore, ;;; 9; . n the

"resent st#dy, organisations re$er to the de"artments or o$$ices o$ di$$erent divisions or ministries

located at an #"a@ila. nter%organisational coordination takes "lace in the conte*t where

organisations are de"endent on each other and need coo"eration $rom each other to achieve

common goals. Coordination as a conce"t#al $ramework, in terms o$ accom"lishing a "artic#lar

"olicy in #"a@ila in which several de"artments are involved, is shown in ig#re 4.

'igure 4) Conce"t#al $ramework o$ coordination in D"a@ila.

'o#rce 7#thor.

Department) works as im"lementer

Departments) m#st be involved in theim"lementation "rocess

Coordination =armonio#s e$$orts o$ de"artments

involved towards "olicyim"lementation

Chie$ administrative o$$icer


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or Malone F Crowston (1994 , !he need $or coordination arises $rom the e*istence o$

de"endencies. $ there is no interde"endence, there is nothing to coordinate (cited in 0eigand et al.,

;;) 11 . !h#s, coordination, in $act, is a $#nction o$ organisational interde"endence. !he

intensity o$ coordination is a s#bow =igh

/egree o$ 'tandardised Coordination

'igure ") /eterminants o$ Coordination Modes 'o#rce slam 1994 )

n the case o$ the im"lementation o$ a r#ral in$rastr#ct#re develo"ment "olicy or "roG?/ in an #"a@ila, there are some o$$ices and de"artments within it that m#st be dealt with while

the >G?/ takes the initiative to im"lement a r#ral in$rastr#ct#re develo"ment "roowi (1989 and

Grindle and !homas (1991 state that "olicy im"lementation varies de"ending on the re+#irements

o$ technical e*"ertise, s"eci$ied $ramework o$ time, array o$ interests a$$ected, and the

conse+#ences o$ their distrib#teness (cited in &rinkerho$$ and Crosby, ;; 1;4 . !hese $eat#res o$


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the "olicies bring organisations together to work and determine the roles and res"onsibilities o$ each

organisation involved (&rinkerho$$ and Crosby, ;; 1;4 . 7s mentioned in the $irst cha"ter, the

r#ral in$rastr#ct#re develo"ment "olicy im"lemented by the >G?/ is chosen as an area o$ "olicy

(e.g., case in this st#dy in order to analyse inter%organisational coordination among vario#s

de"artments in an #"a@ila. !he $ollowing o$$ices and de"artments are involved in the

im"lementation o$ the r#ral in$rastr#ct#re develo"ment "olicy thro#gh an #"a@ila. !hese incl#de

the $$ices o$ the DH , the 7ssistant Commissioner o$ >and (7C >and , the >G?/, the D"a@ila

?d#cation $$icer (in the case o$ constr#ction o$ "rimary ) school com"le*es , and the local "olice

station. !he #nderlying iss#e here is whether or not the need $or coordination de"ending on the

nat#re o$ cases varies2 i$ it does, what kind o$ coordination (either b#rea#cratic or network%based is

needed $or what ty"e o$ cases-

nter%organisational coordination may s#$$er $rom several reasons s#ch as lack o$ $ormal division o$

labo#r, absence o$ $re+#ent and "ro"er comm#nication, lack o$ ade+#ate and timely reso#rces, and

so $orth. !he +#estion is why these ha""en to inter%organisational coordination. 0hatever the

reason behind this, the im"lementation "rocess s#$$ers when coordination does not "ro"erly take

"lace among the organisations involved. !he $ollowing e*am"le "roves the lack o$ inter%

organisational coordination and its im"act on "olicy im"lementation.

eo"le have e*"erienced #nimaginable s#$$erings associated with the delayedconstr#ction o$ a road in 'aghata 4 D"a@ila as a res#lt o$ severe lack o$ coordinationamong the de"artments or o$$ices involved. !he >G?/ was s#""osed to constr#ct a )km%long road, b#t constr#ction was s#s"ended hal$%way $or $ive months #"on reali@ingthat the land on which road was #nder constr#ction $ell short o$ the re+#ired si@e. !heo$$ice o$ the 7C >and was res"onsible $or resolving any land dis"#te in #"[email protected], it was the collective res"onsibility both o$ the >G?/ and the o$$ice o$ the7C >and to make s#re that there is am"le si@e o$ land $or the constr#ction o$ the said

road be$ore iss#ing constr#ction "ermit (!he /aily Modh#kor, 1 .;). ;; .

!he above e*am"le demonstrates that coordination among de"artments is o$ great im"ortance

toward "olicy im"lementation as the action o$ the >G?/ de"ends on the action o$ the 7C >and, and

the discrete contrib#tion o$ each entity leads to s#ccess$#l "olicy im"lementation.

a. How can inter-organisational coordination be studied?

/oes agreement on goals and means matter in coordination- $ it does, what are the $actors that may

e*"lain the state o$ coordination, or in other words, what are the $actors that may $acilitate) !he "rimary level is o$$icially the entry level o$ schooling in &angladesh.4 'aghata is a "lace in the Gaibandha /istrict o$ &angladesh.
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coordination- 0hen the organisations involved agree with the goals to be achieved as well as the

means that have already been develo"ed, this may lead to better coordination in their activities, as

e*isting mechanisms in$orm everybody abo#t what will be done by whom, when and how. Cremer

(199) and =ermalin ( ;;1 state that Goal alignment also $acilitates coordination, as there is less

room $or debate between di$$erent "arties abo#t the $irms best interest (cited in ' rensen, ;;

8) .

De!elopment Issues

=igh 7greement on Goals >ow =igh 7etter coordination

!he #se o$ r#les, ro#tine, and standardo"erating "roced#res already

7greement develo"ed are im"ortant.on Means 8oor coordination >eadershi" and network b#ilding

>ow are im"ortant

'igure $) 6elationshi" between coordination and agreement on goals and means established based on the contrib#tiono$ 'cott (199 , !hom"son (1958 , Christensen and >Igreid ( ;; , and &rinkerho$$ and Crosby ( ;; .'o#rce 7#thor.

0hen agreement on both goals and means is low, the degree to which coordination is achieved in

their activities will be "oor. !he iss#e here is how coordination (tho#gh "oor is achieved des"ite

less agreement on goals and means. n s#ch a sit#ation, a leader "lays an im"ortant role in "#tting

discrete e$$orts o$ the organisations involved into e$$ect in a systematic and organised way by virt#e

o$ leadershi" +#alities. 7"art $rom leadershi", linkages or networks among organisations are also

im"ortant. n this regard, &rinkerho$$ and Crosby ( ;; 11 note that there are linkages among

vario#s organisations involved in "olicy im"lementation, with "artic#lar $#nction and linkage itsel$

"ooling organisations to work together in order to $#l$il their res"ective $#nctions and achieve

"olicy ob


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o$ labo#r $osters the "rocess o$ coordination as it g#ides the behavio#r o$ organisations with res"ect

to inter%organisational coordination. 6#le is one o$ the ways thro#gh which behavio#r is $ormalised2

r#les s"eci$y who can or cannot do what, when, where, to whom, and with whose "ermission

(Mint@berg, 1989 . How the +#estion is how $ormalisation o$ behavio#r $acilitates coordination.

0hen behavio#r is $ormalised, no con$#sion e*ists and everyone knows e*actly what they need to

do in every event (Mint@berg, 1989 ) . >ikewise, it is easy to design reward%and%sanction

mechanisms $or neglecting andAor "er$orming d#ties and res"onsibilities $acilitating coordination.

&Igried, ;; 1;1 .

Clarit" o! ob#ectives$ !or al division o! labour and coordination

!here is a com"elling need to have a clear #nderstanding o$ the ob


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;

been de$ined be$ore individ#als begin to o"erate in the organisation (cited in McC#rdy, 19 ) 1 ) .

Kan Meter and Kan =orn arg#e that the clarity o$ standards and ob


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1

'igure %) 7n inter"lay between division o$ labo#r and coordination.

'o#rce 7#thor.

&ased on the above disc#ssion and $ig#re, the $ollowing hy"othesis can be drawn.

;ypothesis 1) lac, of formal di!ision of labour impedes coordination among

departments.

2.5.2. In!or al co unication $ individ#als act witho#t $irst establishing arrangements with those whom their actionsa$$ect and who a$$ects them, each is likely to be sorry when he sees the "rice all will

"ay.N hili" &. =eymann (cited in Chisholm, 19 9 54

Generally, comm#nication is a way thro#gh which "eo"le stay close and share their $eelings. t is a

"rocess o$ transmitting c#es that modi$y h#man behavio#r ( $i$$ner and resth#s, 19:) 111 .

Comm#nication is trans$ormation o$ meaning $rom one to another, in which transmitted in$ormation

and ideas are conveyed (6obbins, 199: 114 . t can also take "lace both $ormally and in$ormally.

n$ormal comm#nication re$ers to !he s"ontaneo#s and $le*ible ties among members, g#ided by

$eelings and "ersonal interests indis"ensable $or the o"eration o$ $ormal, b#t too $l#id to be entirely

contained by it (/alton, 19:9 cited in Mint@berg, 1989 45 . !h#s, whereas the $irst inde"endent

variable o$ this st#dy $oc#ses on the e*istence o$ $ormal division o$ labo#r, this one $oc#ses on the

in$ormal $orm o$ comm#nication as a coordination mechanism. n this res"ect, Kerhoest and

&o#ckaert ( ;;: arg#e that inter%de"artmental coordination is more network%based : (cited in

Christensen and >Igreid, ;; 1; 7 network, in $act, is develo"ed on the basis o$ in$ormal

relationshi" or comm#nication that hel"s organisations to coordinate their o"erations. 0ith regard

to coordination, Mint@berg introd#ces a conce"t o$ m#t#al adack o$ Clear/ivision o$ >abo#r

6ole 7mbig#ity

>ack o$Coordination

Con$lict

0astage o$ !imeand 6eso#rces

/#"lication
http://0.0.0.0/http://0.0.0.0/


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held in accordance with the r#les. ormal comm#nication among organisations $or achieving

ob


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)

Chisholm, 19 9 5 . n$ormal comm#nication is also arg#ed to take "lace when iss#es are novel,

new or innovative, and there is no "recedence which may allow an organisation to develo" ro#tine

to handle this iss#e.

Moreover, how coordination is achieved may not be doc#mented, since b#rea# is "ermanent b#t

b#rea#crats are not. 7lam et al (1994 )) "oints o#t that the "#r"ose o$ rotating "#blic o$$icials is

to make s#re that they ac+#ire a wide range o$ knowledge and e*"erience (7lam et al., 1994 )) . n

the case o$ trans$erring "#blic o$$icials, e*"eriences gathered are taken away. ?*"ertise is develo"ed

thro#gh e*"eriences, and e*"eriences can be $ormalised and translated into r#les. !hat is why

in$ormal comm#nication is im"ortant in coordination. 7le*ander identi$ies t#rnover o$ the

"ersonnel as an im"ediment in coordination and can also be sym"tomatic o$ other "roblems incoordination (7le*ander, 199: 1 .

Function o! in!or al co unication in achieving coordination

n the "resent st#dy, ob


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4

'igure () 7 model o$ the relationshi" between in$ormal comm#nication and coordination is based on literat#re incomm#nication and coordination, disc#ssed by Mint@berg (1989 , ohnson and Mattsson (19 8 , eters ( ;;5 , and&ennett ( ;;; .

'o#rce 7#thor.

ig#re indicates that in$ormal comm#nication leads to coordination among organisations involved

in "olicy im"lementation. 0hen organisations share in$ormation thro#gh interaction, coordination

takes "lace2 this is beca#se interaction among organisations creates o""ort#nities $or ac+#iring and

sharing in$ormation on many iss#es on "olicy im"lementation (i.e., who is doing what, who is

having what "roblem, who needs what . n t#rn, the iss#es on m#t#al concern that ens#res

coordination among organisations assigned to "er$orm s"eci$ic $#nctions concerning the "olicies to

be im"lemented are resolved. #rthermore, in$ormation is "ower, and "eo"le who "ossess and #se it

are considered key $actor to the s#ccess o$ "olicy im"lementation, (&adir#, ;; 48 . /#e to the

lack o$ in$ormal comm#nication among de"artments, d#"lication in their o"erations may occ#r.

How the +#estion is what is the #se o$ r#les in the light o$ d#"lication- =ere, a"athy in obeying

r#les s"eci$ying who will do what, when, and how is the main restraint2 however, this can be

avoided by engaging in in$ormal comm#nication. 0hen d#"lication occ#rs, scarce reso#rces arewasted and im"lementation "rocess takes more time than re+#ired, increasing the vol#me o$

#nnecessary e*"endit#re. Considering the im"ortance o$ comm#nication in achieving coordination,

&ennett notes that the "rimary ob


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8

;ypothesis 3) the more resources organisations can pool= the better the degree of

coordination.

2.5.4. )rganisational culture!he term c#lt#re has become an im"ortant instr#ment in the disc#ssions and st#dy o$ organisations

( amil, ;;8 : . C#lt#re is a way o$ li$e, and it has been viewed by di$$erent scholars de"ending

on their belongingness to the society they observed. 7ccording to =o$stede (1991 , c#lt#re can be

seen as !he collective "rogramming o$ mind which disting#ishes one gro#" o$ "eo"le $rom others

(cited in amil, ;;8 : . n the view o$ amil, c#lt#re is an inde"endent variable which in$l#ences

inter"ersonal relationshi", and teaches what to "re$er and what to abhor ( amil, ;;8 5: . n the

"resent st#dy, c#lt#re re$ers to the mind set%#" o$ civil servants in$l#encing their workingrelationshi"s governing coordination. !he #nderlying iss#e is the nat#re o$ organisational c#lt#re

and how it $acilitates coordination. or 'chwart@ and /avis (19 1 , organisational c#lt#re is a

"attern o$ belie$s and e*"ectations shared by the organisations members that create norms that

"ower$#lly sha"e the behavio#r o$ individ#als and gro#"s in the organisation (cited in Meek, 1994

5 . 6eilly and Chatman (1995 de$ine organisational c#lt#re as a system o$ shared val#es (that

de$ine what is im"ortant and norms that de$ine a""ro"riate attit#des and behavio#rs $or

organisational members (how to $eel and behave (cited in ' rensen, ;; 8 . rom thesede$initions, it is obvio#s that there is a common set o$ val#es and norms embedded into an

organisational c#lt#re that sha"e the behavio#r o$ its members, who are more likely to take the

actions in a given sit#ation and $ollow the way o$ actions that others "erceive as "ro"er. n this

res"ect, it can be viewed that norms, val#es, and belie$s o$ organisational members are key $actors

creating consens#s, "redicting behavio#r, and creating #nity (Meek, 1994 5 . !his leads to the

ass#m"tion that common organisational c#lt#re enhances the behavio#ral consistency o$

organisational members and thereby $acilitates coordination. !h#s, it is arg#ed that rganisational

c#lt#re has a tremendo#s im"act on the ability o$ one organisation to coordinate s#ccess$#lly with

others. rganisations that ro#tinely collaborate with others and enco#rage and $oster activities ($or

which


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interests abo#t basic goals. 0itho#t s#ch a comm#nity o$ interests and com"atible obIgried, ;; 1;) . rom this "ers"ective, coordination is a "rod#ct o$ an instit#tion and greater interaction is "rod#ced while members o$ an instit#tion share

common val#es derived $rom the c#lt#re o$ the same instit#tion (cited in eters, 199 98% 9 .

Meanwhile, $or Jrasner (199 and March (1994 , "#blic organisation is develo"ed on the basis o$

three "rinci"les historical tradition, "ath de"endency, and in$ormal norms and val#es (cited in

Christensen and >Igreid, ;; 1;) . !his means that the develo"ment o$ an organisation is

associated with a "rocess which ha""ens to the organisations over time ('el@nick, 19:82 cited in

'cott, ;;1 4 . '#ch "rocess ca#ses $ail#re to "rod#ce rational men who can think and act in a

given sit#ation according to logic o$ conse+#ence. 6ather, they act in the given co#rse o$ action on

the basis o$ logic o$ a""ro"riateness. 7s $or Mint@berg, coordination can be achieved based on a

common set o$ belie$s shared by members o$ the organisation (Mint@berg, 19 ; . Coordination

takes "lace by virt#e o$ organisational c#lt#re, when a common set o$ norms and val#es are widely

shared and intensely held across the organisations. thers arg#e that common norms $oster

common identity and "re$erences that make coordination o$ di$$erent activities across organisations

easier ( anday and amil, $orthcoming . n contrast, c#lt#ral di$$erences among organisations may

ca#se lack o$ coordination.

0hen coordination is conce"t#alised in this theoretical lens, logic o$ a""ro"riateness $orms the

basis o$ c#lt#ral "ers"ective among organisations. !he logic o$ a""ro"riateness determined by the

instit#tion decides what is e*"ected $rom the members and also g#ides the behavio#rs o$ the

instit#tion itsel$. >ogic o$ a""ro"riateness is relevant $or inter%organisational coordination in two

ways ( eters, 199 9 coordination is achieved witho#t #sing a#thority when a common logic

e*ists among organisations (G#"ta, /irsmith, and ogarty, 19942 cited in eters, 199 9 %99 , and

coordination is also achieved with less disr#"tion o$ organisational ro#tines when common "olicy


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9

val#es are shared by organisations ( eters, 199 99 . n this res"ect, March and lsen (19 9 state

that 0hat is a""ro"riate $or a civil servant to do is de$ined by the instit#tion to which he belongs

and transmitted thro#gh socialisation (cited in Christensen and >Igreid, ;; 1;) .

%ocial capital$ organisational culture$ and coordination

!here a""ears a relationshi" between social ca"ital (e.g., tr#st and organisational c#lt#re.

Coordination s#$$ers while there is mistr#st in the relationshi" o$ organisations, as coordination is

likely to be more based on con$idence that organisations will "er$orm their res"ective d#ties and

res"onsibilities "ro"erly. Con$idence is a by%"rod#ct o$ tr#st. rma &ogenrieder and &art

Hooteboom ( ;;4 e*"lain that tr#st creates an e*"ectation that others will not behave

o""ort#nistically even i$ they have both the o""ort#nities and incentives $or doing so (cited inarker, ;;8 119 . #tnam (199) and ;;; identi$ies tr#st as the gl#e among the members o$ a

gro#" and also as one o$ the $eat#res o$ social ca"ital which $acilitates coordination among the

organisations $or achieving common ob


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);

organisations. /oes c#lt#ral com"atibility among organisations contrib#te to coordination- n this

regard, it m#st be noted that coordination is re+#ired to standardise the "er$ormance o$

organisations2 b#t variations in "er$ormance may occ#r d#e to c#lt#ral di$$erences among s#ch

gro#"s ( amil, ;;8 55%58 . !h#s, the e*tent to which coordination is achieved de"ends on either

the e*tent to which c#lt#ral com"atibility is in e*istence among organisations or the e*tent to which

c#lt#ral di$$erences have been overcome. Generally, literat#re on c#lt#re and coordination "osits a

m#ltidimensional relationshi" between c#lt#ral com"atibility and coordination ( ig#re 11 .

'igure 11) Model o$ m#ltidimensional relationshi" between c#lt#ral com"atibility and coordination.'o#rce 7#thor.

ig#re 11 de"icts that c#lt#ral com"atibility among organisations generates a high level o$ tr#st oneach other. !hose with high levels o$ tr#st can "redict the actions or behavio#rs o$ others based on

the belie$ that the tr#stee will do what is a""ro"riate in a given sit#ation, which hel"s to develo"

"artnershi" easily among organisations. Christensen and >Igreid note a high level o$ m#t#al tr#st

tends to enhance a""ro"riate behavio#r and vice verse (Christensen and >Igreid, ;; 1;) .

!r#st, in a sense, re$ers to some "res#m"tion o$ knowledge abo#t someone. 'imilarly, organisations

have more con$idence on another gro#" when there is high level o$ tr#st. =igher con$idence on each

other $acilitates the delegation o$ d#ties and res"onsibilities to other organisations in the case o$

inter%organisational involvement in achieving common ob


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)1

their relationshi". !his relationshi" $acilitates in b#ilding #" "artnershi" that "rod#ces high level o$

coo"eration which leads to more coordination. !he e*istence o$ high level o$ tr#st among

organisations vests the res"onsibility o$ $#nctioning on behal$ o$ all involved in an organisation

beca#se o$ similarity in terms o$ their "re$erences and choices. or e*am"le, in the visa "rocessing

$or 'candinavian co#ntries in &angladesh, the ?mbassy o$ 'weden on behal$ o$ all 'candinavian

co#ntries does the re"resentation. '#ch sing#lar re"resentation has become "ossible as their

"re$erences and choices in "roviding visas are similar and they have high level o$ m#t#al tr#st

which has develo"ed "artnershi" among them, leading to increased coordination. 7ccording to

Har#s and 7nderson (19 8 , "artnershi" is marked by coordinated actions directed at common

ob


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)

society. 0orking in government organisations is seen as more "restigio#s than being in "rivate

organisations as "eo"le who work with government organisations have more access to "ower.

Moreover, among the government organisations, "eo"le working with administrative or "olice

organisations which are closely linked to "ower are considered highly "restigio#s in the view o$

society, which is likewise attrib#ted to direct access to "ower. Moreover, "ower is one o$ the

determinant $actors in the &angladeshi c#lt#re. !h#s, "restige or stat#s variation leads to c#lt#ral

di$$erences among organisations. 7ll these $actors mentioned above are res"onsible $or develo"ing

di$$erent set o$ norms, val#es, and belie$s which make di$$erences in the organisations way o$

thinking as re$lected in their logic o$ a""ro"riate behavio#r. !h#s, di$$erences in logic o$

a""ro"riateness may lead to lack o$ coordination. !he above disc#ssion leads to the $orm#lation o$

the $ollowing hy"othesis

;ypothesis 4) organisational cultural compatibility among departments may

facilitate more coordination in their acti!ities.

a. How can organisational culture and coordination be studied in *angladesh?

Hierarchical pattern o! civil service

n the conte*t o$ &angladesh, most o$ the civil servants somehow have strong roots in the village.

&angladesh is a village%based co#ntry as there are 5:,;;; villages within an area o$ :5,;;; s+#are

miles. ?ven "eo"le who live in cities consider villages as their real homes since their "arents or

grand"arents once lived in villages ( amil, ;;8 8 . =ence, societies in &angladesh have a strong

village basis. amil arg#es that the e*tent to which norms and val#es carries over $rom village li$e is

re"rod#ced in $ormal b#rea#cratic organisations de"ending on the degree to which society tradition

"revails ( amil, ;;8 : . 7ccording to =o$stede (19 ; and 1991 , eo"le who are born and

bro#ght #" in a "artic#lar c#lt#ral conte*t re"rod#ce many o$ the norms which are develo"ed in

childhood, in $amily, in school, and in society (cited in amil, ;;8 11 . !h#s, in a hierarchicalsociety like &angladesh, traditional relationshi" in villages between $ather and son, teacher and

st#dent or master and servant is re$lected in the relationshi" o$ s#"erior and s#bordinate or senior

and


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))

;;8 19 %194 . n contrast, the relationshi" o$ civil servants in inter%service s#$$ers beca#se o$

rivalry, $actionalism, and lack o$ coordination ('iddi+#i, 19952 cited in amil, ;;8 194 .

Moreover, civil servants o$ "artic#lar cadres "re$er working with their res"ective cadre o$$icials d#e

to a comm#nity o$ interests re"resenting their own de"artmental or organisational c#lt#re to

o$$icials o$ another cadre. !h#s, when they work with others, there a""ears a "roblem o$ c#lt#ral

di$$erences or lack o$ c#lt#ral com"atibility which may im"ede coordination.

+eneralist-specialist con!lict

ne ma


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)4

the elitist str#ct#re o$ civil service is still a dominant $eat#re o$ &angladesh civil service des"ite the

absence o$ a &ritish r#ler and the conte*t $or which the &ritish develo"ed s#ch ty"e o$ civil service.

Moreover, in &angladesh, there is no elite cadre as it "revailed in the &ritish% ndia and akistan.

7$ter inde"endence, all services have been integrated and discrimination among services was

abolished, at least in theory. n reality, however, the administration cadre still dominates.

#rthermore, altho#gh the recr#itment "attern o$ both generalists and s"ecialists is similar, there is a

ma


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):

arg#ments, an analytical $ramework has been develo"ed in this cha"ter which el#cidates the

integrated involvement o$ $ormal division o$ labo#r, in$ormal comm#nication, reso#rces, and

organisational c#lt#re that c#m#latively lead to coordination in this st#dy.

6nalytical 'rame+or, of the Study

8roblem of Coordination in 'ield 6dministration in 7angladesh

'igure 12) 7nalytical ramework o$ the 't#dy

'o#rce 7#thor

'ormal Di!ision of abour

Clarity o$ ob


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50/131


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)

lacking. n this connection, a $ield st#dy was cond#cted in the 'had#lla"#r #"a@ila o$ Gaibandha 5

/istrict, a""ro*imately );; km north o$ the ca"ital city, /haka. Moreover, the scholars views on

coordination are highlighted in order to have a better #nderstanding why coordination is absent and

how this has come to be.

6esearch as a "rocess deals with the how and why +#estions2 b#t the "rocess o$ cra$ting the

why and how +#estions were s#ited $or this st#dy lies in the research "roblem. 'ince the "resent

research intended to analyse inter%organisational coordination and e*"lore and identi$y $actors that

a$$ect coordination, it was re+#ired to identi$y variables and the relationshi"s e*isting among them.

7ccordingly, variables s#ch as $ormal division o$ labo#r and organisational c#lt#re were identi$ied

and st#died. &y doing so, the relationshi"s between variables were established in order to#nderstand the inter"lay o$ vario#s $actors in the "rocess o$ ens#ring coordination. !he #se o$ how

and why +#estions made it "ossible $or the a#thor to establish relationshi" between variables.

7nother reason $or st#dying this research as a "rocess is the intention to identi$y and e*amine all

"robable $actors that a$$ect coordination. &y e*amining this "artic#lar "olicy area, the analysis o$

data became easier. 7s s#ch, all "ossible variables were identi$ied to #nderstand the coordination

"rocess more com"rehensively and create generalisation abo#t the research "roblem more

acc#rately.

'.'.1. /he logic behind selecting particular polic" area

n the "resent st#dy, the "olicy area is the r#ral in$rastr#ct#re develo"ment "olicy o$ the

government, thro#gh which vario#s develo"ment activities s#ch as roads, c#lverts, bridges, school

b#ildings, com"le*es $or #nion "arishads, and embankments on river banks are carried o#t. !he

im"lementation res"onsibilities along this "olicy are vested on the >G?/. !he develo"ment o$ r#ral

in$rastr#ct#re is the main concern o$ the "olicy being st#died in this "a"er, and it has been chosen to be congr#ent with the "rocess%based a""roach em"loyed by the "resent st#dy. 0ith nation b#ilding

at its core, the government "lays a vital role toward the socio%economic develo"ment o$ r#ral areas

thro#gh the im"lementation o$ this "olicy. &angladesh is an agric#lt#re%based co#ntry2 ma


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)9

in$rastr#ct#re s#ch as roads, c#lverts, and bridges. 7ccordingly, all the government have always

"laced this "olicy at the to" "riority, and conse+#ently, each government invests more money in this

"olicy area com"ared to others. !o achieve s#ccess, however, the coordination among those who are

involved in the im"lementation o$ the "olicy m#st be strongly $ostered, instead o$ investing h#ge

amo#nts o$ money. !here$ore, this "olicy area bears more im"ortance in investigating.

3.4. Reasons behind the selection of the unit of analysis

7s the area o$ st#dy, 'had#lla"#r #"a@ila, located in Gaibandha /istrict, was selected o#t o$ 4

#"a@ilas in &angladesh "#r"ose$#lly beca#se o$ its manageability and controllability within a

s"eci$ied "eriod o$ time. !he second reason is its location2 Gaibandha /istrict is located at the

northern "art o$ &angladesh and almost );; km. away $rom /haka. 'had#lla"#r #"a@ila is nearly ;

km. more north o$ the Gaibandha /istrict head+#arter, which means that there is lack o$ #rban

$acilities in the "ros"ective #"a@ila. 7 relation may e*ist between the location o$ my area o$ st#dy

and the research "roblem, that is, more government o$$icials are "osted in #rbanised #"a@ilas. 7s a

res#lt, shortage o$ man"ower is a common $eat#re in r#ral #"a@ilas, and s#ch "eri"heral location

may lead me in obtaining some interesting in$ormation. 7nother reason is the $amiliarity o$ the

a#thor with 'had#lla"#r #"a@ila, which is the a#thors birth"lace and hometown. 7 native

#nderstanding o$ this #"a@ila is deemed signi$icant in obtaining conte*t#alised in$ormation. ?*ce"t$or the government o$$icials, the a#thor had an easy access to all the res"ondents who were

residents o$ this #"a@ila as well, generating s"ontaneo#s o"inions. #rthermore, a#thors "ersonal

networks and e*"eriences #sed d#ring $ield visits were hel"$#l in obtaining in$ormation on iss#es

relevant to the research. Collecting similar in$ormation $rom an #nknown #"a@ila can be more

com"licated within the time "eriod (ten weeks only . &elow, the location o$ Gaibandha /istrict is

marked in the ma" o$ &angladesh (on to" $rom the le$t 2 the ma" o$ this /istrict is shown

elaborately, showing seven #"a@ilas, incl#ding 'had#lla"#r.


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4;

Ma" 1 Ma" o$ Gaibandha /istrictSource) htt" AAwww.mygaibandha.in$oAdistrictMa"."h"

3.". -ethods of data collection

!he "resent research is basically +#alitative. 'ome +#antitative data were also collected and #sed to

s#bstantiate the +#alitative data.

'.5.1. Interview

rimary data related to research ob


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41

im"ortant in +#alitative research beca#se "ersonal views o$ the res"ondents on events can only be

e*"ressed thro#gh comments or remarks.

7 standard +#estionnaire with some variations were develo"ed and #sed to $it di$$erent gro#"s o$

res"ondents the DH , the administrative head o$ #"a@ila2 the o$$icers in charge o$ vario#s

de"artments in #"a@ila2 the 7C >and, the chie$ land o$$icer o$ #"a@ila2 the chairman o$ the #"a@ila

"arishad, the head o$ local government at the #"a@ila level2 the chairman o$ the #nion "arishad, the

"eo"les re"resentative member in the D"a@ila /evelo"ment and Coordination Committee

(D/CC 8 2 a n#mber o$ contractors who "hysically work $or the e*ec#tion o$ r#ral in$rastr#ct#re

develo"ment "olicy2 and the general "#blic. !he variation o$ +#estionnaire may be a "oint o$

arg#ment2 altho#gh the a#thor categorised the res"ondents into $o#r gro#"s (i.e., governmental, "eo"les re"resentative, contractor, and general "#blic , there are act#ally seven ty"es o$

res"ondents according to the nat#re o$ $#nctions they "er$orm, indicating that they are $#nctionally

se"arated $rom each other. or e*am"le, the DH and the 7C >and are res"onsible $or

accom"lishing di$$erent ty"es o$ $#nctions. >ikewise, the o$$icers in charge o$ vario#s de"artments

"er$orm $#nctions di$$erent $rom both the DH and the 7C >and. ther res"ondents, incl#ding the

chairman o$ the #"a@ila "arishad, the chairman o$ the #nion "arishad and the contractors, were also

se"arated $rom each other in terms o$ the $#nctions they "er$orm. >astly, the general "#blic do nothave any $#nction or involvement with regard to research "roblem, b#t they have general views

over the $#nctions accom"lished by the above mentioned res"ondents. !here were some common

+#estions $or all ty"es o$ res"ondents e*ce"t $or the general "eo"le, altho#gh they were also asked

several +#estions addressed to the contractors and chairman o$ #nion "arishad. !he total n#mber o$

res"ondents was :8 (!able .

*able 2) ist of Respondents

Gro#"o$ res"o%ndents

!y"e o$res"ondent 'tat#s o$res"on%dents

Ho. o$res"on%dents

6easons $or choosing the res"ondents

Governmental

DH

Chie$?*ec#tive$$icer 1

!he DH is considered an im"ortant so#rce o$in$ormation as the coordination res"onsibility o$ all$#nctions accom"lished in the #"a@ila is vested onhim. Moreover, along with the 7C >and, the DH isalso a generalist o$$icer at the #"a@ila level2 thegeneralist%s"ecialist as"ect o$ civil service is one o$the concerns in this st#dy.

8 D/CC is a committee, which is an im"ortant mechanism $or inter%de"artmental coordination in #"a@ila beca#se thisis the only committee in which the DH , other o$$icers in charge o$ all national b#ilding de"artments, and "eo"leTsre"resentatives at the #"a@ila and #nion levels have membershi".
http://0.0.0.0/http://0.0.0.0/


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1

7gric#lt#re$$icer

=ead o$ the/e"t. 1

!hey were selected in order to #nderstand theresearch "roblem more com"rehensively. 'econd, inthis st#dy, an inde"endent variable is organi@ationalc#lt#re, which is directly connected with the inherentcon$lict within the civil service between thegeneralist and the s"ecialist. !his gro#" o$res"ondents, along with #"a@ila engineer o$ the>G?/, com"rise the gro#" o$ s"ecialist o$$icers atthe #"a@ila level. Moreover, they have membershi"in di$$erent committees incl#ding the D/CC andde"artmental committees. !h#s, they wereconsidered relevant so#rces o$ in$ormation onresearch "roblem.

=ealth andamily

lanning$$icer

=ead o$ the/e"t. 1

isheries$$icer

=ead o$ the/e"t.

1

?d#cation

$$icer

=ead o$ the

/e"t. 1

!hey are directly involved in the e*ec#tion o$ "olicy

chosen as an area o$ "olicy in this st#dy. n addition,a"art $rom their membershi" in the D/CC, they arealso members o$ di$$erent de"artmental committees.!h#s, there was a greater "ossibility o$ collectingrelevant in$ormation on coordination $rom theseso#rces.

D"a@ila?ngineer

=ead o$ the>G?/ 1

7C >and Chie$ >and$$icer 1

!otal 8

eo"leTs re% "resentative

Chairman o$D"a@ilaarishad

olitical=ead 1

=e is the head o$ local government at the #"a@ilalevel. Moreover, he is considered to have a betterinsight into the +#ery abo#t what ha""ens to theiss#e o$ coordination when there is a lack o$ $ormaldivision o$ labo#r. 7ltho#gh the #"a@ilaadministration is s#""osed to be "laced at thedis"osal o$ local government at the #"a@ila levelwhile in o"eration, his d#ties and res"onsibilities arestill #nclear even a$ter being elected at this tier o$local government. !his is beca#se there is no r#le inthis regard yet.

Chairman o$Dnion

arishad

=ead o$ theDnion

5 !hey are "eo"leTs re"resentative members o$ theD/CC, chosen on the basis o$ random sam"ling andnot on the total n#mber o$ eleven chairmen o$ #nionco#ncil.

!otal 8

)Contractor '"ecialised

siness%men

!hey have a better #nderstanding o$ coordination,es"ecially when it is associated with $#nds.Coordination can ens#re timely disb#rsement o$$#nds and accelerate "olicy $#nctions e*ec#ted by

the contractors. !hey were selected randomly.!otal


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4)

4

General#blic

Citi@ens ): !hey are considered im"ortant so#rces o$in$ormation on the res#lts o$ "olicy im"lementationwhen there is a lack o$ coordination, as a "olicy isnot im"lemented in isolation2 rather local "eo"le areto some e*tent involved in its im"lementation. !heyare all male and chosen on the basis o$ randomsam"ling. !he res"ondents consisted o$ grade schooland college teachers, local elite, b#sinessmen, and$ew college st#dents.

!otal ):

*otal :8'o#rce 7#thor.

'.5.2. 0ocu entation

/oc#mentation as a so#rce o$ secondary data was #sed in this research to s#""lement the data

collected thro#gh interview. Kario#s internal and e*ternal doc#ments on coordination were

collected. 7s internal doc#ments, in$ormation on vario#s iss#es related to the "resent research

"roblem (e.g., why inter%de"artmental coordination does not take "lace "ro"erly, how intra%

de"artmental coordination a$$ects inter%de"artmental coordination, what are the conse+#ences o$ the

lack o$ inter%de"artmental coordination in "olicy im"lementation, and so on was collected. nternal

doc#ments on iss#es mentioned above have not been recorded and "reserved in concerned o$$ices,

whose only doc#ments are those abo#t the com"letion o$ "ro


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44

di$$ic#lties in gathering data given that the area o$ st#dy was very $amiliar to the a#thor.

Honetheless, below are some o$ the sit#ations the a#thor $aced in the "rocess o$ data ac+#isition.

'irst= the a#thor ass#med that all in$ormation were "ro"erly recorded and archived in government

o$$ices, even tho#gh government o$$icials in develo"ing co#ntries s#ch as &angladesh hardly reveal

"#blic doc#ments in the "rete*t o$ secrecy. n reality, the "ict#re concerning the "reservation and

maintenance o$ "ro"er in$ormation in government o$$ices is com"letely di$$erent. 7ltho#gh the

o$$ices the a#thor dealt with "re"ared and "reserved in$ormation with regard to their "olicy

im"lementation activities thro#gh re"orts or other doc#ments, these did not show any in$ormation

on whether or not "olicy im"lementation was s#ccess$#l, what were the $actors res"onsible $or its

s#ccess or $ail#re, and so on. 6ather, their re"orts or doc#ments only revealed limited in$ormationconcerning the com"letion o$ activities. n the e$$ort to collect more in$ormation, the a#thor visited

the constr#ction o$ a two%storey b#ilding $or a "rimary school to become ac+#ainted with act#al

im"lementation. 0hen the a#thor in+#ired with the o$$icial concerned with why the +#ality o$

im"lementation work was "oor and what were the "roblems associated with the im"lementation

"rocess, no s#bstantial res"onse was "rovided, e*ce"t a tem"late re"ort similar in nat#re to that

mentioned above.

Moreover, the &angladeshi government does not #s#ally look into this matter. or e*am"le, when a

doc#ment regarding a "artic#lar inter%de"artmental case is re+#ired, the government o$$icial

concerned "re"ares it "er$#nctorily or on an ad hoc basis and not based on a well tho#ght%o#t "lan.

!his is d#e to the lack o$ attention and motivation to inter%de"artmental activities. #blic

organisations in &angladesh are hierarchic in nat#re and are more attentive to their own activities,

hardly going beyond the hori@on o$ their own s"heres. !his lack o$ awareness has ca#sed

negligence in "reserving doc#ments related to inter%de"artmental activities.

Second , another "rominent "roblem was the $ail#re o$ government o$$icials to recogni@e the val#e

o$ coordination. n the case o$ inter%de"artmental activities, the iss#e o$ coordination is not

"rioritised and each entity "er$ormed his res"ective $#nction in a highly inde"endent manner and,

hence. Government o$$icials were not willing to talk abo#t the iss#e o$ coordination2 th#s, a ma


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4:

o$ coordination. =owever, collecting in$ormation $or a variety o$ cases necessitated the incl#sion o$

a large n#mber o$ local "eo"le as no single "erson or gro#" e*cl#sively "ossesses essential

in$ormation. btaining in$ormation thro#gh this "rocess was not only time cons#ming2 it was also

di$$ic#lt to get access to the general "#blic as they are likely to s#s"ect the interviewers motive.

*hird , it was di$$ic#lt to obtain access to the government o$$icials "osted at the #"a@ila level, b#t

belong to the central b#rea#cracy since these o$$icials mostly overlooked their res"onsibility o$

"roviding services to the citi@ens. n this conte*t, all citi@ens are e+#al and have access to the "#blic

o$$icials2 however, in most cases, the o$$icials are mostly inaccessible beca#se they consider

themselves as members o$ the social elite. Moreover, easy access to government o$$icials is not

enco#raged based on the ass#m"tion that citi@ens will not "ay res"ect to them, i$ they have easyaccess to them. !h#s, only those who belong to the elite have access to these o$$icials. !his c#lt#re

e*"lains why data collection thro#gh $ormal a""roach is almost im"ossible. n this light, network

and in$ormal a""roach to data collection had become an im"ortant tool $or this research.

7ccordingly, the a#thor had to #se his "ersonal network in order to gain access to the government

o$$icials.

3.%. Reliability and !alidity of data'. .1. (eliabilit" o! data

6eliability re$ers to the consistency o$ data over time. t indicates that similar res#lt is "rod#ced

when similar "roced#res are a""lied in the same way (Jing et al., 1994 : . !he "rimary data $or

this st#dy was collected $rom vario#s ty"es o$ res"ondents (e.g., the DH , 7C >and, o$$icers in

charge o$ vario#s de"artments, chairman o$ #"a@ila "arishad, a n#mber o$ #nion chairman, some

contractors, and a large n#mber o$ general "#blic . !he $ormer si* ty"es o$ res"ondents were

selected beca#se o$ their direct involvement in the im"lementation o$ r#ral in$rastr#ct#redevelo"ment "olicy in the #"a@ila in 'had#lla"#r, while the last was selected in order to have a

better #nderstanding abo#t the im"act o$ coordination on "olicy im"lementation. n order to check

the consistency o$ data, the similar +#estions were asked to vario#s ty"es o$ res"ondents, and even

the similar +#estions were asked to the same res"ondents at di$$erent times d#ring interview

session. n addition, +#ite a n#mber o$ res"ondents were interviewed in order to ens#re the

reliability o$ data.


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45

'. .2. alidit" o! data

7ccording to Creswell and Miller ( ;;; , one o$ the strengths o$ +#alitative research is validity,

determined based on whether the $indings are acc#rate $rom the stand"oint o$ the researchers, the

"artici"ants or readers o$ an acco#nt (cited in Creswell, ;;9 191 . Kalidity re$ers to the

tr#stworthiness o$ data, which is s#bG?/, the o$$icer in charge o$ the

>G?/ o$ the 'had#lla"#r #"a@ila became a s#b


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48

Chapter 'our

De!elopment of 'ield 6dministration in 7angladesh) 8endulous or Static9

4.1. Introduction

!he main "#r"ose o$ this cha"ter is to give a brie$ acco#nt o$ the historical develo"ment o$ $ield

administration and its c#rrent stat#s in &angladesh. n addition, it concisely disc#sses the system o$

local governance in &angladesh.

4.2. 'ield administration

!he term $ield administration is a by%"rod#ct o$ decentrali@ation. /ecentrali@ation is $o#nd in

almost all co#ntries irres"ective o$ the $orm o$ government. 'mith (1958 "ointed o#t that

decentrali@ation, in a #nitary $orm o$ the government, contains two com"lementary and interrelated

"ractices. ne is devol#tion, which is also known as "olitical decentrali@ation, thro#gh which the

a#thority to make certain decisions in some s"heres o$ "#blic "olicy is delegated by law to the local

level government. 7nother is deconcentration within the b#rea#cracy, which is termed as

administrative decentrali@ation, wherein a#thority is delegated to the "#blic servants working in

wide areas scattered across the co#ntry in order to make administrative decision on behal$ o$ central

administration and res"onsible in varying degrees $or government "olicy within their territories

('mith, 1958 1 . Generally, $ield administration re$ers to administration away $rom the ca"ital city

o$ a co#ntry and scattered thro#gho#t the co#ntry. ield administration is re$erred to a b#rea#cratic

$orm o$ decentrali@ation in which the a#thority to make administrative decisions are delegated to the

civil servants working in the $ield ('mith. 1958 1%) . n addition, the $ield services o$ an

administrative agency re$er to the "ersonnel stationed away $rom its head+#arters into the co#ntry,

to carry on its work $rom the n#mero#s s#b%centres within the easy reach o$ the "eo"le

( baid#llah, 1999 95 .

4.3. ;istorical de!elopment of field administration in 7angladesh

n order to have an #nderstanding abo#t the e*isting system o$ administration at the local level in

&angladesh, it is necessary to go into the backgro#nd o$ the circ#mstances that led to the

develo"ment o$ $ield administration. &angladesh ($ormerly ?ast akistan was one o$ the two

"rovinces o$ akistan be$ore its emergence as an inde"endent co#ntry along with the "resent ndia

(r#led by the ?ast ndia Com"any and later by the &ritish Crown $or two h#ndred years . =ere, the

disc#ssion with regard to the historical develo"ment o$ $ield administration is made based on "#rely


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4

b#rea#cratic in terms o$ the creation o$ administrative #nits at di$$erent eras.

4.'.1. /he *ritish eriod 31 -164 7

0ith the "rior a""roval o$ ?li@abeth on /ecember )1, 15;;, the ?ast ndia Com"any ); , #nder the

name Governor and Com"any o$ Merchants o$ >ondon !rading in the ?ast ndies

(htt" AAen.wiki"edia.orgAwikiA?astB ndiaBCom"any came to the ndian s#b%continent ("resently

com"rised o$ the sovereign co#ntries o$ ndia, akistan and &angladesh $or mercantile "#r"oses.

7"art $rom its trading "#r"ose, the com"any was being connected grad#ally with the system o$

governance and in this res"ect, its $irst achievement was ac+#iring the right granted by the Hawab )1

o$ &engal to collect reven#e in the three estates o$ Govinda"#r, '#tanati, and Jolkata in 159 (7li,

19 . Given the right in reven#e collection, the com"any reali@ed the necessity o$ the creation

o$ a "ost at the district in order to im"rove and accelerate the reven#e collection system. Moreover,

two momento#s events ca#sed changes in the charter o$ the com"any thro#gh which the com"any,

$rom a mere trading body, became a body entitled to have "olitical a#thority one was victory

against the Hawab o$ &engal in a battle known as the &attle o$ lassey (18:8 2 another was the

ac+#isition o$ the right o$ civil administration granted by the then M#ghal ?m"eror over the three

"rovinces o$ &engal, &ihar, and rissa (7li, 19 . !here$ore, the territories "laced #nder its

charge were governed by the com"any, and the com"any, therea$ter, develo"ed its own "attern o$administration.

n order to im"rove the reven#e collection system, the com"any $irst became involved with the

reven#e and land administration in 188 . Conse+#ently, &engal was divided into nine collectorshi"s

(districts and collectors $or each district were a""ointed. 7 local agency cond#cting reven#e

collection was decided to create and conse+#ently, the Co#rt o$ /irector o$ the com"any iss#ed a

letter to the Government o$ &engal with the instr#ction o$ taking necessary actions in this regard.!his letter was considered as a com"rehensive doc#ment in which the "ict#re o$ the $#t#re o$ $ield

administration in &engal was drawn2 it was laid down in the letter that a moderate n#mber o$ o#r

"rovincial covenanted servants, disting#ished $or good cond#ct and abilities, and conversant in the

co#ntry lang#ages sho#ld be "osted in the districts to be assisted by the native o$$icers o$ reven#e

(7li, 19 : . >ater, &engal was divided into twenty%$o#r districts in 18 8 and a collector was

a""ointed in each district. 7$ter e*"eriencing a vast body o$ debates on whether a #nion o$ ondon. t was $ormed

initially $or "#rs#ing trades with the ?ast ndies. n the case o$ the ndian%s#bcontinent, it grad#ally came to r#lewhich, in $act, e$$ectively began in 18:8 a$ter the &attle o$ lassey, its r#le lasted $or ;; years. !he Com"anys r#leended when the &ritish Crown took over the governance o$ ndia in 1 : .

)1 !his literally re$ers to the Governor.
http://wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_Englandhttp://0.0.0.0/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India_Companyhttp://0.0.0.0/http://0.0.0.0/http://0.0.0.0/http://wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India_Company


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49

e*ec#tive, and reven#e "owers sho#ld be vested in the hand o$ collectors, collectors were then

given a #nion o$ "owers.

n 189), d#ring the governorshi" o$ Cornwallis ) , the district was divided into "olice


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:;

&asic /emocracy (&/ )4 e$$ective. n this connection, a new "attern o$ administration was created

at the local level "artic#larly $oc#sing on thana. or doing so, the Comilla 7cademy ): was

assigned to do e*"eriments with regard to the develo"ment o$ !hana Co#ncil (!C and !hana

!raining and /evelo"ment Centre !!/C .

a. /hana Council 3/C7

!he !C was considered the most im"ortant contrib#tion o$ &/ and had been the $ocal "oint o$ the

develo"ment administration in r#ral areas (6ahman and 'arker, 1998 :1 . Jotwali )5 !hana #nder

Comilla )8 district o$ the then ?ast akistan (now &angladesh was taken as the e*"erimental area $or

the "#r"ose mentioned above. !he !C o$ Jotwali !hana consisted o$ the Chairman o$ the Dnion

arishad o$ Jatwali !hana and some government and non%government o$$icial members. Given thesatis$actory res#lt, the conce"t o$ !C was e*tended thro#gho#t ?ast akistan. !he '/ and C

were selected as the chairman and vice%chairman o$ the !C, res"ectively. n 1951, the thana was

converted into a develo"ment circle, and the !!/C s#bse+#ently established (0ahhab, 1995 :4 .

b. /hana /raining and 0evelop ent Centre 3//0C7

!he !!/C came into e$$ect thro#gh an e*"eriment cond#cted by the Comilla 7cademy on the

creation o$ s"ecialist de"artments o$ the government at the thana level (7li, 19 9; . 0ith thecreation o$ !!/C in 195), many nation b#ilding de"artments o$ the central government were

established and o$$icers o$ these de"artments were also "osted at the thana level (0ahhab, 1995

:4 . !he creation o$ the !!/C, therea$ter, enabled r#ral "eo"le to get access to government

$#nctionaries within their easy reach. !he C was made the head o$ a combined team o$ o"eration

at the thana level and was res"onsible $or the coordination o$ governmental services.

!hese e*"eriments o$ the Comilla 7cademy led to a breakthro#gh in r#ral develo"ment thro#gh thecreation o$ a new "attern o$ administration at the local level, "artic#larly at the thana. Conse+#ently,

the thana came o#t $rom its traditional image as a mere "olice station and trans$ormed into a

"lat$orm o$ administrative government at the local level. !his enabled the r#ral "eo"le to kee"

themselves overseen by the government in res"ect o$ their needs in s#ch $ields as health,

)4 7 new version o$ the system o$ local governance in akistan introd#ced by General Mohammad 7y#b Jhan, aakistani military chie$ who later ca"t#red the state "ower thro#gh an army co#"

): !he 7cademy was established in 19:9 basically as a training instit#te $or government o$$icials and re"resentatives o$the local government village organisations in vario#s s#b


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:1

agric#lt#re, and livestock.

4.'.'. /he *angladesh eriod 316 1- 2 67

n order to emanci"ate $rom the old system and to develo" a new "attern o$ $ield administration

with the as"iration o$ a newly inde"endent co#ntry, the $irst attem"t o$ the government was the

constit#tion o$ an administrative re$orm committee, namely, the 7dministration and 'ervices

6eorgani@ation Committee (7'6C , also known as the Chowdh#ry Committee on March 1:, 198

(0ahhab, 1995 :: . 7s regards the reorganisation o$ $ield administration, the 7'6C was o$ the

o"inion that the democrati@ation o$ administration at all levels and the devol#tion o$ a#thority to the

elected local government m#st be ens#red. #rthermore, the 7'6C s#ggested that a s#b%division,

a$ter being necessarily ad


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:

Minister. =owever, the scheme o$ //C was dro""ed with the "olitical change o$ 19 (Jarim,

1991 1; . ig#re 1) de"icts the stat#s o$ $ield administration in &angladesh be$ore the "olitical

change which led to the reorganisation o$ an administrative set #" in state "ower in 19 .

7dministrative Dnits

'igure 13) 'tat#s o$ $ield administration in &angladesh be$ore administrative re$orm was carried o#t in 19

7 systematic and organised e$$ort in the direction o$ establishing the decentralised system o$

administration at the local level aimed at making breakthro#ghs in the inherited "attern o$ $ield

administration a""eared $irst when a re$orm committee, the Committee $or 7dministrative 6e$ormA

6eorgani@ation (C766 , was $ormed on 7"ril , 19 . !he C766 made some im"ortant

recommendations in accordance with its res"onsibilities and s#bmitted its re"ort to the government

in #ne 19 . n "rinci"le, the government acce"ted the C766s recommendations and a""ointed a

high%"owered committee, namely, the Hational m"lementation Committee $or 7dministrative

6eorgani@ationA6e$orm (H C766 in 7#g#st 19 (0ahhab, 1995 58 in order to s#ggest the

g#idelines o$ how the C766s recommendations can be bro#ght into e$$ect. 7 ma


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:)

*able 3) 8hases of the upgradation of thanashases o$ #"gradation Ho. o$ thanas #"graded /ate o$ #"gradation

1st 4: Hovember 8, 19nd

:: /ecember 1:, 19) rd :: March 14, 19 )

4th :8 7"ril 1:, 19 )

: th :1 #ly , 19 )

5th 48 7#g#st 1, 19 )

8th :; 'e"tember 14, 19 )th )8 Hovember 8, 19 )

'#b%total )98

9th 1 /ecember 1, 19 )

1; th 4: ebr#ary 1, 19 4

!otal 45;

'o#rce baid#llah, 1999 11).

7ltho#gh the s#b%division as a #nit o$ local administration was dro""ed as "er the s#ggestion o$ the

C766, the government retained division with the goal o$ maintaining the relation between the

central government and districts and #"a@ilas. D"gradation o$ s#b%divisions into districts was donethro#gho#t 19 4, a$ter which 4 new districts created thro#gh the #"radation o$ s#b%divisions were

added with the e*isting districts, $or a total n#mber o$ 54 districts (0ahhab, 1995 5 . 7$ter the

abolition o$ the #"a@ila system in 1991, the DH was renamed as the !hana Hirbahi $$icer (!H

and became the key $#nctionary beca#se o$ the absence o$ an elected body. ?ven a$ter the

restoration o$ the #"a@ila system in 199 thro#gh the enaction o$ the D"a@ila arishad 7ct o$ 199 ,

and the election in the D 3 in ;;9, the #"a@ila administration has not yet been "laced at the

dis"osal o$ the local government at that "oint. ig#re 14 de"icts the c#rrent stat#s o$ $ieldadministration in &angladesh. n order to have a better #nderstanding o$ $ield administration, all o$

its #nits are concisely disc#ssed below.

7dministrative Dnits

ig#re 14 resent stat#s o$ $ield administration in &angladesh.

/ivisions%5

Dnion%44:1

/istricts%54

D"a@ila%4


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:4

a. 0ivision

!he division is the a"e* #nit o$ $ield administration in &angladesh. 7 senior level generalist civil

servant having a rank o$


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::

nation b#ilding, and enco#raging and collaborating with local sel$%government initiatives. !he /C

is the "rinci"al channel o$ comm#nication between the district and higher levels o$ government

(7li, 199)2 cited in 7hmed, ;; ))1%) .

*able 4) *erritorial structure of administration in 7angladesh>evel H#mber o$ #nits 7verage si@e o$ "o"#lation 7verage area in s+#are kilometer

/ivision 5 million 4:9:

/istrict 54 million );5

D"a@ila 4 8; tho#sand );5

Dnion 44:1 9 tho#sand ))'o#rce 7#thor (data somewhat modi$ied are "resented in the table based on o"#lation Cens#s,

;;1 available at htt" AAwww.banbeis.gov.bdAbdB"ro.htm.

c. :pazila

!he #"a@ila is the second lowest #nit o$ $ield administration in &angladesh. 7n o$$icer having the

rank o$ ('enior 7ssistant 'ecretary serves as the Chie$ ?*ec#tive $$icer (DH o$ the #"a@ila and

is the key $#nctionary o$ the #"a@ila administration. Hine #nions, on average, are gro#"ed into an

#"a@ila, and several $#nctional de"artments o$ the central government have $ield level

re"resentatives at #"a@ila head+#arters. ?ach #"a@ila normally has o$$icers $or vario#s o$$ices s#ch

as those $or =ealth and amily lanning, ?d#cation, 7gric#lt#re, ?ngineering (>G?/ , >ivestock,

ishery, and 'ocial 0el$are. ?ach #"a@ila also has an $$icer, 7ssistant Commissioner, >and2

$$icer%in%Charge, a olice 'tation, and so on. !hese re"resentatives are a""ointed and controlled

directly by the higher a#thorities o$ their res"ective de"artments at the national head+#arters.

7ltho#gh the accom"lishment o$ $#nction assigned to them is s#b


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o$ nine wards 4; . 7 n#mber o$ villages are gro#"ed into a ward. 7ccording to the o"#lation Cens#s

o$ ;;1, a #nion contains ; villages on average. n the $ollowing ma" o$ &angladesh, the national

ca"ital and si* divisional cities are marked in bold "oint red and other district head+#arters are

also shown.

Ma" ) Ma" o$ &angladesh where national ca"ital, si* divisional cities, and other districthead+#arters are shown.'o#rce htt" [email protected]"sAasiaAbangladesh%ma"s.html

4.4. *he system of local go!ernance

!he commencement o$ the e*isting, organised system o$ local governance in &angladesh was

marked by the "assage o$ the Cha#kidary 7ct o$ 1 8; and the >ocal 'el$%Government 7ct o$ 1 :2

both are considered im"ortant milestones in the history o$ the local government o$ the co#ntry.

4; !he #nion is divided into nine wards and a n#mber o$ villages are gro#"ed into each ward.
http://0.0.0.0/http://www.ezilon.com/maps/asia/bangladesh-maps.htmlhttp://0.0.0.0/http://www.ezilon.com/maps/asia/bangladesh-maps.html


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=owever, thro#gho#t the co#ntrys history, the e*isting str#ct#re o$ local government trans$ormed

with the changes o$ the co#ntrys stat#s, incl#ding those that occ#rred a$ter &angladesh became an

inde"endent co#ntry (6ahman, 1998 8 . n &angladesh, there is a se"arate set o$ local government

based on #rban and r#ral areas. n the case o$ the $ormer, local government instit#tions are called

city cor"orations 41 and "o#rashavas 4 or m#nici"alities. !he @ila (district "arishad 4) , #"a@ila

"arishad, and #nion "arishad are the instit#tions o$ r#ral local government. 'ince the inde"endence

o$ &angladesh, the ma


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a. ;ila 3district7 prishad

!he @ila "arishad, is the $irst layer o$ the e*isting r#ral local government str#ct#re in &angladesh.

=owever, it only e*ists in name2 there is no elected body at the district level $or its management as

election in the @ila "arishad has never been held since 198 . ?ven the national government took no

attem"t in establishing an election "rocess at this layer o$ local government.

b. :pazila parishad 3: ;7

!his is the second highest tier o$ r#ral local government $rom the to", headed by an elected "eo"les

re"resentative called Chairman. D"a@ila is r#n by a "arishad (co#ncil which consists o$ the

"eo"les re"resentative members, incl#ding the chairman and two vice%chairmen o$ the D 3, the

chairman o$ the #nion "arishad, the mayor o$ "o#rashava (i$ any e*ists within the territory o$

#"a@ila , and other government o$$icials "osted at the #"a@ila. !he Ministry o$ >G6/FC recently

"rovided a list o$ o$$icers "laced #nder the control o$ D 3, incl#ding the DH , the D"a@ila =ealth

and amily lanning $$icer, the D"a@ila amily lanning $$icer, the D"a@ila ?d#cation $$icer,

the D"a@ila 7gric#lt#re $$icer, the D"a@ila ?ngineer (>G?/ , the D"a@ila ro


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Chapter 'i!e

'actors 6ffecting Inter:departmental Coordination

".1. Introduction

!he "#r"ose o$ this cha"ter is to analyse the e*tent to which $ormal division o$ labo#r, reso#rces,

and in$ormal comm#nication a$$ect inter%de"artmental coordination, and how s#ch $actors do so. !o

achieve this goal, the im"ortance o$ coordination when m#lti"le de"artments are involved in "olicy

im"lementation is disc#ssed. 7$terwards, the roles and the ways thro#gh which the division o$

labo#r, reso#rces, and in$ormal comm#nication a$$ect inter%de"artmental coordination are analysed.

Moreover, this cha"ter "resents some e*am"les o$ coordination "roblem among vario#s agencies at

the $ield level.

".2. Does inter:departmental coordination matter9 6 study of policy implementation

7s there is a $ramework $or "olicy im"lementation in terms o$ time $rame and certain amo#nt o$

$#nd, the s#ccess o$ "olicy im"lementation de"ends largely on the degree to which "olicy $#nctions

assigned to de"artments involved are accom"lished within the $ramework which, in t#rn, de"ends to

a $#llest e*tent on the degree to which coordination among de"artments invo

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Kamrul Ahsan, A. - Problems of Coordination in Local Administration...

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