Karl Marx

The Foundation of Critical Criminology

Social Context

Capitalism emerges:1.The Industrial Revolution2.The development of overseas markets and

products

Capitalist Effects:OvercrowdingUnderpaid/overworked Unemployment as machines replace

peopleHarsh living conditions (urban mass)Capitalists: workers are part of the

machine

Karl Marx (1818 – 1883)

German philosopher, economist revolutionary

Most influential theorist

Macro level critique (theoretical scope)

Not focused on crime in particular

Crime is merely a part of a broad social system

Material conditions…

Intellectual contextEnlightenment InfluenceTraveled across EuropeBegins with Hegel and notion of society

(ideas)Society evolves ‘naturally’ from tribal to

rational

Breaks from HegelPeople MUST be able to realize their

potentialFocus on material reality The culmination of a classless society People act in their own interests

If you don’t, its because needs are hidden from you...

Outlook shaped by material conditions

Pre-MarxConsensus Model

Enlightenment ideals assumed:HomogeneityLaws and Social control practices reflects the

morals and norms of the majorityCJS operates to benefit majority of the

populationChange occurs: ‘evolution’Does not questions what is crime and why....

E.g. Social ContractE.g. Social Contract

Conflict Model (Marx)

Law - in both its application and codification - is not neutral; Law reflects the interests of powerful segments of society and functions to benefit certain populations at the expense of others.

Assumes: Pluralism: diverse society Definitions of deviance tied to dominant ideologies morals and norms of the powerful

Change occurs:‘revolution’ Social institutions (including ‘crime’) are ordered by economy

Historical Materialism

Method of ‘doing history’ by looking at the ‘real’ conditions during particular periods

Economic conditions >> physical conditions

Historically specific modes of production1. productive forces: labour power & means

of production2. social and technical relations of

production: relations between classes of people and the objects of their work.

Materialism: change economic and

social relations E.g. WW2 Factory Demands

Veronica Foster

Capitalist Mode of Production

Capitalism:Economic system whereby the means

of production are privately owned by capitalists who purchase labour power from those who do not own or have access to the means of production (proletariat) Labour power is purchased for wages

Legal process: Economic power = political power to

control or create laws

Capitalist Mode of Production

Need for capital to realize profit through the sale of a product produced by a worker

Worker is paid less than the value that is contributed to the value of the product or service

US: surplus value of manufacturing is +400%

Exploitive relationship between worker/capitalists

E.g. See “Fast Food Nation” (2006)E.g. See “Fast Food Nation” (2006)

Capitalism: The Superstructure

ClassClassPeople are ordered by their relationship to production

Proletariat: working class only have labour

Bourgeois: own the means of production (e.g. Trump)

Class conflict will lead to Class conflict will lead to revolutionrevolution

Capitalism: The Superstructure

IdeologyIdeologyWays of thinking support material reality Position of ruling class

reflected in ideology Presented as natural or

‘common sense’

False ConsciousnessFalse ConsciousnessPeople have natural interests & if they do not behave in these interests, it is because they have been deceived about their interests

“You say you want a revolution...”Conflict is inherent to class

structureRevolt is inevitable...

Eventually the oppressed will become conscious of their exploitation

Socialism without exploitation....

Social control and legislation focused on quelling uprisings & not interested in addressing concerns...

Shift from enlightenment’s belief Shift from enlightenment’s belief that the state was ‘naturally that the state was ‘naturally

neutral’neutral’

The Birth of Statistics

The Social Mechanics of Crime: Adolphe Quetelet

StatisticsCentral component of criminological theories

that seek to explain criminality

But what do statistics tell us?1.Norms

Standard Ordinary

2.Rates Indicators of trends Used to predict

Birth of Statistics (early 1800s): Social Context

Democratic State Emergence of Welfare State (taxation)

Industrial Revolution Model of factory/society Duty tied to rational production

Urbanization Dangerous Classes :

not controlled by ideology of industry or the social contract

Counts related to diseases – moral panics

Birth of Statistics (early 1800s): Social Context

Media Emerging literacy Moral Panics

Overreaction about particular groups

Science: Desire to control nature

Natural laws /social laws Personal freedom

limited by environment & constitution

StatisticsDesire of Government to control populationPractices of enumeration

Previously for taxation Training /standards of conduct Church & military

State encroaches on social life Knowledge on citizens expands Welfare state (‘programs’ & tax payers)

Crime StatisticsCompte 1827 General record of all criminal offences in Paris Divided by types of justice system (civic or

criminal)

Records indicate:1.Number of previous offences2.If accused was acquitted or convicted3.Punishment (if convicted)4.Time of year of offence5.Age, sex, occupation and education of accused

Became more detailed over time, looking for Became more detailed over time, looking for correlatescorrelates

Records about ‘habits’ begin to circulate...Records about ‘habits’ begin to circulate...

Adolphe Quetelet 1796-1874

Key: methodological & conceptual contributions

BiographyAvoided deterministic

arguments of later positivism Known for scientific rigorMath & AstronomyAcademic (not concerned with

crime orig.)

Social Mechanics

Interest in applying natural laws to human actions:

Social facts: social laws governing societies

Laws identified through analysis of statistics Think about the criteria of

critical theory…..

Quetelet’s 3 Statistical Rules

1. Average ‘man’ = natural distribution

Bell curve (midpoint) Average person = centre of gravity

Physical characteristics of a populationMoral statistics (suicide, marriage, etc)

KEY: Individual differences not as important as the SUM of individuals (Society)

Quetelet’s Statistical Rules

2. Law of large numbers Need a large sample

3. Law of Regularity Changes are rare Predictability

Moral StatisticsStatistics indicate social problems Crime, suicide, etc...

Social laws are more complex than natural law because of freewillbecause of freewill:: Not reducible to individuals Space for freedom to act Laws govern human behaviour Humans somewhat predictable (social

beings)

We study moral statistics today...We study moral statistics today...

Quetelet’s Analysis of Crime 1826-1829

Consistency of CrimeTypes of murders and

property offencesRegularities in court

practicesPatterns exist!

Dark Figure of Crime Aware problems of statistics

Quetelet’s Analysis of Crime 1826-1829

Criminal Propensity Everyone has potential

to be criminal

Propensity, not determinism!

Propensity could be visualizedProbability & chance IndividualityIndividuality was the

‘chance’ that impacted the ‘probability’ of criminality

Quetelet’s Analysis of Crime 1826-1829Individuality: Upbringing Ability to improve situation

Young males, poor uneducated without employment or in lowly employment would have a greater propensity to commit crimes.

Poverty and lack of education did not cause crime!

Extreme disparity (temptation & suffering) did....

Quetelet’s Analysis of Crime 1826-1829Society as the cause of crime:Society ‘prepares’ crime, the

guilty are the instruments by which it is executed

Social conditions Social conditions are more influential than individual willindividual will

Quetelet’s thesis supports:Social transformationLess focus on incarceration as

deterrence