Kazedewan Apartment Building Dhaka, Bangladesh I. Introduction

The Kazedewan Apartment Building, a fourteen-unit block, is located on Noor Fatah Lane in the old city of Dhaka. This structure stands out among the multi-storeyed, multiple-occupancy residential buildings that are fast replacing the original, mostly two-storey courtyard houses. These high-density apartment blocks line the narrow streets of the old city where two cycle-rickshaws can barely pass each other.

The reason for the prominence of Kazedewan is primarily the architect’s design solution for the specific location and his appreciation of the lifestyle of the inhabitants in the fast-changing environment of the old city. He has demonstrated that quality is better than quantity.

II. Contextual Information A. Historical background

A land with a rich cultural heritage of myths and legends, Bangladesh became a sovereign state in 1971 after its liberation from Pakistan. The country spreads over a total area of 119,724 square kilometres and enjoys a tropical climate. The population density per square kilometre was 898 according to the census of 2001.

Dhaka (formerly Dacca), the capital of Bangladesh, has a history that stretches back about four hundred years. It served as the Mughal capital of Bengal from 1608 to 1704 and was a trading centre for British, French and Dutch interests before coming under British rule in 1765. In 1905 it was again named the capital of Bengal, and in 1956 it became the capital of East Pakistan. Dhaka began its growth from the northern bank of the Buriganga River. During each period, the city grew northwards. The pre-Mughal, Mughal and British periods together formed the old city of Dhaka, while the developments post-1947 (following partition from India) and then independence in 1971 have created the newer parts. The growth during the modern periods has been extraordinary.

The current area of Dhaka is 1,464 square kilometres. According to a recent press release from the UN (24 March 2004), the population of the city in 2003 was estimated at 11.6 million and is projected to grow to 17.9 million by 2015. At the moment, Dhaka is the twelfth largest city in the world and is predicted to become the seventh largest by 2015, with a growth rate of 3.78 per cent.

Dhaka is located in one of the world's leading rice- and jute-growing regions. Its industries include textiles (jute, muslin, cotton) and food processing, especially rice milling. A variety of other consumer goods are also manufactured.

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B. Local architectural character Fertile and active in trade by virtue of its climate and location and graced with a rich history, Dhaka boasts a varied architectural heritage, now mainly confined to the old city. Muslim influence is reflected in the more than seven hundred mosques and historic buildings found throughout the city. Although little is known of the pre-Mughal past of Dhaka, inscriptions on tombs and shrines dating from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries bear witness to the early settlement of the area. The earliest monuments are the dargahs, khanqahs, tombs and mosques built by Arab missionaries who furthered the spread of Islam in the region. The Mughals built fortresses, mosques, tombs, katras (houses) and bridges. But a few of the monuments and structures of interest are Lalbagh Fort, Paribibi’s Tomb, Hussaini Dalan, Chawk Mosque, Bora Katra and Chotto Katra, Tongi, and the Dulai and Pagla bridges. In the past, Dhaka has been patronized by the Dutch, French, Armenians, Greeks and, of course, the British and the Nawabs.

C. Climatic conditions

Dhaka is located in the geographic centre of the country, in the great deltaic region of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. It is served by the port of Narayanganj, located sixteen kilometres to the south-east. The city is within the monsoon climate zone, with an average annual temperature of 25˚C and monthly mean temperatures varying between 18˚C in January and 29˚C in August. Nearly 80 per cent of the average annual rainfall of 1,854 millimetres (73 inches) occurs between May and September.

D. Site and surroundings

The fourteen-unit apartment building is on Noor Fatah Lane in Kazedewan, in the dense old city of Dhaka. It comes under the jurisdiction of the historic Lalbagh police force. Around four hundred households live in the forty buildings that line the 137-metre-long lane.

The surrounding area houses a range of amenities such as the Azimpur Maternity Hospital (the oldest maternity home in Dhaka), a fire station, the Water and Sanitation Agency office, and markets in the north, as well as education facilities such as the Secondary and Higher Secondary Education Board, Eden Girls’ College (the first girls’ college in Dhaka), Dhaka Medical College, Dhaka University, and Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology. Chawkbazar is to the south and the historic Lalbagh Fort to the west.

E. Topography

The topography is quite even and stable, with no specific factors or features of note. The old part of Dhaka naturally has the earliest developments and from here the city has grown northwards. With the passage of time, the pressure on land in the old city has increased as the number of heirs to a plot of land has grown over the generations. As a result, old courtyard houses are being razed and apartment blocks are going up; consequently, there is a good deal of building activity.

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III. Programme A. What conditions gave rise to the formulation of the programme?

People from the old city have very distinctive traits, including strong family ties. The architect’s family comes from the old city, where he was born and raised. It was this affinity and affiliation, combined with the opportunity to express himself in his chosen medium – design and architecture – that gave rise to the Kazedewan Apartment project.

The architect’s cousin presented him with a proposed design for the block, typical of what is prevalent in the old city these days. The architect convinced him that it would be possible to provide better facilities without incurring much greater costs.

The old city traditionally boasted courtyard houses where the court served as a light well, even when neighbouring buildings abutted one another. This not only provided a healthy physical environment but also brought about social cohesion in community living. However, owing to neglect of the housing stock and an increase in the number of heirs, old houses continue to be demolished and replaced with multi-storeyed apartment blocks to cater for the many sons in the newer generation. These new buildings have a different morphology: while not an inch is left between apartment blocks, and the courtyard was also built upon. As a result, such buildings are not only more densely spaced but also constitute unhealthy living quarters. A lack of fresh air and natural light has begun to tell on the residents. There is also greatly increased demand on utilities and constant complaints about power- and water-cuts.

The architect felt that he owed it to the people of the old city to demonstrate that creating a well-ventilated, airy and well-lit apartment block in their locality is not impossible. As an architect, he wanted to show that a well-designed building is no more expensive than the structures that are being built in the old city.

Convincing the owner was not easy, but once he appreciated the benefits of the new design and understood that a healthy living environment could be created at no extra cost, he realized that there would be increased demand for his apartments.

B. Objectives

Noting the shortcomings in conventional apartment blocks, the architect and his team developed the design for their scheme based on four principles: - Small yet abundant: the apartments might be small but they would enjoy the benefits

of nature through light, air and greenery. - Revival of tradition and old values: they would propose a new paradigm for building

in an architecturally deteriorating area. - Cost effective: they would employ an innovative approach to meet the needs of the

users and respond to climatic and environmental conditions without unnecessary embellishment or waste.

- Simple yet modern: a facility would be designed to reflect the simplicity of the lives of the residents of old Dhaka, but for modern times.

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C. Functional requirements

The design brief evolved during discussions between the owner and the architect. The site covers an area of 276 square metres and the owner originally planned to build on the entire plot, without leaving any surrounding space. However, it was decided that the building would be set back and would be designed with care and sensitivity, responding to the users’ needs. The basic brief that emerged was a five-storey building with the following spaces:

Ground Floor:

A common space for community gatherings, for celebrations or for times of sorrow. This would also be a space for carrying out the sacrifice on Eid ul Adha for all the apartment dwellers An office for the owner so that he would be accessible to the residents A large storage area A lavatory for the guards Fourteen apartments, each including: Two bedrooms Two bathrooms, one en suite to a bedroom, the other in the hallway Dining and living rooms (a combined space) Kitchen Lofts for storage A view of green space Where possible, a kitchen garden

Roof: An area to hang and dry washing A meeting place for elders and youths A play area for children

IV. Description A. Project data

The plan is such that each floor has been split to house one apartment at the lower level and two apartments at the upper level. The entrance has a raised plinth 0.45 metres above the road level and a semi-basement serves for storage. The first set of apartments is 1.35 metres above the entrance level, as can be seen clearly in the section.

The total area of the site is 276 square metres The ground floor has an area of 176.04 square metres The semi-basement has an area of 109.31 square metres There are three types of apartment: Five apartments of type A, each measuring 54.04 square metres Five apartments of type B, each measuring 61.66 square metres Four apartments of type C, each measuring 68.11 square metres The total built area is 1,070.16 square metres.

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B. Evolution of design concepts

1. Response to physical constraints The Kazedewan Apartment Building has moved away from the construction norm in the old city of apartment blocks that completely occupy the sites on which they are located. The Kazedewan building has sought to create new standards in a number of ways: - The ground floor is set back, to allow two vehicles to pass each other in the otherwise

narrow lane. - It has windows / openings in every bedroom, living room, kitchen and bathroom, not

common in comparable buildings. - The architect orientated the building and positioned the openings after studying the

climate, sun-path and direction of the summer breeze. All the apertures and gardens have been positioned with consideration for the 24.5º-latitude tilt of the sun-path in Dhaka.

- The sunshades over the windows have been carefully structured. They cut out direct sunlight during the summer but allow the summer breeze (from the south-east) to filter through. During the winter months, as the sun inclines further south, sunlight enters the rooms and lends warmth. Cold winds are avoided as the wind blows from the north in the winter.

- Greenery is found at various levels and, even if it cannot be accessed physically, at least psychologically it creates a pleasing sense of openness.

2. Response to user requirements While fulfilling the functional requirements, the architect has tried to create additional comforts and spaces within the building that the residents can enjoy.

All the residents are tenants and they had no direct communication with the architect. It was the owner and the architect, who are both from the old city, who came up with two levels of user requirements: to allow for the lifestyle of people in the old city in the design; and to avoid or overcome the existing problems for residents in the old city through design. To cater for the communal aspects of everyday life, the ground floor (the lowest level) and the roof (the highest level) provide areas for meeting and communication among residents. Both these spaces are comfortable and allow free movement of air. The roof is split into three levels, for drying washing, for children, and for youths and older people. In the old city, as the sun goes down, roofs are used by inhabitants for lounging and relaxing.

In the old city, women spend a lot of time inside their dwellings. The architect, having full knowledge of this, created small but comfortable kitchens where the women can spend much of their time. Another element introduced is the fuchkee khidki, a special window with louvres that allows women and children to view the streets outside, without being noticed by passers-by.

The spatial organization of the public and private spaces in the apartment is based on the likely inclinations of the residents. It is clear that only the bedrooms are truly private spaces, once the doors are shut. Eleven apartments out of the fourteen have verandas / balconies, but all have been orientated to have a view of greenery.

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3. Purely formal aspects The scale of the Kazedewan Apartment Building fits in with the rest of the buildings in the old city. The massing, however, is very different, with a most interesting play of solids, voids and projections which cast shadows on adjacent external walls and on floors within the apartments, varying at different times of the day and season. At the same time there is a contrast within the massing, brought about by the use of concrete for structural members and natural clay bricks for the infill. The horizontal coursing of the bricks is also an attempt to balance the verticality of the building.

4. Landscaping Greenery is the soul of the project. The architect’s belief that every individual has a right to experience, even if only visually, green spaces from within their living quarters makes this project unique in the old city. Local palm trees and indigenous plants have been used in the various green areas of the project.

C. Structure, materials, technology

1. Structural systems The structure is a simple reinforced cement concrete column and beam-framed system. The design satisfies the Bangladesh National Building Code (BNBC) for seismic activity in moderate earthquake zones. The beam and column joints were made sufficiently rigid by the use of extra ties.

2. Materials Structural members: Columns and beams of reinforced concrete were cast in situ, using wooden shuttering. These members were then left exposed and coated with SARA (a locally produced, durable and cost-effective coating applied to the surface to protect from water and the growth of algae, to minimize maintenance).

Infill materials: Terracotta bricks, commonly and readily available in Dhaka, were used for the infill. The 25-centimetre-thick walls have an inner face finished in handmade bricks while the outer face is finished in machine-made bricks. A locking brick was provided at every few courses.

Renderings and finishes: The externally exposed areas of all cast members were coated with SARA. Buildings are exposed to a good deal of rain in Dhaka and this finish provides a damp-resistant layer. The inner faces of all the structural members and walls were plastered and then finished with emulsion paint. The floors were finished with RAK tiles, manufactured locally. (RAK is the acronym for Ras al Keimah, a noted manufacturer of good quality ceramic tiles in the UAE, with a local plant in Bangladesh.) The initial plan was to have terrazzo flooring but it was decided that, since good local tiles were available, it would be more cost effective to use them.

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3. Construction technology The construction technology applied to this building was no different from standard practice in Dhaka or, for that matter, in the entire subcontinent. However, extra care was taken in the provision of drainage and waterproofing in the areas where gardens were located.

4. Building services and site utilities To manage water supplies, underground and overhead reservoirs were provided. A twenty-four-hour water supply is guaranteed, even when other residents of old Dhaka are suffering cuts. The water is supplied by WASA (Water and Sanitation Agency, a public department). The sewerage pipes are connected through manholes into the city system.

D. Origin of technology, materials, labour force, professionals

1. Technology Simple and commonplace technologies have been applied with the use of a reinforced cement concrete structure, prevalent in the region for standard construction.

2. Materials All the materials used in this building are indigenous, local or locally sourced. Terracotta bricks are indigenous; cement, steel and aluminium, finishes such as paint and tiles, and all flush doors and lightweight waterproof plastic doors are manufactured locally; the SARA finish and glass for the windows are the only imported materials, sourced locally.

3. Labour force The entire labour force that worked on this project was from Bangladesh. They were not necessarily from Dhaka but workers (both skilled and unskilled) migrate to the city from many parts of the country in search of permanent jobs or temporary employment.

4. Professionals The architect was born and bred in Old Dhaka. His mother still lives in the old city, and her home is the hub for their family get-togethers. The main contractor, also from the old city, had already worked with the owner on other construction projects. The structural engineer / construction supervisor also comes from the old city but now lives in the newer quarter. Planning for electrical and plumbing work was carried out in the architect’s office. The procurement manager, who was highly trusted by the owner, lives in the old city.

V. Construction Schedule and Costs A. History of project

The project was commissioned in June 2001 and design work began in the same month. The drawings were produced stage by stage, and so construction could begin the following month, July 2001. The construction was certified as completed in July 2002. The first tenants moved in during April 2002, three months prior to the completion of the project.

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B. Total costs and main sources of financing

The cost of the land was BDT 4.5 million (USD 77,586) and the total construction cost of the project came to BDT 7.4 million (USD 127,586).

C. Comparative costs

The cost for the Kazedewan Apartment Building was BDT 6,915 (USD 119.22) per square metre. The schedule of rates published by the Public Works Department lists the rate for similar structures (five-storey reinforced cement concrete) as BDT 6,743 (USD 116.25).

D. Qualitative analysis of costs

The cost of Kazedewan was BDT 6,915 (USD 119.22) per square metre. Therefore the cost of the units ranged from BDT 373,410 (USD 6,438) to BDT 426,379 (USD 7,351) to BDT 470,980 (USD 8,120), depending on their size.

E. Maintenance costs

There is a window-unit air-conditioner in only one apartment. This is used by the owner of the building, who lives in Dhanmondi with his family but uses the apartment as a weekend home. The remaining apartments have fans and use energy-saving light bulbs or fluorescent lighting. Apart from electricity, all utility and maintenance costs are included in the rent, which ranges between BDT 6,000 and BDT 7,000 (USD 103– 120) per month.

F. Ongoing costs

Maintenance costs, which cover the upkeep of the green areas, community spaces and common areas such as the staircase, are all included in the rent and the owner employs people to attend to the work. One of the green areas is accessed through the ground floor, and the other three are accessed from the apartments. The materials and finishes used externally were specifically designed to avoid the recurrent costs of painting. The interior finishes – the wall paintwork and floor tiles – are all washable.

VI. Technical Assessment A. Functional assessment

While the practical needs of individual families are met within the apartment units, the whole building encompasses an interpretation of the traditional lifestyle of the old town. This includes the representations of the courtyard, the mer (where people might sit at the entrance), and the use of spaces by women. All the residents seem pleased to have two bathrooms along with the two bedrooms, a self-contained kitchen and good storage space in the medium-sized apartments.

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B. Climatic performance

The architect orientated the building and positioned the openings after studying the climate, sun-path and direction of summer breezes. All the apertures and gardens have been positioned with consideration for the 24.5º-latitude tilt of the sun-path in Dhaka. The sunshades over the windows cut out direct sunlight during the summer but allow the summer breeze (from the south-east) to filter through. During the winter months, as the sun inclines further south, sunlight enters the rooms and lends warmth. Cold winds are avoided as the wind blows from the north in the winter. The gardens also give a soothing effect.

In contrast to all the other new construction in the old city, this building provides good ventilation, ample natural light and some attractive views. A special window with fixed glass and adjustable louvres called the fuchkee khirki has been provided in each apartment. This serves as a viewing corner to observe the life in the street without being noticed by people outside.

C. Response to treatment of water and rainfall

Dhaka has rain for a good two-thirds of the year, although 80 per cent of the annual average rainfall of 1,854 millimetres falls between May and September. The gradual slope on the roof ensures that water does not accumulate. In addition, two coats of locally produced Desalt-SO1 and Hydroseal EF-34 have been applied on vertical brick surfaces to avoid possible water absorption, salinity and growth of algae.

All gardens, verandas / balconies and the roof of these spaces have been treated with damp-proof courses. The drainpipes allow water to pass through and prevent it from collecting and causing seepage.

D. Environmental response

The view from any rooftop in the old city comprises a conglomeration of buildings varying in height from two storeys (fast disappearing) to seven storeys, with the odd old tree growing out of this concrete jungle. These now-mature trees were planted in the courtyards of traditional houses, and are disappearing as new larger and higher buildings replace the courtyard houses. In some cases the new buildings include a small light well and save a tree or two in the process. The Kazedewan building has reinterpreted the central courtyard trees by providing gardens at various levels using indigenous plant material.

E. Choice of materials and level of technology

The determining factors in the choice of structure, materials and construction technology were prevailing practice, climate, economy and maintenance. Technology has been kept simple, at a level that local workers and craftsmen could handle. The RCC members exposed on the exterior of the building have been finished with SARA to resist the impact of the extreme wet weather and the dry winds in winter.

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1. Response to and planning for emergency situations The Bangladesh National Building Code (BNBC) considers Dhaka to be in a moderate earthquake zone (Zone 2). In the Kazedewan Building, the beams and columns form a regular grid and have extra ties at the joints. Overlaps have been avoided at the maximum bending moment zone. Additional safety factors to resist high winds and moderate earthquakes have been taken into account in the design of the foundations.

A single staircase serves for regular as well as emergency use. Fire extinguishers have been installed to counter a blaze.

2. Ageing and maintenance problems The exposed RCC surfaces, finished with an appropriate treatment, and the brickwork have taken care of maintenance issues on the exterior of the building. The long-term condition of the interiors of the apartments is dependent on the residents and their maintenance of the paint finish.

3. Design features The massing of this building and the use of concrete and brick (inspired by the work of Louis Kahn) is a breath of fresh air in the old city of Dhaka. There is the play of solid and void, while the projections, although functional, break any monotony and the horizontal coursing of the brickwork breaks the verticality.

This building serves as a reference point in many ways: as a landmark by which to identify and locate nearby addresses, as an object to be viewed as a whole, and as a demonstration of how the particulars of a building can be designed, with well-organized spaces and aesthetically pleasing solutions.

4. Impact of the project on the site The ground floor (road level) of the building has a sloping recess that allows vehicles to pass each other, in contrast to the rest of the old city where structures come to the very edge of the narrow lanes. The recess and greenery to the front bring back the feeling of the mer, where people traditionally gathered for exchanging pleasantries and for short conversations without blocking the thoroughfare.

5. Durability and long-term viability of the project Many landlords and builders in the old city visit the Kazedewan Apartment Building to see what sensible and thoughtful use of space can achieve. In many ways it is a trendsetter in the quarter, making it highly viable.

The building is not expected to last for an extraordinary length of time. That said, all the plumbing and electrical materials are of good quality and have an average life expectancy of twenty-five years. The concrete and brickwork should last well in all ordinary circumstances.

In order to avoid wiring coming into the apartments through windows, concealed wiring for a central intercom system and cabling for televisions was incorporated at the building stage. This careful planning will help to preserve the building in good condition.

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6. Interior design and furnishings Generally the people in the old city have large pieces of wooden furniture. Many of the residents have changed their furniture to blend into the existing space, opting for items on a smaller scale or altering their old furniture to fit the dimensions of the rooms, by trimming the legs of sofas, shortening the head-boards of beds, etc. The owner provided all the electric light fittings. In addition, just inside each apartment, the architect has created a series of concrete fins around a beam to distinguish the foyer. The owner has also tried his hand at interior design by providing a ‘showcase’ in aluminium and glass in niches in the living rooms.

VII. Users A. User profile

Fourteen families (some extended) live in the Kazedewan Apartment Building. There are sixty-six people in all: thirty-nine adults, fourteen adolescents and thirteen children. Ten of the families are from the locality and all have an affiliation with the old city. Household size varies from four-member nuclear families to six-member extended families. The children flit freely in and out of different apartments. The heads of six of the households are entrepreneurs, three are in public- and private sector service, and two are professionals (one lawyer and one medical practitioner). Being from Old Dhaka, or those called ‘Dhakia’, the residents speak a hybrid language of the Bengali and Urdu dialects. With these origins, they are thought of as ‘cultured’, hailing from an area that produced intellectuals and creative talent.

B. User response

1. How do architectural professionals and cultural intelligentsia view the project? These groups undoubtedly see the project as exemplary in the old city. In discussions with a number of architects, it became apparent that they believed the architect had matured through this project and had been successful at combining an artistic rendering with functionality in a very traditional part of Dhaka. While there was a good deal of praise for the project in terms of design principles and the use of greenery with formal built-up spaces, there were two criticisms: a lack of greenery in the circulation area – that is, the stairway; and limited exploration of the roof.

2. What is the popular reaction to the project? All the inhabitants are very pleased with what they have. They are well aware that the interior spaces are smaller than those afforded by other buildings but they find them sufficient because the apartments are well planned. The fact that they can be confident that they will not be affected by power cuts and not have to use artificial lighting during the day are advantages that make their lives comfortable. They feel that there have been fewer complaints about headaches and colds among the children since they moved in. The women are very happy with their kitchens, which are well lit and do not get too hot. The children love playing on the

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roof in the evenings. The fuchkee khirki is a very popular detail, as many stand at this vantage point for hours to observe the street activities without being seen from the outside. The gardens, even those that are inaccessible, are elements of pride for the residents as they can boast that they live in a building with gardens, a rarity in the old city. They recognize that the building is very simple when compared to other over-decorative buildings, with their floral grilles, multicoloured floors, and so on.

3. What do neighbours and those in the vicinity think about the project? Many people in the vicinity have come to visit the building. The owner did not need to advertise his apartments but had tenants moving in even before completion. People who are building close by come to look at and appreciate the project. Since most do not engage architects they say that they will leave 0.6 metres on all sides to allow for windows. An architect designing a building nearby has also adopted the method of staggering apartments to reduce circulation as advised by the owner, but he says that he is not as lucky as he cannot convince his client to adopt many other improvements. This client–owner feels they would not be commercially viable.

The children and youths who frequent the video arcade across the street have actually become quite possessive of the greenery at the entrance to the building and water the plants.

All age groups in the vicinity have felt the positive impact of the project.

VIII. Project personnel

Client–owner: Haji Abdur Rahman The client took a bold step in moving away from standard building design and construction in the old city, engaging an architect and showing flexibility in adopting his ideas about building a healthy residential environment. He was actively involved during the construction period and continues to maintain an office in the building, where he is available for two hours each morning and evening to attend to any issues. He has retained an apartment in the building, which he uses with his family as a weekend home. He makes sure that the common spaces and gardens are well looked after.

Architect: Mohammad Rafiq Azam (firm’s name SHATOTTO) Having an affiliation with the old city, the architect is well versed in the traditions and lifestyle of the people there. To demonstrate his commitment, as a Dhakia and a professional, to improving the living conditions of the people in the old city, he offered his services free of charge, but did not compromise on the quality of his professional involvement.

Structural engineer and construction supervisor: Mahbub-ur-Rahaman Hailing from the old city, he was introduced to the architect by the owner. He was on site full time and was very involved in supervising the civil works as well as other trades. The architect had made it clear that the quality of the workmanship was of great importance.

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Procurement manager and trusted friend of the owner: Haji Tamizuddin Ahmed He managed to keep the costs under control and was one of the driving forces behind the project. Subsequent to the construction of the Kazedewan building, he adopted similar principles (open spaces) in his own home in the old city.

Gardener: Mohammad Kanchan Kazi He has worked on many projects with the architect and has developed a good understanding of the selection of plants for his schemes. He has personally enjoyed sowing the plants in the gardens, which are set at different levels in the Kazedewan building.

Other participants: Masonry contractor: Abdus Salam Plumbing contractor: M. Sanu Electrical contractor: M Amin Mosaic and tile contractor: Abdul Latif Grille (metal) contractor: M. Mojibur Rahman Glass contractor: Mahabub Hossain Carpenter: M Shahid Painter: M. Joshimuddin

Khadija Jamal-Shaban May 2004

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