Kantian Business Kantian Business EthicsEthics

Deontologist believe that the moral decision Deontologist believe that the moral decision should be made based on one duties and should be made based on one duties and rights of others.rights of others.

According to Kant , morality is based on According to Kant , morality is based on pure reason , as people has ability to think pure reason , as people has ability to think rationally , they therefore must act morally rationally , they therefore must act morally irrespective of personal desiresirrespective of personal desires

The Ethics of DutyThe Ethics of Duty

More than any More than any other philosopher, other philosopher, Kant emphasized the Kant emphasized the way in which the moral way in which the moral life was centered on life was centered on duty.duty.

1724 -- 1804

It is sometimes described as "duty" or It is sometimes described as "duty" or "obligation" based ethics, because "obligation" based ethics, because deontologists believe that ethical rules deontologists believe that ethical rules "bind you to your duty."bind you to your duty.

When faced with an ethical dilemma, Kant When faced with an ethical dilemma, Kant believes we should ask ourselves: “To believes we should ask ourselves: “To whom do I owe a duty and what duty do I whom do I owe a duty and what duty do I owe them?”owe them?”

Kant believes only actions performed for Kant believes only actions performed for the sake of duty have moral worth. the sake of duty have moral worth.

A central theme among deontological A central theme among deontological theorists is that we have a duty to do theorists is that we have a duty to do those things that are inherently good those things that are inherently good ("truth-telling" for example) .("truth-telling" for example) .

While the ends or consequences of our While the ends or consequences of our actions are important, our obligation or actions are important, our obligation or duty is to take the right action, even if duty is to take the right action, even if the consequences of a given act may the consequences of a given act may be bad.be bad.

Hypothetical & Categorical Hypothetical & Categorical ImperativesImperatives

How do we know , which rules we should How do we know , which rules we should follow ? follow ?

Kant attempted to answer this question by Kant attempted to answer this question by seizing on a difference between the moral seizing on a difference between the moral and non moral senses of the word ought.and non moral senses of the word ought.

Consider the following examples :Consider the following examples :

(1) If you want to improve your serve , then (1) If you want to improve your serve , then you ought to take lessons from a tennis you ought to take lessons from a tennis pro .pro .

(2) If you want to lower your cholesterol level (2) If you want to lower your cholesterol level , then you ought to eat less read meat. , then you ought to eat less read meat.

Kant called them Kant called them hypothetical imperatives, hypothetical imperatives, because they tell us to do something only because they tell us to do something only on the condition that we have the relevant on the condition that we have the relevant desire .desire .

In neither case does the use of the word In neither case does the use of the word ought express a moral obligation.ought express a moral obligation.

Kant characterized moral rules as Kant characterized moral rules as imperatives that express what we ought to imperatives that express what we ought to do categorically rather hypotheticallydo categorically rather hypothetically

That is, they are use of the word ought That is, they are use of the word ought that tell us what to do regardless of our that tell us what to do regardless of our desires . desires .

Imperatives that command categorically Imperatives that command categorically are of the form “ Do (period)” Thus we are of the form “ Do (period)” Thus we cannot evade the force of the moral rulecannot evade the force of the moral rule

Thus , we cannot evade the force of the Thus , we cannot evade the force of the moral rule “Tell the truth” merely by saying moral rule “Tell the truth” merely by saying , for example , “ But I don’t care about , for example , “ But I don’t care about being trusted” being trusted”

Types of ImperativesTypes of Imperatives

Hypothetical Imperative:Hypothetical Imperative:– ““If you want to drive to Jaipur from New Delhi If you want to drive to Jaipur from New Delhi

, take the NH 18 Highway.”, take the NH 18 Highway.”– Structure: if…then…Structure: if…then…

Categorical ImperativeCategorical Imperative– ““Always tell the truth”Always tell the truth”– Unconditional, applicable at all timesUnconditional, applicable at all times

The Categorical ImperativeThe Categorical Imperative

Act only according to the maxim whereby you Act only according to the maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.”become a universal law.”

oror

““Act as if the maxim of your action were to Act as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will a universal law of become through your will a universal law of nature.”nature.”

Act only on the rules that you would be willing Act only on the rules that you would be willing to see everyone followsto see everyone follows

ExampleExampleIf a man were to obtain the loan under false If a man were to obtain the loan under false pretenses , the rule on which he would be pretenses , the rule on which he would be acting would be something like this : acting would be something like this : Whenever you need a loan, make a Whenever you need a loan, make a promise to repay the money , even if you promise to repay the money , even if you know that you cannot do so.know that you cannot do so.

Although such rule could easily be acted on Although such rule could easily be acted on by one person, the effect of it being made a by one person, the effect of it being made a rule for every one – that is , of becoming a rule for every one – that is , of becoming a universal law – would be, self defeating.universal law – would be, self defeating.

“ “The obligation to do our duty is The obligation to do our duty is unconditionalunconditional. That . That is, we must do it for the is, we must do it for the sake of dutysake of duty, because it is , because it is the right thing to dothe right thing to do, not because it will profit us , not because it will profit us psychologically, or economically, not because if we psychologically, or economically, not because if we don’t do it and get caught we’ll be punished. The don’t do it and get caught we’ll be punished. The categorical imperative categorical imperative was Kant’s name for this was Kant’s name for this inbred, self-imposed inbred, self-imposed restraint, for the command of ` restraint, for the command of ` within that tells us that the only true moral act is within that tells us that the only true moral act is done from a pure done from a pure sense of dutysense of duty.” .”

-- Admiral James Stockdale-- Admiral James Stockdale

Three formulations of the categorical Three formulations of the categorical imperativeimperative

The first formulationThe first formulation

"requires that the maxims be chosen as "requires that the maxims be chosen as though they should hold as universal laws though they should hold as universal laws of nature“of nature“

The principle of UniversalizabilityThe principle of Universalizability

The second formulation holds thatThe second formulation holds that

“ “ Act so that you treat humanity ,whether in Act so that you treat humanity ,whether in your own person or in that of another , your own person or in that of another , always as end and never as a means onlyalways as end and never as a means only

Respect for personRespect for person

The third formulationThe third formulation

The third formulation The third formulation

it refers to the capacity of a rational it refers to the capacity of a rational individual to make an informed, un-individual to make an informed, un-coerced decision. To respect other people coerced decision. To respect other people is to respect their capacity for acting is to respect their capacity for acting freely , that is , their autonomy. freely , that is , their autonomy.

Autonomy (self governing)Autonomy (self governing)

Kant's three significant formulations of the Kant's three significant formulations of the

categorical categorical imperative areimperative are::Act only according to that maxim by which Act only according to that maxim by which you can also will that it would become a you can also will that it would become a universal law.universal law.

Act in such a way that you always treat Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as a means, but always at the same time as an end.an end.

Act as though you were, through your Act as though you were, through your maxims, a law-making member of a maxims, a law-making member of a kingdom of endskingdom of ends

Categorical Imperatives:Categorical Imperatives:UniversalityUniversality

““Always act in such a way that the maxim Always act in such a way that the maxim of your action can be willed as a universal of your action can be willed as a universal law of humanity.”law of humanity.”

--Immanuel Kant--Immanuel Kant

Categorical Imperatives: Categorical Imperatives: RespectRespect

““Always treat humanity, whether in Always treat humanity, whether in yourself or in other people, as an end in yourself or in other people, as an end in itself and never as a mere means.”itself and never as a mere means.”

--Immanuel Kant--Immanuel Kant

KANTIAN VS. UTILITARIANKANTIAN VS. UTILITARIAN

UTILITARIANISM UTILITARIANISM Greatest Happiness PrincipleGreatest Happiness Principle The rightness or wrongness of an act depends The rightness or wrongness of an act depends upon the consequences. (the END Justifies the upon the consequences. (the END Justifies the MEANS)MEANS)

KANTIAN ETHICS KANTIAN ETHICS Supreme Principle of MoralitySupreme Principle of Morality The rightness or wrongness of an act depends The rightness or wrongness of an act depends upon universal laws of action (the END never upon universal laws of action (the END never Justifies the MEANS)Justifies the MEANS)It is all about DUTYIt is all about DUTY

Deontological ethics is commonly contrasted Deontological ethics is commonly contrasted with teleological ethical theories, according to with teleological ethical theories, according to which the rightness of an action is which the rightness of an action is determined by its consequences. determined by its consequences. Deontologists believe that some actions are Deontologists believe that some actions are wrong no matter what consequences follow wrong no matter what consequences follow from themfrom them

Immanuel Kant, for example, famously Immanuel Kant, for example, famously argued that it is always wrong to lie – even if argued that it is always wrong to lie – even if a murderer is asking for the location of a a murderer is asking for the location of a potential victimpotential victim

ExceptionsExceptions

Are exceptions possible for Kant?Are exceptions possible for Kant?– Yes, as long as they can be consistently Yes, as long as they can be consistently

universalizeduniversalized

ExamplesExamples– The speeding carThe speeding car

We can universalize an exception for something like We can universalize an exception for something like ambulance driversambulance drivers

– The Gestapo exampleThe Gestapo exampleCan we universalize a maxim to deceive in order to save Can we universalize a maxim to deceive in order to save innocent lives?innocent lives?

Strength’s of Kantian EthicsStrength’s of Kantian Ethics

-Duty: Commitment to stay the course -Duty: Commitment to stay the course regardless of consequencesregardless of consequences

-Respect for Humanity: Treatment of people -Respect for Humanity: Treatment of people as endsas ends

-Formula for perfect human life?-Formula for perfect human life?

One of the greatest strengths of Kant's One of the greatest strengths of Kant's theory, is that it does not play favourites theory, is that it does not play favourites nor make exceptions.nor make exceptions.

The same fundamental rules of morality The same fundamental rules of morality apply to everyone regardless of class, apply to everyone regardless of class, colours, caste, race, creed, blood type, colours, caste, race, creed, blood type, gender, and so forth. gender, and so forth.

Strength’s of Kantian EthicsStrength’s of Kantian Ethics

•• Emphasizes the equal rights and Emphasizes the equal rights and importance of every person.importance of every person.

•• Protects the rights of the minority from the Protects the rights of the minority from the majority.majority.

•• Focuses on following moral principles Focuses on following moral principles rather than producing specific results.rather than producing specific results.

Weakness of Kantian EthicsWeakness of Kantian Ethics

- Too rigid? Too rigid?

- What is our duty?What is our duty?

- Conflicting Duty?Conflicting Duty?

- Intentions and ResultsIntentions and Results

Weakness of Kantian EthicsWeakness of Kantian Ethics- Provides no guideline for determining priority Provides no guideline for determining priority

when different duties conflict. when different duties conflict.

- For example, what if you don’t believe in lying For example, what if you don’t believe in lying or copying someone else’s work? Would you or copying someone else’s work? Would you lie and tell a friend that you don’t have the lie and tell a friend that you don’t have the paper he wants to look at and possibly copy? paper he wants to look at and possibly copy? Or do you let him have the paper? Duty-Or do you let him have the paper? Duty-based ethics provides no framework for you based ethics provides no framework for you to resolve the conflict. to resolve the conflict.

- •• Duty-based ethics could simply Duty-based ethics could simply become “rule following,” with possible become “rule following,” with possible temptations to bend the rules or to cut temptations to bend the rules or to cut corners.corners.

- •• Doing one’s duty can have negative Doing one’s duty can have negative results. If it does, can the action taken still results. If it does, can the action taken still be considered moral? be considered moral?

Virtue EthicsVirtue Ethics

Aristotle Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) (384 BC – 322 BC)

He was a Greek philosopher, a student of He was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great.Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great.

His writings cover many subjects, His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theatre, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, theatre, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. government, ethics, biology, and zoology.

Aristotle is one of the most important Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy.founding figures in Western philosophy.

Virtue ethics' founding fathers are Plato Virtue ethics' founding fathers are Plato and, more particularly Aristotle (its roots in and, more particularly Aristotle (its roots in Chinese philosophy are even more Chinese philosophy are even more ancient) and it persisted as the dominant ancient) and it persisted as the dominant approach in Western moral philosophy .approach in Western moral philosophy .

Virtue EthicsVirtue EthicsUtilitarian and duty-based ethics Utilitarian and duty-based ethics focus on deciding what actions we focus on deciding what actions we should take in situations because, should take in situations because, from our perspective, they are the from our perspective, they are the right thing to do. right thing to do.

Virtue ethics asks instead , what Virtue ethics asks instead , what

kind of person should we be ? kind of person should we be ?

Moral character rather than right Moral character rather than right action is fundamental in this ethical action is fundamental in this ethical theory.theory.

Aristotle

Virtue EthicsVirtue Ethics

Virtue-based ethical Virtue-based ethical theory place less theory place less emphasis on which rules people should emphasis on which rules people should follow and instead focus on helping people follow and instead focus on helping people develop good character traits, such as develop good character traits, such as kindness and generosity.kindness and generosity.

These character traits will, in turn, allow a These character traits will, in turn, allow a person to make the correct decisions later person to make the correct decisions later on in life. on in life.

Virtue theorists also emphasize the need Virtue theorists also emphasize the need for people to learn how to break bad habits for people to learn how to break bad habits of character, like greed or anger.of character, like greed or anger.

These are called vices and stand in the These are called vices and stand in the way of becoming a good person.way of becoming a good person.

The role of ethics according to Aristotle is The role of ethics according to Aristotle is to enable us to lead successful , rewarding to enable us to lead successful , rewarding lives- the kind of lives we would call “the lives- the kind of lives we would call “the good life” good life”

The good life in Aristotle’s sense is The good life in Aristotle’s sense is possible only for a virtuous persons – that possible only for a virtuous persons – that is persons who develop the traits of is persons who develop the traits of character that we call the virtues .character that we call the virtues .

According to Aristotle, when people According to Aristotle, when people acquire good habits of character, they are acquire good habits of character, they are better able to regulate their emotions and better able to regulate their emotions and their reason.their reason.

This, in turn, helps us reach morally This, in turn, helps us reach morally correct decisions when we are faced with correct decisions when we are faced with difficult choicesdifficult choices

He believed that we can achieve He believed that we can achieve happiness—or the “good life”—by happiness—or the “good life”—by developing virtue.developing virtue.

The good life in Aristotle’s sense is The good life in Aristotle’s sense is possible only for virtuous persons –that is, possible only for virtuous persons –that is, persons who develops the traits of persons who develops the traits of character that we call virtues.character that we call virtues.

ARISTOTLE AND VIRTUESARISTOTLE AND VIRTUES

• Aristotle thought that the virtues are important Aristotle thought that the virtues are important because the virtuous person will because the virtuous person will fare betterfare better in in life, and the virtuous person is the life, and the virtuous person is the happyhappy person.person.

• For Aristotle, we need virtues in order to For Aristotle, we need virtues in order to live live wellwell, in order to , in order to conductconduct ourselves ourselves properlyproperly..

• Despite all of their differences, we can say Despite all of their differences, we can say that the that the virtuesvirtues allall have in common that they have in common that they are are needed to live successfullyneeded to live successfully..

What is Virtue ?What is Virtue ?

Virtue to Aristotle meant the excellence of Virtue to Aristotle meant the excellence of a specific thing. a specific thing.

The virtue of a knife is that it cuts well; the The virtue of a knife is that it cuts well; the virtue of a teacher is that he or she imparts virtue of a teacher is that he or she imparts knowledge successfully to others. knowledge successfully to others.

The virtue of human beings in general is The virtue of human beings in general is our rationality. To determine the specific our rationality. To determine the specific virtue of a specific thing simply ask what virtue of a specific thing simply ask what purpose that thing serves in society.purpose that thing serves in society.

““Our job as human beings is to use our Our job as human beings is to use our rationality to find the golden mean in rationality to find the golden mean in every virtue and then to practice and every virtue and then to practice and live it until it becomes a habit.”live it until it becomes a habit.”

Courage is a virtue, but too little Courage is a virtue, but too little courage becomes cowardice and too courage becomes cowardice and too much becomes recklessness. In much becomes recklessness. In between these two extremes is the between these two extremes is the golden mean of courage.golden mean of courage.

Courage is a virtue, but too little Courage is a virtue, but too little courage becomes cowardice and too courage becomes cowardice and too much becomes recklessness. In much becomes recklessness. In between these two extremes is the between these two extremes is the golden mean of courage.golden mean of courage.

Our job as human beings is to use Our job as human beings is to use our rationality to find the golden our rationality to find the golden mean in every virtue and then to mean in every virtue and then to practice and live it until it becomes a practice and live it until it becomes a habit.habit.

Aristotle's Concept of the Aristotle's Concept of the Golden MeanGolden Mean

DEFECT BALANCE + Excess +

COWARDICE COURAGE RASHNESS

STINGINESS LIBERALITY EXTRAVAGANCE

HUMILITY MODESTY PRIDE

SLOTH AMBITION GREED

What is Virtue What is Virtue Aristotle describes Virtue as character Aristotle describes Virtue as character trait that manifests itself in Habitual actiontrait that manifests itself in Habitual action

Honesty for example , cannot consist in Honesty for example , cannot consist in telling the truth once; it is rather a trait of telling the truth once; it is rather a trait of person who tells the truth as a general person who tells the truth as a general practicepractice

For Aristotle, virtue is something that is For Aristotle, virtue is something that is practiced and thereby learned—it is practiced and thereby learned—it is habithabit . .

Honesty is not simply a matter of knowing Honesty is not simply a matter of knowing how to tell the truth but involves habitually how to tell the truth but involves habitually telling the truthtelling the truth

Aristotle classified virtue as a state of Aristotle classified virtue as a state of character , which is different from feeling character , which is different from feeling or skill. or skill.

A virtue is something that we admire in a A virtue is something that we admire in a person ; a virtue is an excellence of some person ; a virtue is an excellence of some kind that is worth having for its own sake.kind that is worth having for its own sake.

A skill like carpentry is useful for building a A skill like carpentry is useful for building a house , for example , but not every one house , for example , but not every one need to be a carpenter .need to be a carpenter .

Honesty , by contrast , is a trait that every Honesty , by contrast , is a trait that every one needs for a good life.one needs for a good life.

This has clear implications for moral This has clear implications for moral education, for Aristotle obviously thinks education, for Aristotle obviously thinks that you can teach people to be virtuousthat you can teach people to be virtuous

Virtues are habits. That is, once they are Virtues are habits. That is, once they are acquired, they become characteristic of a acquired, they become characteristic of a person. person.

For example, a person who has developed For example, a person who has developed the virtue of generosity is often referred to the virtue of generosity is often referred to as a generous person because he or she as a generous person because he or she tends to be generous in all circumstances. tends to be generous in all circumstances.

Moreover, a person who has developed Moreover, a person who has developed virtues will be naturally disposed to act in virtues will be naturally disposed to act in ways that are consistent with moral ways that are consistent with moral principles. The virtuous person is the principles. The virtuous person is the ethical person. ethical person.

Concluding EvaluationConcluding Evaluation

Virtues are those strengths of character Virtues are those strengths of character that enable us to flourishthat enable us to flourish

The virtuous person has practical The virtuous person has practical wisdom, the ability to know when and wisdom, the ability to know when and how best to apply these various moral how best to apply these various moral perspectives.perspectives.

Virtue Ethics in businessVirtue Ethics in business

Virtue ethics can be applied to business Virtue ethics can be applied to business directly by holding that the virtues of a directly by holding that the virtues of a good business person are same as those good business person are same as those of good person of good person

Insofar as business is a part of life , why Insofar as business is a part of life , why should the virtues of a successful living not should the virtues of a successful living not apply to this realm as well ?apply to this realm as well ?

Virtue Ethics in businessVirtue Ethics in business

However business persons face situations However business persons face situations that are peculiar to business , and so they that are peculiar to business , and so they need certain business related character need certain business related character traits.traits.

Some virtues of every day life , moreover , Some virtues of every day life , moreover , are not wholly applicable to business.are not wholly applicable to business.

Honesty , is a virtue in business ,but Honesty , is a virtue in business ,but certain amount of bluffing or concealment certain amount of bluffing or concealment is accepted in negotiations. is accepted in negotiations.

Any manager should be caring , for Any manager should be caring , for example , but a concern for employee example , but a concern for employee welfare can go only so far when layoff is welfare can go only so far when layoff is unavoidable .unavoidable .

How do we actually think about How do we actually think about decisions decisions

Although utilitarianism and Kantian ethics Although utilitarianism and Kantian ethics provide universal moral principles that can be provide universal moral principles that can be applied to a specific cases , the proponents of a applied to a specific cases , the proponents of a virtue ethics approach respond that people virtue ethics approach respond that people generally do not reason that way.generally do not reason that way.

The response of most people to a complex The response of most people to a complex ethical dilemma is to ask what they feel ethical dilemma is to ask what they feel comfortable with or what person they admire comfortable with or what person they admire would do.would do.

Ideally , morality should be something that Ideally , morality should be something that we do not think about at all – but merely we do not think about at all – but merely do out of habit .do out of habit .

The distinguishing feature of virtue is its The distinguishing feature of virtue is its insistence that being of certain character insistence that being of certain character and not perfomining right actions is central and not perfomining right actions is central to morality. to morality.

If we expect an ethical theory to help us If we expect an ethical theory to help us solve the really hard and complex problems solve the really hard and complex problems of life ,than an ethics of right action may be of life ,than an ethics of right action may be more helpful . If on other hand , we are more helpful . If on other hand , we are more concerned with living our daily life in a more concerned with living our daily life in a community with others ,then perhaps an community with others ,then perhaps an ethics of character is more appropriate.ethics of character is more appropriate.

JUSTICEJUSTICE

Justice like rights is an important moral Justice like rights is an important moral concept with wide range of applications.concept with wide range of applications.

We use it to evaluate not only the actions We use it to evaluate not only the actions of individuals but also social , legal political of individuals but also social , legal political , and economic practices and institutions., and economic practices and institutions.

Question of justice often arise when there Question of justice often arise when there is something to distributeis something to distribute

If there is a shortage of organ donors , for If there is a shortage of organ donors , for example , we ask what is a just , or fair example , we ask what is a just , or fair way of deciding who gets a transplant ?way of deciding who gets a transplant ?

If there is a burden, such as taxes , we If there is a burden, such as taxes , we want to make sure that every one bears a want to make sure that every one bears a fair share.fair share.

Justice is also concerned with the righting Justice is also concerned with the righting of wrongs,of wrongs,

It requires , for example that a criminal be It requires , for example that a criminal be punished for a crime and that the punished for a crime and that the punishment fit the crime by being neither punishment fit the crime by being neither too lenient nor too severe.too lenient nor too severe.

Justice also requires that something to be Justice also requires that something to be done to compensate the victims of done to compensate the victims of discrimination or defective products or discrimination or defective products or industrial accidents.industrial accidents.

Main Types of JusticeMain Types of Justice

1.1. Distributive justiceDistributive justice

2.2. Retributive justiceRetributive justice

3.3. Compensatory justiceCompensatory justice

Distributive justiceDistributive justice

Which deals with the Which deals with the distribution benefits and distribution benefits and burdens.burdens.

Retributive justiceRetributive justice

Which involves the Which involves the punishment of wrong doers.punishment of wrong doers.

Compensatory justiceCompensatory justice

Which is a matter of Which is a matter of compensating persons for compensating persons for wrong done to them.wrong done to them.

JUSTICE AND THE MARKET JUSTICE AND THE MARKET SYSTEMSYSTEM

The concept of justice is relevant to The concept of justice is relevant to business ethics primarily in terms of the business ethics primarily in terms of the

distribution of benefits and burdens, distribution of benefits and burdens, although the justice of the economic although the justice of the economic

system in which business activity takes system in which business activity takes place is also an important consideration place is also an important consideration

in business ethics. in business ethics.

Principles of Distributive Justice Principles of Distributive Justice

Strict Egalitarian :Strict Egalitarian : Every person should Every person should receive equal benefits and burdensreceive equal benefits and burdens

Merit--Plato's Version :Merit--Plato's Version : People should People should be rewarded with positions of be rewarded with positions of responsibility according to their responsibility according to their intelligence, capacity for devotion to the intelligence, capacity for devotion to the public good, and education.public good, and education.

"Socialist“ :"Socialist“ : People should be assigned People should be assigned burdens according to abilities, benefits burdens according to abilities, benefits according to need.according to need.

Libertarian :Libertarian : Burdens should be Burdens should be assigned as they are voluntarily accepted, assigned as they are voluntarily accepted, benefits as others voluntarily give thembenefits as others voluntarily give them

Capitalism : Benefits should be Capitalism : Benefits should be distributed according to the value of distributed according to the value of contribution individual makes to the contribution individual makes to the society , and benefits are the direct results society , and benefits are the direct results of your effortsof your efforts

Theories of justiceTheories of justice

FollowingFollowing are the four prominent theories of are the four prominent theories of justice:justice:

Aristotle’s principle of proportionate equality.Aristotle’s principle of proportionate equality.

John Mill’s theory of justice based on utility.John Mill’s theory of justice based on utility.

John Rawls’s egalitarian theory of justice.John Rawls’s egalitarian theory of justice.

Robert Nozick’s libertarian entitlement theory.Robert Nozick’s libertarian entitlement theory.

Egalitarian theoryEgalitarian theory

Selecting Principles of Justice.Selecting Principles of Justice.

Different principles of distributive justice Different principles of distributive justice are proposed by different philosophers.are proposed by different philosophers.

What is needed is a way to determine What is needed is a way to determine when social systems, or the rules of justice when social systems, or the rules of justice that govern society a s a whole, are just.that govern society a s a whole, are just.

Such an approach to the selection of rules Such an approach to the selection of rules of distributive justice is provided by John of distributive justice is provided by John Rawls.Rawls.

John RawlsJohn Rawls (February 21, 1921 – (February 21, 1921 – November 24, 2002) November 24, 2002) was an American was an American philosopher and a philosopher and a leading figure in moral leading figure in moral and political and political philosophy.philosophy.

The Egalitarian Theory of John The Egalitarian Theory of John RawlsRawls

The contemporary American philosopher John The contemporary American philosopher John Rawls has developed an egalitarian theory of Rawls has developed an egalitarian theory of justice that embodies the Kantian conception of justice that embodies the Kantian conception of equality and offers an alternative to equality and offers an alternative to utilitarianism. utilitarianism.

Rawls’s theory focuses on social justice, which Rawls’s theory focuses on social justice, which he regards as a feature of a well-ordered society. he regards as a feature of a well-ordered society.

Rawls’s egalitarian theoryRawls’s egalitarian theory

Theory of Justice : A Theory of Justice is a Theory of Justice : A Theory of Justice is a widely-read book of political philosophy widely-read book of political philosophy and ethics by John Rawls. Published in and ethics by John Rawls. Published in 19711971

His objection to utilitarianism , as we have His objection to utilitarianism , as we have already seen , is that it does not give already seen , is that it does not give adequate attention to the way in which the adequate attention to the way in which the utility is distributed among different utility is distributed among different individuals individuals

Utilitarianism ,”Rawls’s charges “, does not Utilitarianism ,”Rawls’s charges “, does not take seriously the difference between take seriously the difference between persons “persons “

As a alternative to the utilitarian ideal of As a alternative to the utilitarian ideal of society with the highest level of welfare , society with the highest level of welfare , Rawls proposes a society that recognizes its Rawls proposes a society that recognizes its free and equal moral persons , a concept he free and equal moral persons , a concept he attributes to Kant.attributes to Kant.

For Rawls ,questions of justice arise For Rawls ,questions of justice arise primarily when free and equal persons primarily when free and equal persons attempt to advance their own interest and attempt to advance their own interest and come into conflict with others pursuing come into conflict with others pursuing their self interest .their self interest .

The key to a well ordered society is the The key to a well ordered society is the creation of institutions that enables creation of institutions that enables individuals with conflicting ends to interact individuals with conflicting ends to interact in mutually beneficial waysin mutually beneficial ways

The focus of Rawls’s theory , is on social The focus of Rawls’s theory , is on social justice , that is, on a conception of justice justice , that is, on a conception of justice that is suited to a well ordered society .that is suited to a well ordered society .

Once we have determined what constitutes Once we have determined what constitutes a just society , however we can apply the a just society , however we can apply the results to questions of justice in the political results to questions of justice in the political ,legal and economic spheres.,legal and economic spheres.

John Rawls' MethodJohn Rawls' Method

Rawls begins by asking us to imagine a Rawls begins by asking us to imagine a situation in which free and equal persons , situation in which free and equal persons , concerned to advance their own interests, concerned to advance their own interests, attempt to arrive at unanimous agreement attempt to arrive at unanimous agreement on principles that will serve as the basis on principles that will serve as the basis for constructing the major institutions of for constructing the major institutions of society.society.

He assumes , that people he is describing He assumes , that people he is describing are rational in the sense that they are rational in the sense that they conceive ends and act purposefully to conceive ends and act purposefully to achieve them and that they are willing to achieve them and that they are willing to cooperate with others when this is cooperate with others when this is possible and to abide by any agreements possible and to abide by any agreements made.made.

John Rawls' MethodJohn Rawls' Method

We are to imagine ourselves in what We are to imagine ourselves in what Rawls calls the Original Position.Rawls calls the Original Position.

We are all self-interested rational persons We are all self-interested rational persons and we stand behind "the Veil of and we stand behind "the Veil of Ignorance." To say that we are self-Ignorance." To say that we are self-interested rational persons is to say that interested rational persons is to say that we are motivated to select, in an informed we are motivated to select, in an informed and enlightened way, whatever seems and enlightened way, whatever seems advantageous for ourselves.advantageous for ourselves.

To say that we are behind a Veil of To say that we are behind a Veil of Ignorance is to say we do not know the Ignorance is to say we do not know the following sorts of things: our sex, race, following sorts of things: our sex, race, physical handicaps, generation, social physical handicaps, generation, social class of our parents, etc. class of our parents, etc.

But self-interested rational persons are not But self-interested rational persons are not ignorant of (1) the general types of ignorant of (1) the general types of possible situations in which humans can possible situations in which humans can find themselves; (2) general facts about find themselves; (2) general facts about human psychology and "human nature".human psychology and "human nature".

Self-interested rational persons behind the Self-interested rational persons behind the Veil of Ignorance are given the task of Veil of Ignorance are given the task of choosing the principles that shall govern choosing the principles that shall govern actual world.actual world.

Rawls believes that he has set up an Rawls believes that he has set up an inherently fair procedure here. inherently fair procedure here.

Because of the fairness of the procedure Because of the fairness of the procedure Rawls has described, he says, the Rawls has described, he says, the principles that would be chosen by means principles that would be chosen by means of this procedure would be fair principles.of this procedure would be fair principles.

According to Rawls, ignorance of these According to Rawls, ignorance of these details about oneself will lead to principles details about oneself will lead to principles that are fair to all.that are fair to all.

If an individual does not know how he will If an individual does not know how he will end up in his own conceived society, he is end up in his own conceived society, he is likely not going to privilege any one class likely not going to privilege any one class of people, but rather develop a scheme of of people, but rather develop a scheme of justice that treats all fairly. justice that treats all fairly.

In particular, Rawls claims that those in In particular, Rawls claims that those in the Original Position would all adopt a the Original Position would all adopt a maximin strategy which would maximise strategy which would maximise the prospects of the least well-off .the prospects of the least well-off .

John Rawls' principles of justiceJohn Rawls' principles of justice

The First Principle of Justice- Each person The First Principle of Justice- Each person is to have an equal right to the most is to have an equal right to the most extensive scheme of equal basic liberties extensive scheme of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar scheme of compatible with a similar scheme of liberties for others .liberties for others .

The basic liberties of citizens are, roughly The basic liberties of citizens are, roughly speaking, political liberty (i.e., to vote ), speaking, political liberty (i.e., to vote ), freedom of speech , liberty of conscience, freedom of speech , liberty of conscience, freedom of property; and freedom from freedom of property; and freedom from arbitrary arrest.arbitrary arrest.

The first principle is more or less absolute, The first principle is more or less absolute, and may not be violated, even for the sake and may not be violated, even for the sake of the second principle.of the second principle.

The task of ensuring that every one has The task of ensuring that every one has basic rights ought to be completed before basic rights ought to be completed before any inequalities based on the second any inequalities based on the second principle are permitted.principle are permitted.

The Second Principle of JusticeThe Second Principle of Justice

Social and economic inequalities are to be Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that :arranged so that :

a) they are to be of the greatest benefit to a) they are to be of the greatest benefit to the least-advantaged members of society the least-advantaged members of society (the difference principle).(the difference principle).

b) offices and positions must be open to b) offices and positions must be open to everyone under conditions of fair equality everyone under conditions of fair equality of opportunityof opportunity

The second principle recognizes ,however The second principle recognizes ,however that there are conditions under which that there are conditions under which rational self-interested persons would rational self-interested persons would make an exception to the first principle make an exception to the first principle and accept less than equal share of some and accept less than equal share of some primary goods.primary goods.

One such condition is that every one One such condition is that every one would be better off with the inequality than would be better off with the inequality than without it.without it.

If it is possible to increase the total amount If it is possible to increase the total amount of income , for example , but not possible of income , for example , but not possible to distribute it equally , than resulting to distribute it equally , than resulting distribution is still just, according to Rawls distribution is still just, according to Rawls as long as the extra income is distributed as long as the extra income is distributed in such a way that every one benefits from in such a way that every one benefits from inequality.inequality.

Principle 2(b) , the principle of equal Principle 2(b) , the principle of equal opportunity is similar to the view that opportunity is similar to the view that careers should be open to all on the basis careers should be open to all on the basis of talent.of talent.

Whether a person gets a certain job , for Whether a person gets a certain job , for example ought to be determined by example ought to be determined by competence in that line of work and not by competence in that line of work and not by skin color ,family connection or any other skin color ,family connection or any other irrelevant characteristic.irrelevant characteristic.

What does the Difference Principle mean? What does the Difference Principle mean? It means that society may undertake It means that society may undertake projects that require giving some persons projects that require giving some persons more power, income, status, etc. than more power, income, status, etc. than others, e.g., paying accountants and others, e.g., paying accountants and upper-level managers more than upper-level managers more than assembly-line operatives, provided that assembly-line operatives, provided that the following conditions are met:the following conditions are met:

(a) the project will make life better off for (a) the project will make life better off for the people who are now worst off, for the people who are now worst off, for example, by raising the living standards of example, by raising the living standards of everyone in the community and everyone in the community and empowering the least advantaged persons empowering the least advantaged persons to the extent consistent with their well-to the extent consistent with their well-being,being,

and (b) access to the privileged positions and (b) access to the privileged positions is not blocked by discrimination according is not blocked by discrimination according to irrelevant criteria.to irrelevant criteria.

Rawls' claim in a) is that departures from Rawls' claim in a) is that departures from equality of a list of what he calls primary equality of a list of what he calls primary goods – 'things which a rational man goods – 'things which a rational man wants whatever else he wants' - are wants whatever else he wants' - are justified only to the extent that they justified only to the extent that they improve the lot of those who are worst-off improve the lot of those who are worst-off under that distribution in comparison with under that distribution in comparison with the previous, equal, distributionthe previous, equal, distribution

Libertarianism Libertarianism

Libertarianism Libertarianism

Libertarianism is, as the name implies, the Libertarianism is, as the name implies, the belief in liberty. Libertarians strive for the belief in liberty. Libertarians strive for the best of all worlds - a free, peaceful, best of all worlds - a free, peaceful, abundant world where each individual has abundant world where each individual has the maximum opportunity to pursue his or the maximum opportunity to pursue his or her dreams and to realize his full potential.her dreams and to realize his full potential.

Libertarians believe that each person Libertarians believe that each person owns his own life and property, and has owns his own life and property, and has the right to make his own choices as to the right to make his own choices as to how he lives his life - as long as he simply how he lives his life - as long as he simply respects the same right of others to do the respects the same right of others to do the same.same.

Libertarianism is thus the combination of Libertarianism is thus the combination of liberty (the freedom to live your life in any liberty (the freedom to live your life in any peaceful way you choose), responsibility peaceful way you choose), responsibility (the prohibition against the use of force (the prohibition against the use of force against others, except in defense), and against others, except in defense), and tolerance (honoring and respecting the tolerance (honoring and respecting the peaceful choices of others).peaceful choices of others).

Libertarians believe that this combination Libertarians believe that this combination of personal and economic liberty produces of personal and economic liberty produces abundance, peace, harmony, creativity, abundance, peace, harmony, creativity, order, and safetyorder, and safety

Another way of saying this is that Another way of saying this is that libertarians believe you should be free to libertarians believe you should be free to do as you choose with your own life and do as you choose with your own life and property, as long as you don't harm the property, as long as you don't harm the person and property of others. person and property of others.

Friedrich von hayekFriedrich von hayek

Hayek was an economist who made Hayek was an economist who made important contributions to political theory.important contributions to political theory.

He was a critic of socialism.He was a critic of socialism.

He was against the system of state He was against the system of state planned economies.planned economies.

He believed in “spontaneous order” and He believed in “spontaneous order” and advantage of market in processing advantage of market in processing informationinformation

Spontaneous orderSpontaneous order

Human activity requires a, certain order Human activity requires a, certain order which is to say rules and institutions that which is to say rules and institutions that provide a basic frame work for people provide a basic frame work for people interaction.interaction.

One concept of order is a planned order, One concept of order is a planned order, in which a ruler or a group of leaders set in which a ruler or a group of leaders set goals and organise people activities to goals and organise people activities to achieve them.achieve them.

An alternative to a planned order is a An alternative to a planned order is a system in which individuals , within certain system in which individuals , within certain general rules , make decisions that result general rules , make decisions that result in in Spontaneous orderSpontaneous order

Hayek cites the development of language , Hayek cites the development of language , money and the first laws as examples of money and the first laws as examples of such spontaneous order.such spontaneous order.

Spontaneous order protects and expands Spontaneous order protects and expands the basic right to liberty and property.the basic right to liberty and property.

Robert Nozick- Entitlement Robert Nozick- Entitlement Theory Theory

Entitlement Theory is a theory of private Entitlement Theory is a theory of private property created by Robert Nozick .property created by Robert Nozick .

The entitlement theory can be stated very The entitlement theory can be stated very simply . A distribution is just “ if every one simply . A distribution is just “ if every one is entitled to the holdings they possess”is entitled to the holdings they possess”

Whether we are entitled to a certain Whether we are entitled to a certain holdings is determined by tracing their holdings is determined by tracing their history.history.

Most of us what we possess comes from Most of us what we possess comes from others through transfers , such as others through transfers , such as purchases and gifts.purchases and gifts.

As long as each transfer was just and the As long as each transfer was just and the original acquisition was just, then our original acquisition was just, then our present holding is just.present holding is just.

Nozick's entitlement theory Nozick's entitlement theory comprises 3 main principlescomprises 3 main principles

1 1 A principle of justice in acquisition A principle of justice in acquisition - - This principle deals with the initial This principle deals with the initial acquisition of holdings. It is an account of acquisition of holdings. It is an account of how people first come to own common how people first come to own common property, original settlers acquired by property, original settlers acquired by clearing the land and tilling it .clearing the land and tilling it .

2 2 A principle of justice in transfer A principle of justice in transfer - This - This principle explains how one person can principle explains how one person can acquire holdings , including voluntary acquire holdings , including voluntary exchange and gifts.exchange and gifts.

3 3 A principle of rectification of injustice A principle of rectification of injustice - - how to deal with holdings that are unjustly how to deal with holdings that are unjustly acquired or transferred, whether and how acquired or transferred, whether and how much victims can be compensated, how to much victims can be compensated, how to deal with long past transgressions or deal with long past transgressions or injustices done by a government, and so injustices done by a government, and so on.on.

Nozick believes that if the world were Nozick believes that if the world were wholly just, only the first two principles wholly just, only the first two principles would be needed .would be needed .

Thus, Entitlement Theory would imply "a Thus, Entitlement Theory would imply "a distribution is just if everyone is entitled to distribution is just if everyone is entitled to the holdings they possess under the the holdings they possess under the distribution" Unfortunately, not everyone distribution" Unfortunately, not everyone follows these rules: "some people steal follows these rules: "some people steal from others, or defraud them, or enslave from others, or defraud them, or enslave them, seizing their product and preventing them, seizing their product and preventing them from living as they choose, or forcibly them from living as they choose, or forcibly exclude others from competing in exclude others from competing in exchanges" . Thus the third principle of exchanges" . Thus the third principle of rectification is needed.rectification is needed.

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