KEAMANAN, KEKERASAN, DAN KESEHATAN DI TEMPAT KERJA

Pertemuan 18

Matakuliah : L0064 / Psikologi Industri & Organisasi 1Tahun : 2007 / 2008

Learning ObjectivesAfter reading this chapter you should be able to:1. Understand the seriousness of safety, violence, and health

issues in the workplace2. Describe the nature of work-related health problems3. Appreciate the understated nature of a accident statistics4. Identify causes of accidents, both personal factors and

workplace factors5. Explain accident prevention efforts commonly undertaken by

organizations6. Describe the nature of violence in the workplace, how to

identify potentially violent employees, and steps to take to protect employees from violence

7. Understand the effects of alcoholism and drugs in the workplace

8. Explain the unique risks to health presented by computers in the workplace

9. Describe the effect of the presence of the HIV-infected employee on morale and productivity

Workplace Health and Safety• 5000 accidental deaths annually

– 90% male

• In excess of 4 million disabling injuries annually• Staggering costs to organizations• Health of workers is harmed by toxic chemicals

and workplace conditions• Accidents are the primary cause of death on the

job & murder is second

Work-Related Health Problems• 10 million workers are exposed daily to chemicals• EPA identified 16,000 toxic chemical substances in

the workplace– 150 of these are neurotoxins

• Sealed office buildings may be unhealthy• Many workers are exposed to asbestos, radiation,

pollutants, or even cotton dust• Occupational asthma is the most common work-

related respiratory disorder – 15% of asthma sufferers acquired their disease from

exposure to job-related chemicals

• Job related cancers are on the increase

Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970

• Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) established in Department of Labor to assure safe and healthy working conditions

• Tasked with developing and enforcing federal safety standards and sponsoring associated research

• OSHA is poorly funded and unable to fulfill its mandate– There are so few inspectors that the average

company can expect to be visited only once every 84 years

Employee Accident Statistics• The definition of an accident depends on

whether the worker misses time from work• There is an almost universal failure to

understate the number of accidents and injuries

• Incomplete recording makes research difficult• To preserve a good safety record and public

image, companies resort to closed-door investigations, and distortion of facts

Causes of Accidents• Human error is responsible for most

accidents• Workplace factors contributing to accidents

– Type of industry– Hours of work– Lighting– Temperature– Equipment design– Safety devices– Social pressure

Type of Industry

• High in frequency and severity of accidents: highway construction, timber, & mining

• Low in frequency and severity: warehousing, automobile & aircraft manufacturing, and communications

• Some industries report few, but severe, accidents: e.g., electric utilities

• Some have high accident rates, but not severe: wholesale and retail

Hours of Work• Fewer accidents occur during the night shift

than during the day shift– But night shift accidents tend to be more severe

• Illumination may be an issue– Artificial lighting at night may be better to work

in than natural lighting conditions during the day

• The more overtime worked, the greater the safety problems– Research does not provide clear support for this

idea

Lighting• Improved lighting can lead to a reduction

in accidents

• Accidents are higher in plants that continue production through dusk before turning on nighttime lighting

Illumination Accidents

Temperature

• Accident rates are lowest when temperature is 68-70 degrees F– Accidents increase when temperatures vary significantly

above or below this mark

• Higher temperatures especially make workers more careless

• Older workers are more affected by climatic extremes

Equipment Design

• Poor placement of switches controls blamed for many accidents

• Engineering psychologists strive to match equipment requirements with human capabilities

• Redesign of equipment reduces repetitive motion injuries

• Optimum design for checkout clerks is standing and to use both hands interchangeably to scan items

Safety Devices

• Built-in safety devices prevent accidents

• Personal protection equipment (e.g., special respirators, hard hats, eyeglasses) is provided to workers in dangerous jobs

• Safety devices must be functional, but not interfere with operation of machine

• Safety equipment can be uncomfortable and influences decisions on use– Only 30% of auto glass factory workers felt

respirator was comfortable enough to wear

Social Pressure

• The pressure to maintain a schedule or adhere to a timetable can result in accidents

• Shutting down an assembly line can be costly and may result in punishment

• Pressure from peers or management can deter work slowdown and result in increased accidents– Example: Airline pilots are often held responsible

for on-time performance causing them to take off in sub-optimal conditions

Personal Factors• Alcohol and drug abuse cause accidents• Cognitive ability is a factor only for complex jobs• Health - unhealthy workers have more accidents• Fatigue increases accidents, especially last two

hours of work• Work experience - negative relationship• Job involvement - negative relationship• Job insecurity - lowers safety motivation• Age - negative relationship• Personality - no clear relationship• Accident proneness - no evidence that it exists

Accident Prevention• Proper reporting of accidents

• Attention to design features of the work area

• Safety training

• Management support

• Safety publicity campaigns

Comprehensive Accident Report• Accident prevention program no better

than quality of accident reports which should include– Precise time & location of accident

– Type of job and number of employees performing it

– Personal characteristics of the accident victim

– Nature of the accident and known or suspected causes

– Results of the accident

Workplace Design

• Lighting must be adequate• Temperature must be comfortable• Work areas should be clean and orderly• Safety equipment should be present and

convenient• Controls should be easy to reach and operate• Machines should not operate unless the

safety device is engaged• The safety device must not interfere with

production or cause additional work

Safety Training• Most training programs devote time to

accident prevention• Teaches rules for safe operation and

locations of emergency exits and first-aid equipment

• Increased accident rates suggest a need for retraining

• Companies that systematically focus on safety training have substantial reductions in accidents and hours lost from work– Training pays for itself

Management Support• Supervisors play a key role• Active management support for safe

working practices is a key dimension of the organizational climate

• Employees who perceive stronger organizational support for safety engage in fewer unsafe behaviors on the job

• Ability to communicate freely is a positive factor, as is group safety climate

• Strong management support sends message that safety compliance is required to retain job

Safety Publicity Campaigns

• Posters and booklets– Stress positive themes, identify dangers and

consequences, and tell how to avoid danger– Booklets relatively ineffective

• Charts of accident-free days• Contests with appealing prizes

– Obvious disadvantage is they can encourage workers to suppress accurate reporting of accidents

Violence in the Workplace

• Murder is the second leading cause of death and primary cause of death for women on the job– 3/4’s are related to deliberate robberies– Ex-employees or co-workers commit 1/3 of homicides

• Annually, over 2 million employees are physically assaulted or threatened with assault

• Men are responsible for 70% of unruly behavior• Alcohol abuse is a major contributor to violence

Characteristics of Violent Employees• Male between the ages of 30 and 50• Alcohol or drug abuser• Past history of violent behavior, serious

psychiatric disorder, and impulsive behavior• History of trauma, abuse, and neglect• A loner with few social outlets• Identifies strongly with the job• Expresses feelings of shame or humiliation

Protecting Workers From Violence• Train managers to recognize potentially

violent workers• Offer counseling to difficult workers• Supervisors can be taught human relations

skills for use in delivering bad news• Install metal detectors, alarm systems,

extra lighting, video surveillance cameras, bulletproof barriers, and hire more guards

• Organizational support is beneficial– Instrumental – direct help to employee in

need– Informational – providing information needed

to deal with problem

Alcoholism In The Workplace

• 14 million alcoholics in U.S.• 10% of American workforce has a drinking

problem – Costs employers over $100 billion annually

• Over 70% of known alcoholics are professional, semiprofessional, or managerial employees

• Drug Free Workplace Act of 1988 makes employers who hold at least $25,000 in federal contracts responsible for preventing substance abuse on the job

Effects Of Alcohol On Performance

• Alcoholics tend to deny affect on performance• Behavioral changes occur gradually• Excessive absenteeism, long lunch breaks,

lies, errors, and low productivity• As alcoholism progresses, behavioral

problems and consequences become more serious– See Figure 11-2

• Intervention at an early stage is vital to recovery

Alcoholic Executives• Cost to the company is greater• Adept at concealing their problem• Not as apt to be fired• Executives under the influence of alcohol make

costly mistakes during negotiations– Research indicates those who negotiate under the

influence of alcohol are more aggressive, more likely to insult, mislead and threaten others than when sober

Rehabilitation Programs• Employee assistance programs (EAP) provide

counseling and rehabilitative services for employee problems including substance abuse

• Fear of losing a job is a greater motivator than family influence

• Three-step process 1. Education of managers and supervisors2. Early detection of alcoholic employees3. Referral of alcoholic employees for help

• Co-workers who are members of AA are an effective treatment approach

Drug Use In The Workplace• 14.8 million Americans use illicit drugs• 11% between 12 and 17 use illicit drugs• Highest drug use rate is between 18 and

25– Peaks at 17.4% at age 21

• Drug use is higher among men (8.7%) than women (4.9%)

• 77% of drug users hold jobs• Greater availability of drugs in workplace

leads to greater use…

Effects Of Drugs On Performance• Behavioral effects vary with the substance; users

neglect appearance, personal hygiene, & clothing; emotional outbursts & tendency to borrow money

• Cognitive & reflex impairment, sluggish, dilation or contraction of pupils, bloodshot, & needle marks

• Four times as many accidents, three times the absences, three times the health benefit claims, and five times the workers comp claims

• Often tardy with low job satisfaction; increase in theft; threat to themselves and safety of others

Drug Testing Programs

• Most large corporations test for drug use and most refuse to hire those who test positive

• Drug testing is controversial – Invasion of privacy; unreasonable search & seizure

• Validity is also an issue– High rate of false positives– What levels of which drug causes which problems?

• Cheating is possible, as is mishandling • Results should be kept confidential

A Successful Drug Program

• Workers who are treated successfully then return to their jobs– EAPs report Up to 80% success rates – Only 5% of drug users who lose their jobs recover

• Program includes1. Clear and direct statement to employees about

the drug use policy, drug testing, and consequences for violating the policy

2. Evaluate all applicants3. Detect employees who use or sell drugs on the

job

Computers and Health Issues• High incidence of back pain, physical fatigue, and

visual disturbances• Repetitive motion injuries afflict over 2 million

Americans in the workforce– Carpal tunnel syndrome - a repetitive motion

disorder of the wrist that may involve numbness, tingling, or pain in fingers, hands, and forearms

• Protective exclusion – practice of barring certain groups, such as women of childbearing age, from certain hazardous jobs– In 1991, Supreme Court ruled this is a form of

discrimination (UAW vs. Johnson Controls)• Long term effect of computer emissions not known

HIV in the Workplace• An HIV positive person in a work group affects

performance and morale• Inadequate knowledge leads fear due to

exaggerated beliefs of contagion by casual contact on the job

• Increasing cost of health care associated with AIDs can be perceived as a burden by organization

• AIDs patients cannot be discriminated against in hiring or career decisions, nor can they be fired for fear of contagion

Key Terms• Accident proneness• Carpal tunnel syndrome• Employee assistance programs (EAPs)• Protective exclusion

Bina Nusantara

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Bina Nusantara