Kenya Plastic Action Plan€¦ · Action Plan” and inform the preparation of a suitable and...

November 2019

Accelerating a Circular Economy in Kenya

Kenya Plastic Action Plan

Kenya Association of Manufacturers15 Mwanzi Road opp West Gate Mall, Westlands

P.O. Box 30225 – 00100 Nairobi, Kenya

E: [email protected]: +254 (0) 722201368, 734646004/5

T: +254 (020) 2324817Twitter: @KAM_Kenya

Facebook: KenyaAssociationOfManufacturers

www.kam.co.ke

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b) Three Year Plan to operationalize producer responsibility organizations for all plastics stream

a) Proposed National Recycling Target

Kenya Plastic Action Plan iii

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 1

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 2

FOREWORD 3

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 4

1 INTRODUCTION 8

2 PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES 11

2.1 Plastics consumption and waste generation on a global scale 11

2.2 Recycling Plastics 14

2.3 The Circular Economy Concept 15

2.3.1Introduction 15

2.3.2PlasticsinaCircularEconomy 17

2.3.3GlobalCircularEconomyExamples 18

2.3.4AfricanCircularEconomyExamples 21

2.3.5AlternativestoPlastics 26

2.4 Kenyan Plastic Mass Flow 27

2.4.1Quantificationofplasticvolumes 27

2.4.2CollectionSystems 32

2.4.3RecyclingInfrastructure 34

2.4.4DisposalPractices 36

2.4.5ChallengesforPlasticRecyclingintheWasteManagementEcosystem 38

3 LEGAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORKS AFFECTING THE PLASTICS SECTOR 41

3.1 Review of Kenyan (regional, national and county) legislation formulation on

plastic and waste management 41

3.2 Discussion of the existing regulatory gaps 44

4 SWOT ANALYSIS OF THE KENYAN PLASTICS VALUE CHAIN 47

5 PROPOSED MEASURES AND INITIATIVES FOR THE ACTION PLAN 50

5.1 Establishing a Financial and Organisational Basis 50

5.1.1Taxincentives 50

5.1.2ExtendedProducerResponsibility 51

5.1.3ComparingtaxincentivesandEPR 63

5.2 Action Measures 64

5.2.1Recyclingand/orEndofLifeOptions 64

5.2.2Segregationatsourceasbestpracticeandwastecollection 66

5.2.3ProductDesignforenhancedrecycling 69

5.2.4Consumerawareness–communicationandeducation 71

5.2.5Biodegradableplastics 73

5.2.6Integrationinformalsector 74

Table of contents

Kenya Plastic Action Plan iv

6 IMPLEMENTING THE ACTION PLAN 76

6.1 Implementing the EPR system 76

6.2 Implementing voluntary measures 86

6.3 Implementation Matrix 90

7 REFERENCES 96

8 ANNEXES 105

8.1 Annex 1: Background to Plastics 105

8.2 Annex 2: The polymer types 107

8.3 Annex 3: Recycling the different polymer types 109

8.4 Annex 4: Recyclate usage 110

8.5 Annex 5: The circular economy concept in detail 112

8.6 Annex 6: Global trends 114

8.7 Annex 7: Questionnaire for online survey 120

8.8 Annex 8: Circular Economy and The Big4 Agenda 121

8.9 Annex 9: Alternatives to plastics 121

8.10 Annex 10: Global examples of education and awareness programmes 141

8.11 Annex 11: Flow chart for determining the recyclability 142

Table of contents

Kenya Plastic Action Plan v

Kenya Plastic Action Plan vi

Table1 Quantitiesofrecycledplasticsandplasticpackagingacc.tofractionin2017

[Eunomia,2018] 30

Table2: RolesandresponsibilitiesinanEPRsystem 57

Table3: EPRfeesandgreentaxesincomparison 63

Table4: Collectionstructuresforpackagingfortheindividualmaterialfractionsinfivedifferent

countrieswithEPRsystems 66

Table5: PlasticpackagingfeesinEU-28EPRschemes[Watkinsetal.,2017] 81

Table6: RoleofeachstakeholderwithintheproposedKenyanEPRsystem 85

Table7: Integrationoftheinformalsectorasemployees 88

Table8: Integrationoftheinformalsectorasbusinesspartners 89

Table9: EstablishingalegalbasisforamandatoryEPRsystem 92

Table10: Establishingapre-organisationonavoluntarybasis 93

Table11: ImprovinganoptimisingmechanismwhenthemandatoryEPRsystemcomesintoforce 94

Table12: Quantitiesofproducedprimaryplasticsandgeneratedwasteacc.tosector,2015

[Geyeretal.,2017] 106

Table13: Quantitiesofproducedplasticsandgeneratedwasteacc.topolymer,2015

[Geyeretal.,2017] 108

Table14: GlobalWarmingPotentialfordifferentrawmaterials 122

Table15: Rankingofdifferentwaterbottlesrelatedtoselectedenvironmentalcriteria

[Schonertetal.,2002] 124

Table16: Rankingofdifferentbeveragepackagingforimmediateconsumptionrelatedtoselected

environmentalcriteria[Schonertetal.,2002] 124

Table17: Phasedependingnegativeeffectsfordifferentbeveragepackagingrelatingtoselected

environmentalcriteria[Kauertzetal.,2011] 125

Table18: Massesofdifferentpackagingtypes 126

Table19: GWPofdifferentpackagingtypesrelatingtodifferentdisposalscenarios

[Paqualinoetal.,ny] 126

Table20: ComparisonofPET-bottleswithglass-bottlesaccordingto[Stichling,Singh,2012] 127

Table21: Comparisonofdifferentmaterialsforbottlesforwater 128

Table22: Comparisonofdifferentmaterialsforcarrierbags 134

Table23: SelectedGWP100forconstructionpipes 136

Table24: Phase-DependentandTotalGWPperkmof30.5cm(12in.)diameterpipesfordifferent

Materials[Duetal.,2013] 138

Table25: Generaladvantagesanddisadvantagesofplastic,concreteandsteel/ironpipes

[EPA,2000] 139

Table26: Comparisonofdifferentmaterialsforconstructionpipes 139

List of tables

Kenya Plastic Action Plan vii

Figure1: Locationsofon-siteinterviews 09

Figure2: Globalplasticsconsumptionpercapitaperday[Jambecketal.,2015] 12

Figure3: Primaryplasticsproductionbyindustrialsector,2015,[Geyeretal.,2017] 13

Figure4: Plasticswastegenerationbyindustrialsector,2015,[Geyeretal.,2017] 13

Figure5: Wastehierarchy 14

Figure6: Circulareconomyconceptualisation[GreenGrowth,2014] 16

Figure7: Expecteddevelopmentoftheplasticandplasticrecyclingmarket 17

Figure8: TheDanishPlasticActionPlan 19

Figure9: WastesortingatTakaTaka 21

Figure10: TheBusinessofTakaTaka 21

Figure11: BusinessofMr.GreenAfrica 22

Figure12: Awarenessrisinginschools 22

Figure13: MassflowofplasticsmaterialwithinKenya 27

Figure14: CompositionofwastegeneratedinNairobi[JICA,2010] 32

Figure15: Thehierarchyoftheplasticwasterecyclingchain 35

Figure16: Dandoradumpsite 37

Figure17: BasicideaofanEPRsystem 52

Figure18: BasicschemeofanEPRsystembasedonacollectiveresponsibility 53

Figure19: ComparisonofcollectiveandindividualEPRsystem 53

Figure20: Thedifferentset-upconditionsofthePRO 55

Figure21: OperationalisedEPRscheme 58

Figure22: WastesegregationandcollectioninGermany(upperleft)andSpain(upperright),

Japan(bottomleft)andShanghai(bottomright) 67

Figure23: WastecollectioninPalermo(left)andTunis(right) 68

Figure24: Containerdesigns 68

Figure25: PETsubstitution 70

Figure26: Attachedlidsonbottles 70

Figure27: Interfacefordeterminingtheobligedcompanies 80

Figure28: Distributionoftheglobalplasticsproduction,2017[PlasticsEurope,2018] 105

Figure29: Recyclateuseaccordingtopolymerfraction[basedonEuCP,2017] 110

Figure30: Recyclateuseaccordingsectors[basedonEuCP,2017] 110

Figure31: Threeprinciplesandtencorrespondingstrategiestowardscirculareconomy[PWC,2019] 113

Figure32: G7OceanPlasticCharter 114

Figure33: The17SDGsoftheUN 115

Figure34: GWPfor1mofinstalledplainwallsewerageanddrainagepipe[Wassenaar,2016] 137

Figure35: NREDfor1mofinstalledplainwallsewerageanddrainagepipe[Wassenaar,2016] 137

List of figures

Kenya Plastic Action Plan viii

Bio- based plastics Plasticswhicharemanufacturedfromrenewablesources;forinstancesugarcane(asopposedtofossil-basedplastics,whicharederivedfromfossilfuels).Thetermbio-baseddoesn’tnecessarilyimplybio-degradability.

Biodegradable plastics Plasticswhichcanbedegradedorcompostedbymicroorganismsunderspecific,environmentalconditions.Biodegradableplasticscanbemadebothofbio-basedaswellasfossil-basedplastics.

Circular economy Thecirculareconomyisdefinedasaneconomicmodelinwhichresourceslikeplasticsareusedmoreefficientlythroughthethreeguidingprinciplesof“reduce,reuseandrecycle”toclosetheloop.Shiftingtosuchasystemhaseconomicalaswellassocialandenvironmentalbenefitsthroughreducedimportdependency,employmentcreation,reducedlittering,lessresourceextractionaswellasimprovedhumanhealthconditions.

Deposit-refund system (DRS) Asurchargewhich isplacedoncertainproductsandcontainersbymanufacturers.Whenconsumersreturnquantitiesofthesecontainersorproducts,thesurchargeisrefunded.

Disposal Referstoanyoperationwhichisnotdefinedasrecovery;thisalsoappliesiftheoperationlaterresultsinasecondaryconsequenceforthereclamationofsubstancesorenergy.

Energy recovery Aprocessinwhichenergy(heat,electricity,fuel) isgeneratedfromtheprimarytreatmentofwaste.Themostcommonimplementationisincineration.Itisnotmaterialrecycling.

Extended producer Anenvironmentalpolicyapproachinwhichaproducer’sresponsibilityforresponsibility (EPR) aproductisextendedtothepost-consumerstageofaproduct’slifecycle,

i.e.whenaproductturnsintowaste.Alreadyduringtheproductionandsale(andexport),producersareresponsiblefordisposaloftheirpackaging.Producers/importerspayafeeforlaterdisposalofthepackaging(before)whentheirpackedgoodsareplacedonthemarket.Thecontribution/feeisusedforcollecting,recyclinganddisposingofthepackagingwasteandothercostsarisingfrommaintainingthesystem.Itisnotusedasacontributiontothegeneralpublicbudgetofastate.

Feedstock recycling Theprocessofbreakingdowncollectedplasticsintomonomersandotherbasicchemicalelements.Thesemonomerscanbeusedasvirginmaterialalternativesinmanufacturingnewpolymers.Particularlyinterestingforplasticswhicharedifficulttorecycle–duetotheirlowquality,compositenatureorloweconomicvalue.

Free riders Producers/manufacturersandimportersthatenjoythebenefitsoftheEPRsystemwithoutpayingthecorrespondingfees,includingthosethat

under-declaretheirvolumes.

Material recycling Describesarecyclingprocessinwhichwastematerialsaremechanicallyreprocessed intoproducts,materialsor substanceswithequivalentproperties–alsoreferredtoasclosed-looprecycling–oraproductwhichrequireslowerproperties.

Manufacturer / converter Companieswhichproduceplasticpackagingorplasticitemsbyconvertingrawmaterial.

Landfill Alocationwheremostgeneratedmunicipalsolidwasteisdisposed.IntheKenyancontext,therearenosanitarylandfillsthatincludeproperecologicalprecautionarymeasureslikewastewatertreatmentorlandfillsealing.Inmanycases, itcannotbedistinguishedwhetherthedisposalsiteisalandfillordumpsite.

Definition of terms

Kenya Plastic Action Plan ix

Life cycle analysis Lifecycleanalysis(alsocalledLife-cycleassessmentorLCA)isatechniquetoassessenvironmentalimpactsassociatedwithallthestagesofaproduct‘slifespan(fromrawmaterialextractionthroughmaterialsprocessing,manufacture,distribution,use,repairandmaintenance,todisposalorrecycling).

Obliged companies CompanieswhichareobligedtopayafeewithinarunningEPRsystem.

Oxo-fragmentable plastics Plasticswhichquicklyfragmentintomicro-particlesinthepresenceofwarmth,lightandoxygenbutdonotdegradeintheenvironment,therebybecomingasourceofenvironmentalpollutionintheformofmicroplastic.

Packaging Thematerialsinwhichaproductiswrappedorcoveredintoprotectitbeforebeingsoldortransported.

(Packaging) user Companiesthatusepackagingfortheirproductswhenplacedonthemarket.Inliterature,oftenreferredtoas“producer”insteadof“user”.

(Packaging) filler Companiesthatfillemptypackagingwiththeirproductsbeforeplacedonthemarket.

Polluter pays principle Thewasteproducerorowneristhepotentialpolluterandcarriesresponsibility(includingfinancially).The“polluterpays”principlecreatesthenecessaryincentivesforenvironmentally-friendlyconductandtherequiredinvestment.

Producer See“(Packaging)user”.

Waste prevention Measurestakenbeforeasubstance,materialorproducthasbecomewaste,whichreducesquantitiesofwasteandalsoincludesre-useofproductsandtheextensionofthelifespanofproducts.Alsoreducesamountsofhazardoussubstancesbeingusedandtheadverseimpactsofthegeneratedwasteontheenvironmentandhumanhealth.

Producer responsibility Thecentralelementfortheorganisationofalltasksassociatedwiththeorganisation (PRO) EPRsystem.Allowsproducers/userstoassumeresponsibilitybycombining

theireffortsandjointlymanagingthearisingwastethroughcollectiveresponsibility.ThePROisthemostimportantstakeholder(organisation)andisresponsibleforsettingup,developingandmaintainingthesystemaswellasthetake-backobligationsoftheobligedcompanies.

Recovery Describesanyoperationinwhichwasteservesausefulpurposebyreplacingothermaterialsorusingitsmaterialproperties(includespreparationforreuse,recyclingasmaterialorfeedstockrecyclingandenergyrecovery).

Recyclables Materialsthatstillhaveusefulphysicalorchemicalpropertiesafterservingtheiroriginalpurposeandthereforecanbere-manufactured.Someareofpositiveeconomicvalueaswell(e.g.rigidPE,PETbottles).

Recyclates Aproductwhichhaspassedthroughalifecycleandsubsequentlyarecyclingprocess,whichmeansitismadefromusedmaterials(e.g.plasticregranules).

Recycler Companiesthatrecyclepre-processedwastestreams(e.g.sortedrigidPEplastics)bywashing,flaking,agglomeratingandregranulating.Withtheseactions,aneconomicallymarketableoutputproductisreached.

Reducing Thepracticeofusinglessmaterialandenergytominimizequantitiesofgeneratedwasteandpreservenaturalresources.Includeswaystopreventmaterialsfrombecomingwastebeforetheyreachtherecyclingstate.Alsoincludesre-usingproducts.

Kenya Plastic Action Plan x

Re-use Therepeateduseofaproductinthesameformforthesameoradifferentpurpose.Inthiscase,theproductdoesnotbecomewaste.

Rigid plastics items Plasticitemsthatarestableinform,e.g.PET-bottles,PPcups,plasticpipes(incontrasttoflexibleplasticitemssuchasfilm).

Single-use plastics products Areusedonlyonceandthenthrownaway, includesitemslikeplasticcutlery,strawsorcoffeestirrers.

Solid waste management (SWM) Thestorage,collection,transportationanddisposalofsolidwastes.Alsodescribesapracticebywhichseveralwastemanagementtechniquesareusedtomanageanddisposeofspecificcomponentsofsolidwaste.Wastemanagementtechniquesincludeavoidance,reduction,reuse,recycling,recoveryanddisposal.

Source separation Thesegregationofspecificmaterialsatthesourceforseparatecollection.

Waste hierarchy Describesarankingofwastemanagementoptionsaccordingtowhatisbestfortheenvironment.Itgivestopprioritytowasteprevention;ifwasteisgenerated,theprioritiesliewithinpreparingforre-use,thenrecycling,thenrecoveryandlastlyforfinaldisposal.

Waste management Thetermwastemanagementdiscribescharacteristicactivitiesinclude(a)collection,transport,treatmentanddisposalofwaste,(b)control,monitoringandregulationoftheproduction,collection,transport,treatmentanddisposalofwasteand(c)preventionofwasteproductionthroughin-processmodifications,reuseandrecycling.

Definition of terms

Kenya Plastic Action Plan 1

BMO BusinessMembershipOrganization

CGK CleanGreenKenya

DRS DepositRefundSystem

EMF EllenMacArthurFoundation

EOL End-of-Life

EPR ExtendedProducerResponsibility

EPS ExpandedPolystyrene

GWP GlobalWarmingPotential

HDPE HighDensityPolyethylene

JICA JapanInternationalCooperationAgency

KAM KenyaAssociationofManufacturers

KEBS KenyaBureauofStandards

KEPSA KenyaPrivateSectorAlliance

KPAP KenyaPlasticActionPlan

LCA LifeCycleAnalysis

LDPE LowdensityPolyethylene

MSW MunicipalSolidWaste

NGO Non-GovernmentalOrganisation

NRED Non-RenewableEnergyDemand

OECD OrganizationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment

PE Polyethylene

PET PolyethyleneTerephthalate

PP Polypropylene

PRO ProducerResponsibilityOrganisation

PS Polystyrene

PVC PolyvinylChloride

SDGs SustainableDevelopmentGoals

SUP SingleUsePlastic

TOC TotalOrganicCarbon

WEEE WasteElectricalandElectronicEquipment

Abbreviations & Acronyms


TheKenyaPlasticActionPlanwasdevelopedbyateamofconsultantsdrawnfromCyclosGmbH(basedinGermany)andAHKServicesEasternAfricaLimited(basedinKenya)onbehalfofKenyaAssociationofManufacturers(KAM).Specifically,KAMappreciatesDr.StephanLöhle,Ms.JanaBrinkmann,Ms.AgnesBünemann–fromCyclos,andMrThiloVogeler,Ms.CarolineSawe,Mr.GeorgeWarutere,Ms.SophieKaminskiandMs.ValerieLeisten-fromAHK,forputtingthereporttogether.

WewouldliketoacknowledgetheKAMBoardofDirectors,ledbytheChairman,Mr.SachenGudkaforofferingstrategicdirectioninthedevelopmentoftheKenyaPlasticActionandKAMChiefExecutiveOfficer,Ms.PhyllisWakiaga,forprovidingcontinuedguidanceinthepreparationofthereport.

SpecialthankstoKenyaPlasticActionPlanSteeringCommitteemembersledbyMr.MucaiKunyiha(CoopersKBrands)-KAMViceChairman,Co-ChairMr.PriyenTanna(GeneralPrinters),Mr.AndrewMusingo(Coca-ColaBeveragesAfrica),Ms.SusanMaingi(Coca-ColaBeveragesAfrica),Mr.AniruddhShah(KAPAOil),Mr.HimanshuDodhia(BidcoAfrica),Mr.LeonardKareko(DOWChemical),Mr.RajivRaja(SanpacAfricaLimited),Mr.DavanderSMongia(TechpakLimited),Mr.MinalShah(TechpakLimited),Ms.DorisKendi(Coca-ColaBeveragesAfrica),Ms.FaithNgige(KEPSA),Mr.SahilShah(ADPAKLIMITED),Mr.AkshayShah(SilafricaLtd)fortheiroverallguidancetotheConsortium.

OversightonthedevelopmentoftheActionPlancontentwasprovidedbyMr.JobWanjohi,KAMHeadofPolicy,ResearchandAdvocacy.SpecialthankstoMs.MiriamBomett(KAMDeputyHeadofPolicy,ResearchandAdvocacy),Ms.SallyKahiu(KAMHeadofPR,CommunicationsandMarketing),Mr.JacksonWambua(KAMSectorsManager)andMs.SharonOkwany(KAMPETSub-sectorOfficer)forleadingincontinuousreviewandrevisingvariousversionsofthedraftdocument.

SincereappreciationgoestotheMinistryofEnvironmentandForestryandtheNationalEnvironmentManagementAuthorityfortheircontributionsonenvironmentalpolicyandlegislation.

Finally,ourgratitudegoestotheConfederationofDanishIndustry(DI)forprovidingaconceptualframeworkinthedevelopmentofthisActionPlanandBusinessAdvocacyFund(BAF)forfinancingtheresearchandpublicationofthisreport.

Consortium;

Acknowledgement

Research and publication funded by;

Technical and conceptual support provided by;


Foreword

Wasteisafactofhumanlife.Howwehandleit,eitherdepletesusofourmostcriticalnaturalresources;or,restores,regeneratesandenhancesourhumanity.

Astheworld’sdynamismcontinues,timeisoftheessence.Nothingintheworldwillstoplongenoughtoallowustocomeupwiththegreatest,mostperfectsolution,toanyproblem,letaloneoneascomplexasthatofwaste.It isuponustoactfast,turnthisshipwithinnovativeagilethinking,collaborativeeffortsand,azealtocreateabetterworld.

TheKenyaPlasticsActionPlanisagiantstepbythecountrytoarresttheproblemofplasticwastemanagement,turningit intoanenvironmentalandeconomicsolution.Thisprivate-sectorledinitiativeaimstobeacatalystfortheestablishmentofmorelong-term,progressiveandrevolutionarymeasurestotacklewastemanagementholistically.

Aswebeginthisjourney,weneedtoenhancethecollaborativeframeworksthathavebroughtustothispoint,bybringingonboardactorsthatwillensurethatthespiritofthisinitiativeiscenteredinthenationaldevelopmentdiscoursefortheshort-termandlong-term.Forinstance,howdowemaketheenvironmentacriticalpartofournationalconsciousness,sothattheethosofeveryhome,school,institutionandbusinessinthecountryisanchoredonleavingtheplanet,betterthanwefoundit?Howcanweensurethateveryoneseesenvironmentalrestorationasapersonal,institutionalandorganizationalresponsibility?Howdoweensureasharedvisionbyall?

TheKenyaPlasticsActionPlan,withallitsmainactorsthatis,IndustryandGovernment,hasstartedtopiecetogethertheanswerstothequestionsaboveataprimarylevel.ItpaintsaroadmaptowardsrealizingaCircularEconomyforplasticuseandwastemanagementinthecountry. It looksattheformationandregulationofExtendedProducerResponsibilityschemesandestablishmentofre-cyclingvaluechainsandstandards.

Aswedothisweareconsciousthatwehavejuststartedtolaythefoundationforsomethingbigger.Indoingthiswemustwemustequipourselveswithinnovation,technology,progressiveregulationsandpolicies,tocontinuetoadvancethesolutionsinstepwiththeneedsofourcountry,andtheworld.

IspeakfortheAssociationinsayingthatwearecommitted,andareattheforefrontofdrivingtheestablishmentofacirculareconomy,towardssustainablymanagingwaste,andconservingandrestoringourenvironment.

Sachen GudkaKAM Chairman


ContextThe government, through the Ministry of Environment andForestry,hasshownastrongcommitmenttostopthepollutionoftheenvironmentwhichisparticularlyworsenedbypoorplasticswastemanagement.Thiscommitmentismarkedbythebanontheuse, importationandmanufactureofplasticcarrierbagsforbothcommercialandhouseholdpackaging.Followingtheban,theNationalEnvironmentManagementAuthority(NEMA)pronounceditsintentionstoextendthebantoplasticbottles.However,theMinistryofEnvironmentandForestryhasindicatedtheirdesiretoencouragemanufacturerstodevelopplanstorecycleplasticbottles.

Theprivatesector,throughtheKenyaAssociationofManufacturers(KAM),embracedtheinitiativetocomeupwithsubstantialsolutionstocomeupwithsubstantialsolutionstocurbplasticwasteandtotacklemanagementgapsandotherchallengesfacedbythesector.TheKenyaPlasticActionPlanisaprivatesector-driveninitiative,with

theaimtoinvolvepolicymakers,thegeneralpublicandtheindustryitselfinsafeguardingacleanenvironmentandtogethertopavepathwaytoagreeneconomyinKenya.

TheKenyaPlasticActionPlanwrittentofosterconceptsofcirculareconomy,tothebenefitofboththeenvironmentandthepeople.ItproposesthecreationofamodelofExtendedProducerResponsibility(EPR),asimplementedsuccessfullyinmanyplacesallovertheworld.TheEPRmodelestablishesanintermediaryorganization,theProducerResponsibilityOrganization(PRO),thatisfinancedbymandatorymembershipofallcompaniesthatutilizeplasticsforpackagingwithintheKenyanmarket.Itutilizesthecollectivefundstooperationalizewastemanagementstrategieswhichensurethatplasticwasteismanagedappropriately–withthegoalofmaximizingtherecyclingratemovingtowardsacirculareconomy.

Currently,thewastemanagementstructuresfailtoaddressthemagnitudeofthewasteprobleminKenya,bothinruralandinurbanareas.InthecapitalregionofNairobi,roughlyafifthofthesolidwasteofaround3,000metrictonsperdayisrecoveredforrecycling.Aroundfourfifthsofthewastevolumesarelitteredonthestreets–eventuallyenteringwaterbodies–burntonsiteordisposedofatdumpsites.Existingdumpsitesandlandfillshavebyfarexceededtheircapacitiestosafelydisposeofthewastevolumes,therebydegradingtheenvironmentandadverselyaffectinghumanhealth.Fuelledbyrapidurbanisationandchangingconsumerpatternstowardsmorepackagedgoods,thechallengesareonlygoingtoincrease.

Executive Summary


TheKenyaPlasticActionPlanoutlinesmeasuresandproposesconcreteactionsforallstakeholderstoovercomeexistingwastemanagementproblems.Takingthebestexamplesworldwideintoconsiderationandbuildingonexistingvaluechainsandpioneeringactorswithinthecountry,themeasuresnotonlytargetimprovementstowardsacleanandhealthyenvironment,butalsoshowcasehowthecirculareconomycancontributetoeconomicgrowthandwelfare.AllplasticsthatareconsumedandprocessedinKenyaareimportedonewayortheother.Therefore,theresponsibilitytomanagethemproperlymustbetakenjointlybyallentitiesputtingplasticsonthemarket,includingbothlocalandinternationalcompanies.

Objective of the StudyBybuildinganunderstandingoftheKenyancontextregardingwastemanagement,includingexistinglegalandregulatoryframework,theKenyaPlasticActionPlanprovidesin-depthresearchintotheKenyanplasticssector.Itincorporatestheentireplasticsvaluechain,spanningfromimportsofrawmaterialtomanufacturingprocessestousesandsubsequentrecyclingofdifferentplasticfractions.

Thestudyfollowedaqualitativeapproachandincludedaliteraturereview,onlinequestionnaire,facetofaceinterviewsthroughoutthewholecountry,focusgroupdiscussionsandastakeholders’forum.Allfindingsaresupportedbytheextensivelocalandinternationalexperienceoftheconsultancyconsortium.Thus,theKenyaPlasticActionPlanaimstodocumentlocalplasticswastemanagementpractices,highlightglobalbestpracticesforextendedproducerresponsibilityaswellassketchaunifiedprivatesectorpositiononanActionPlanspecifictotheKenyancontext.Mostimportantly,thisreportismeanttoinformthedevelopmentofasuitableandsustainablepolicyframeworkonplasticsinKenya.

Summary of strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities for private sector engagement in tackling waste management challenges

Strengths Weaknesses

•Privatesectorcommitmenttomanageplasticwaste•StrongsupportforneedanEPRexpressedbypublicand

privatesector•Functioningrecyclingvaluechainsforcertainplastics•Productdesigndecisionsmadewithinthecountry•Mostconsumerproductsprocesseddomestically

•Plasticwastespreadthroughoutthecountry•Practicallynotraditionofwastesegregation•Slowgrowthinformalizedwastecollection• Insufficientwastemanagementinfrastructure•Gapsinregulationsandlawsonplasticswaste

management

Opportunities Threats

•Government tax incentivesto investors intoplasticrecycling(15%CorporateTaxfor investoroperatingaplasticrecyclingplantforthefirst5yearsandVATExemptiononservicesofferedtoplasticrecyclingplantsandsupplyofmachineryandequipmentusedintheconstructionoftheplants

•Risingawarenessamongthepopulationonplasticwastemanagement

•Affordablelabourcostandhighneedforemploymentparticularlyonrecyclingsector

• Improvement on International standards on plasticmanufacturerandwastemanagement

•Unpredictablelegislativeframeworktoplasticswastemanagementinthecountry

•DisjointedeffortsinmanagementofplasticswastesbyvariousstakeholdersintheIndustry

•Voluntarymeasuresonplasticwastemanagementwhichinmostcasesmayfailtodeliverresults

•Markethighlypricecompetitive


Key FindingsTheresearchrevealedthattheregulatoryframeworkconcerningplasticsinKenyaiscurrentlyunderintensedevelopment.TaxincentivesdiscussedbytheNationalGovernmentshowcase,amongotherexamples,thecommitmentofthepublicsectortoimproveonprivatesectorengagementinKenya’swastemanagement.Yet,withinthegivenframework,existingrecyclingcompanieshaveshowntobeunabletosufficientlymeettherequirementsforproperplasticwastemanagement.Threeareashavebeenidentifiedassuitableforlegislativeandregulativeintervention.1) Recyclinginfrastructure–consistingofgrassrootsbusinessesaswellasformalenterprises–existswithin

thewholecountry.Visionaryenterprisesandcommittedindividualsofferanopportunitytoplayasignificantrole,alsointhefurtherdevelopmentofastringentframework.Asthesectorprogressesandredefinesitself,informalplayers–whoplayedasignificantroleinthesuccessesthathavecomeaboutsofar–needtobeincorporatedaswell.

2) Awarenesscampaignsamongstcitizensneedtobefurtherdeveloped.Thiswillensurethatallcitizens,nomattertheirsocialandeconomicstatus,areabletoembracebetterwastemanagementandadaptbehaviouraccordingly.Particularfocusneedstobeplacedonbettersegregationpracticesatsource,reducingwastegenerationandenhancingrecyclability.Therefore,theneedforenvironmentalprotectioneducationneedstobeinstilledfromanearlyageonwards.

3) TheevidentchallengesofexistingwastemanagementpracticesinKenyarequireimmediateaction.Withastrongprivatesectordedicatedtotakingthisaction,Kenyaisinapositiontoimplementtheneededchangesthroughcoordinatedactionfromboththepublicandprivatesector.ThekeyelementisthesetupofanExtendedProducerResponsibility(EPR)framework.

Proposed MeasuresInordertotacklethechallengeshighlightedabove,theresearchersrecommendedthat:• AnExtendedProducerResponsibility(EPR)modelledbytheprivatesectorshouldtobesetup,withone

independentProducerResponsibilityOrganization(PRO)asitsfocalactor.• TheGovernmentshouldsupporttheprivatesectortotakeresponsibilityformanagingplasticwaste.ThePRO

shouldthereforebeaprivatesectorentityenshrinedinanappropriateregulatoryandlegislativesurrounding.• MembershipofthePROshouldbecompulsorybylaw–forallcompaniesreleasingplasticpackagingonto

theKenyanmarket,beitfromimportsordomesticproduction.• Withinthelegislativeandregulatoryframework,provisionsshouldbesettosupportthecirculareconomy.

Thismayincludetaxincentivesaswellassetquotaforrecyclingand/ordisposal.• PROmembersshouldpayafeebasedonthevolumeandtypeofplasticstheyuse.Thisfeecoversthe

associatedwastemanagementcosts.• Non-membersofthePROsuchasinformalbusinesses,shouldparticipateinwastemanagementbybeing

surchargedatthelastinterfacewiththeformalsector,e.g.whenliaisingwiththerawmaterialsupplier.• ThePROcollaborateswithwastemanagementoperatorsinbuildingincentivesinordertoachievecertain

collectionandrecyclingquotas.• Existingwastemanagementstructures,includingtheinformalsector,areinvolvedfromthebeginningand

needtoscaleuptoincreasetheirroleinthegrowingcirculareconomy.• ThePRObuildsaforumconnectingall involvedstakeholders–government, importers,manufacturers,

distributors,consumers,collectors,aggregators,recyclers,converters,etc.• ActivitiesofthePROshouldincludeawarenessandcapacitybuildingamongthegeneralcitizenonbetter

wastemanagementpractices.

Phyllis WakiagaKAM Chief Executive



Plasticsareoneofthemostversatilematerialsofourmodernsociety.Theiruniquecombinationoflightweight,inertpropertiesandhighdurabilitygivesthemanessentialroleinmosteconomicsectorssuchasbuildingandconstruction,automotives,foodandbeverages,agriculture,healthandpharmaceuticals.Plasticshavedevelopedfromamaterialusedfornicheapplicationsinthefirsthalfofthe20thcenturytoanessentialandubiquitouselementofourglobaleconomy[Plastikatlas,2019].Representedinnumbers,theglobalplasticsproductionincreasedfrom2millionmt(metrictonnes)in1950to381millionmtin2015.Cumulatively,theworldhadproduced7.8billionmtofplasticsby2015[Geyeretal.,2017].

However,concernsaboutnegativeimpactscausedbyincreasedleakagesofplasticwasteintoourenvironmentarerisingglobally.Throughimproperformsofwastehandling,whicharehappeningworldwide,plasticwastehasbecomeaubiquitouspartofourenvironment,transportedbywindandwatertoplacesfarofffromanyhumansettlement.Thisaccumulationofplasticwasteintheenvironmentishighlyproblematic;notbecauseofaesthetics,butbecauseofthemultipleharmful,oftenlethalconsequencesforanimals,suchasentanglement,digestionofplasticsandothereffectscausedbythehundredsofhazardouschemicalsfoundinlitteredplasticwaste[Kühnetal.,2015;Rochman,2015].

Asmostofthesenegativeexternalitieseventuallyresultfromapoor,improperandsociallyaswellasenvironmentallydamagingwastemanagement,creatingsustainablewastemanagementforplasticsisthefirstlogicalsteptosolvethisissue.However,asthesustainableuseofplasticsrequiresmeasuresthroughouttheentirevaluechain,amoreholisticapproachisthemostsuitablesolution.

Objective of the studyAsameanstoreduceplasticdegradationandpollutioninKenya,theMinistryofEnvironment&Forestrybanned“theuse,manufactureandimportationofallplasticbagsusedforcommercialandhouseholdpackaging”in2017andproposedtoexpandthisbantoPETbottles.Nevertheless,theMinistryofEnvironment&Forestryindicatedthattheywouldencouragemanufacturerstoproposeplanstorecycleasopposedtothepotentialban.

ThustheKenyaAssociationofManufacturers(KAM),astherepresentativeorganisationformanufacturingvalue,commissionedthepresentreporttodocumentlocalplasticwastemanagementpractices,globalbestpracticeonmanagingplasticwaste,aswellastoarticulateaunifiedpositionoftheprivatesectoranda“KenyaPlasticActionPlan”andinformthepreparationofasuitableandsustainablepolicyframeworkonplasticsinKenya.Inparticular,thisActionPlanincorporatespolicysuggestionsandsustainablefundingmechanismstoenablecirculareconomyconceptsfortheenvironmentallysustainableuseandrecyclingofplasticsinKenya.Therefore,theplanpursuesthreemaingoals:

i) Toofferinclusiveandbroadstakeholderengagement,ii) Toproposepolicyrecommendationstocatalysethetransitiontowardsacirculareconomyonallgovernmental

levels,andiii) Todeliverachievableandrelevantactionsleadingtotangibleresultsofreducedenvironmentalpollution,

increasedinvestmentandmoreeffectivecirculareconomyfinancingmechanisms.

TheKenyaPlasticActionPlanproposesmeasures

favouringtheimplementationofcirculareconomyconcepts

fortheenvironmentallysustainableuseandrecycling

ofplasticsinordertocatalyseactiontailoredto

Kenyanconditions.

1. Introduction


MethodologyToaddressthisobjectivesystemically,aqualitativecasestudymethodologyisusedtoexplorethecurrentsituationanditspossibilitiesfromseveralpossibleangles.Thisapproachallowsustounderstandanindividualcaseanditsrespectiveproblems..Thus,literatureresearch,anonlinequestionnaire(seeannex8.7)andfacetofaceinterviewsarechosenassuitablemethods.Together,theyservetotriangulatetheinformationneeded.

Asafirststep,aliteraturereviewwasundertakentogainfamiliaritywiththecontextuallyrelevantlegalandregulatoryframeworks,aswellasconditionsandpracticesofplasticwastemanagementinKenyaandotherselectedcountries.SpecialemphasisisgiventothedistributionofresponsibilitiesbetweentheNationalGovernmentontheonehandandthedevolvedfunctionscarriedoutbytheCountiesontheother.

Secondly,thetheoreticalparthasbeencomplementedbyempiricalinsightsgainedfromkeyinformantinterviews,thefocusgroupdiscussionsandthestakeholders’meeting.Theinterviewsanddiscussionsregardingtheeffectsofthelegalandregulatoryframeworkontheplasticsectorvaluechain,theplasticwastemanagementpracticesaswellasopportunitiesofacirculareconomyappliedtotheplasticssectorinKenya(incl.theeconomic,environmentalandsocialdimension)wereconductedthroughpersonalmeetingsbythelocalpartnerAHKServicesEasternAfricaLtd.Allon-siteinterviewswereattendedbytwointerviewers.

InterviewswereconductedinKisumu,Nakuru,Naivasha,Eldoret,MombasaandintheGreaterAreaofNairobi,whichincludesThika/KiambuandAthiRiver/Machakos.Inadditiontotheinterviews,twofocusgroupdiscussionsandastakeholders’meetingcoveredkeyinformantsmainlyfromtheGreaterNairobiarea(seeFigure1).Theintervieweesandparticipantsinthefocusgroupdiscussionsandstakeholders’meetingincludedplayersfromalllevelsoftheplasticsvaluechain.Additionally,anonlinesurveytogainamoreholisticunderstandingoftheplasticmassflowinKenyawasconducted.

Theinterviews,thefocusgroupdiscussionsandthestakeholders’meeting,togetherwithdeskresearch,formthebasisfortheKenyaPlasticActionPlanandtheproposedpolicyframework:thelocalknowledgefromthestakeholderinterviewsallowtheActionPlantobetailoredtothepresentcontextualconditionsinKenya.TheActionPlantherebyentailsaninclusive,holisticandbroadprivatesector-ledroadmapapprovedbythestakeholdersacrossthewholeplasticssupplychain.

Figure 1 : Locations of on-site interviews



Thefollowingchapterbrieflyintroducesplasticsasmaterialanditsrecyclingpractices.Moreinformationonplasticconsumptionandwastegenerationonaglobalscale,withparticularreferencetodifferentpolymertypes,canbefoundwithintheannexes.Conceptsonhowtohandleplasticrecyclingeffectivelywithintheframeworkofdifferentcirculareconomyimplementationsarealsooutlinedthere.

2.1 Plastics consumption and waste generation on a global scaleTheterm‘plastics’describesahugegroupofpolymers,whichformthebackbonethatenablethecreationofvariousfractionsofplasticswithverydifferentcharacteristicsforavastrangeofapplications.

Themostcommonlyusedmaterialsforplasticpackagingarethermoplastics,agroupofdiversematerialsthatmeltwhenheatedandhardenwhencooledinareversiblemanner.Polymersofthisgroupare,forinstance,polyethylene(PE;widelyusedintheformofeither“lowdensity”=LDPEor“highdensity=HDPE”),polypropylene(PP),polystyrene(PS),polyvinylchloride(PVC),andpolyethyleneterephthalate(PET).

Formanufacturinganyplasticmaterial,so-calledmonomershavetobeproducedthroughseparatingthehydrocarbonchemicalsfromeitherfossilsourceslikenaturalgas,petroleumorcoal(calledfossilfuel-basedplasticsorfossil-basedplastics)orrenewablesourceslikecornorsugarcane(calledbio-basedplastics).Thesemonomersformthebuildingblocksforthepolymers.

Duetoitssuitabilityforavastrangeofproducts,theplasticsvaluechainhasbecomeaglobalnetwork.LookingattheAfricancontinent,thedailyplasticsconsumptiongenerallyrangesbetween0to0.2kgperperson;withSouthAfricabeingtheonlyexemption.Kenya’sdailyplasticsconsumptionisestimatedtobe0.03kgperperson(Figure2),whichisatthelowerendofthespectrumandroughlyrepresentsatenthofthetotalmunicipalsolidwastevolume[Jambecketal.,2015].

2. Plastic Waste Management Practices

As plastics are used across all kind of sectors, the plastics economy has become a global business. However, the plastics usage by sector and the plastic waste generation by sector vary significantly, which is rooted in the different in-use phases of the product. As packaging has the shortest in-use phase, it is the biggest contributor to plastic waste.

‘Plastics’ is an umbrella term for a wide range of different materials with very different properties. They can originate from both fossil-based as well as bio-based sources.

Generally, all plastics consist of polymer chains, which vary in their composition and structure. There are two major groups: the thermoplastics that can be reversibly heated, melted and cooled down, and the thermosets which cannot be re-melted once they have cooled down.

This distinction has important implications for the recycling of plastics.


When it comes to plastics, many terms are used in a vague manner. To clarify the following definitions are used in this report:

Plastics products is the umbrella term for any items which consist of one of several plastic types, regardless of purpose, properties and duration of in-use phase. Packaging refers to products made from any materials for the reception, protection, handling, delivery and presentation of goods which may range from raw material to processed product and which are passed on by the manufacturer to the user or consumer.

Single-use plastics (SUP) - often also referred to as disposable plastics - are items which are intended to be used only once before they are thrown away or recycled. This includes plastic packaging such as bottles and containers but is not limited to packaging. Other items are grocery bags, straws, cups and cutlery, among others.

Figure 2: Global plastics consumption per capita per day [Jambeck et al., 2015]

Examiningtheplasticsproductiononadeeperlevelbylookingatplasticsusepersector,thefollowingpictureemerges(Figure3):in2015,thehighestproportion(36%)ofallplasticswasmanufacturedtoproducepackaging,whilebuildingandconstructionwererankedsecondwith16%.

However,plasticproductiondoesnotdirectlyreflectplasticwastegeneration,asthewastegenerationisshapedbythepolymertypeandthelifetimeoftheendproduct(Figure4).Thisiswhypackaging,withitsveryshort‘in-use’phaseof,onaverage,sixmonths,alsoconstitutesthebiggestshareofwastegeneration(~47%).Incontrast,buildingandconstructionareresponsiblefor4%ofthegeneratedwasteastheaveragein-usephaseis35years.Totalannualwastegenerationequalsapprox.75%oftheannualplasticsproduction[Geyeretal.,2017].



Figure 4: Plastics waste generation by industrial sector, 2015, [Geyer et al., 2017]

Figure 3: Primary plastics production by industrial sector, 2015, [Geyer et al., 2017]


2.2 Recycling PlasticsToimprovethewastemanagementsituation,basicconceptsanddefinitionsrelatedtowastemanagement,suchasdefinitionsofwaste,recycling,recoveryareacrucialprerequisiteforexplainingwhenwasteceasestobewasteandbecomesasecondaryrawmaterial(socalledend-of-wastecriteria),andhowtodistinguishbetweenwasteandby-products.

ThecentralconceptforproperwastemanagementandrecyclingisthewastehierarchyasanchoredintheEuropeanWasteFrameworkDirective(Figure5):Itisasetofprioritiesfortheefficientuseofresourcesandwastetreatmentlistingthemostpreferredtoleastpreferredoptionstartingwithprevention(measurebeforeaproductbecomeswaste),preparationforreuse,recycling,energyrecovery,anddisposal.Theaimofthishierarchyistoensurethatwastemanagementtakesplaceatthehighestlevelpossible.

Figure 5: Waste hierarchy

Recyclingrequiresaspecificdefinition,asthereareoftendifferentdefinitionsacrosscountriesandsectorsaboutwhichprocessesareconsideredrecyclingandwhicharenot.Generally,recyclingdescribestheprocessofusingrecoveredmaterialtomanufactureanewproduct.Thisdefinitioncanbefurtherdifferentiatedintomaterialandfeedstockrecycling.

Materialrecyclingdescribesrecyclingprocessesinwhichwasteismechanicallyreprocessedintoaproductwithequivalentproperties–alsoreferredtoasclosed-looprecycling–oraproductwhichrequireslowerproperties.

Feedstockrecyclingdescribesthede-polymerisationofplasticsintotheirchemicalconstituents[Hopewelletal.,2019].FollowingthedefinitionoftheEuropeanWasteFrameworkDirective,energyrecovery(sometimescalledenergyrecycling)isnotarecyclingprocess.

Recycling means any recovery operation by which waste materials are reprocessed into products, materials or substances, whether for their original or other purposes. There are two main types of recycling: material recycling describes recycling processes in which waste is mechanically reprocessed into a product with equivalent or lower properties. Feedstock recycling refers to recycling processes in which the material is transformed into its original building blocks. Recycling includes the reprocessing of organic material but does not include energy recovery. As recycling is not possible for all plastics waste, energy recovery is still a suitable and appropriate waste treatment. form for many plastics waste items.



Recyclingplasticpolymersishighlydependentonthepurityofthewastepolymerfractions.Purityreferstothepresenceofcontaminantsfromotherwastematerialsandotherpolymertypesasmanyplasticpolymersarenotsuitedtocreatingrecyclates.

RecyclingplasticsisalsoemphasisedintheEUasacrucialpartofitscirculareconomystrategy,whichiswhytheplasticsectorandtheusageofrecyclatesfulfilacentralroleinthetransitiontowardsacirculareconomy.Increasingrecyclateusageisrathera‘qualityinsteadofquantity’problem,asthetwocentralproblemsidentifiedarethe

i) difficultytomeettherequiredqualityandii) difficultytohaveaconsistent,reliablesupplyofhigh-qualityrecyclates[EuPC,2017].

Fromacirculareconomyperspective,plasticrecyclingisrecognisedasakeyconcept.However,duetoqualityproblems,itisnotyetusedtoitsfullestpotential.Toovercomethischallenge,suitablecollectionandrecyclinginfrastructure,incentivesaswellassuitablelegalandregulatoryframesareneeded.

2.3 The Circular Economy Concept

2.3.1 IntroductionThe’circulareconomy’isatheoreticalconceptthatstandsincontrasttocurrentlydominatingpracticesthataredescribedas‘lineareconomy’.Contrarytothetraditionalmodelinwhichresourcesareextracted,processed,distributed,consumed,andeventuallydisposed,thecirculareconomyconceptadvocatesacirculationofresourceswithintheeconomicsystem.Insteadofdisposingofwaste,itisreintroducedasaresourceintotheprocessingstage,therebyclosingtheloop.Thus,inacirculareconomythematerialremainscirculatingwithinthesystem[Ghisellinietal.,2015;Wilts,2016].AccordingtotheEllenMacarthurFoundation“acirculareconomyisbasedontheprinciplesofdesigningoutwasteandpollution,keepingproductsandmaterialsinuse,andregeneratingnaturalsystems”[EMF,2017a].Applyingelementsofthecirculareconomyofferssolutionstothecurrentimproperplasticwastemanagementandtheassociatednegativeexternalities.

Duetothiscirculatingcharacter,thecirculareconomyoffersamoreefficientresourceuse,whichhaseconomic,environmental,andsocialbenefits.Thecirculareconomyconceptisbasedonthreeoverarchingprinciples:reduce,reuse,andrecycle[Ghisellinietal.,2015;Wilts,2016].Asthenameimplies,thereductionprinciplepursuesthemaximumreductionofrawmaterialandenergydemand.Itaimstominimizewasteduringproductionprocessesaswellaswasteincurringatthepointofconsumption.Thereuseprincipledescribeshowproductsorcomponentsofproductsthatarenotwasteshouldbereusedagain,or–iftheyhaveturnedintowaste–shouldbepreparedforreuse[Ghisellinietal.,2015].

If a plastics product or good is truly recyclable is eventually determined by two criteria: the compositional quality of the object and the real recycling options after usage. In practice, recycling is only possible if there is corresponding, appropriate infrastructure. Otherwise, the product or packaging is only “ready for recycling”. To turn it into a recyclable product or packaging, a comprehensive expansion and further development of collection systems and recycling processes are prerequisites – defining general requirements for a product design. These processes aim at enabling the product to be recycled after use.

The circular economy is defined as an economic model within which resources like plastics are used in a more efficient manner through the three guiding principles of reduce, reuse and recycle to close the loop. Shifting to such a system has economic as well as social and environmental benefits through reduced import dependence, employment creation, reduced litter, less resource extraction and improved human health. Putting the circular economy principle into practice requires measures, which need to be taken at all level of the supply chain. Thus, a good collaboration among the different stakeholder to align measures is crucial.


Thisoffersespeciallyenvironmentalbenefitsasitdecreasestheresourcedemandandinmostcasesalsotheenergydemandsincetheproductisnotnewlymanufactured[Castellanietal.,2015].Thelastprinciple,therecycleprinciple,referstoanyprocessinwhichwasteisrecoveredthroughreprocessingthematerialoritschemicalconstituents,therebymakingitavailablefornewmanufacturingprocesses[Ghisellinietal.,2015,Hopewelletal.,2009].

Takingcirculareconomyconceptsintoconsiderationhasimportantimplicationsforallstepsoftheproductvaluechain.Therespectivemeasurescoverabroaderfieldthanjustwastemanagementandareoperationalisedatdifferentscales–ideallydoneinacomplementaryfashion(Figure6).However,this isusuallynotthecase:mostinitiatives,despiteoftenbeingpromising,remainfragmentedandmeasuresacrossscalesareoftenpoorlyalignedwitheachother[WEF,2016].

Figure 6: Circular economy conceptualisation

Shifting towards circular economy concepts creates more revenue and thereby also more jobs in fields of designing circular products, collecting and sorting, all crucial for reusing and recycling. This requires both high-skilled as well as low-skilled labour.



2.3.2 Plastics in a Circular EconomyAsmentioned,plasticsasmaterialhavebecomeaubiquitouspartorourdailylifeduetotheirversatility.However,sincelitteredplasticswastehasalsobecomepervasiveinourenvironment,greatconcernsanddiscussionsaboutthemultiplenegativeimpactsoftheimproperlymanagedandlitteredplasticswastehavearisenglobally.Shiftingtowardsacirculareconomyasaresponsetothiscurrentsituationwouldfocusonclosingtheloopbyincreasingtheamountofplasticsthatarerecycled.

Puttingthisintopracticerequiresmultiplemeasureswhichneedtobetakenatallstepsalongtheplasticsvaluechainandadoptedbymultipleactors,forinstanceExtendedProducerResponsibility(EPR)schemes,productdesignsforenhancedrecycling,awell-developedrecyclinginfrastructure,appropriateend-of-lifeoptionsaswellaswastesegregation.

Moreover, implementingthecirculareconomyforplasticwasteopensthedoortoincreasedrevenuesandemploymentcreation:• TheglobalplasticsrecyclingmarketvalueequalledUS$31billionin2015andisexpectedtoreachUS$57

billionworldwideby2024[TMR,2017].Thisisestimatedtobeapprox.8%ofthetotalplasticmarketvolume,whichisexpectedtobeworthUS$654billionby2020,andUS$721billionby2025(Figure7)[GrandViewResearch,2019a].

• Theplastic-to-fuelmarketisexpectedtogrowsignificantlyinthenextyearsasaresponsetorisingenergydemands.Processingwasteplasticwouldofferasuitablesolutiontorespondtotheneedforfuelwhileprocessingtheincreasingquantitiesofplasticwaste;releasingpressurefromthedepletionofnaturalresources[GrandViewResearch,n.y.].

• In2018,theglobalPETrecyclingmarketstoodatUS$7billionanditscompoundannualgrowthrateisestimatedtobe7.4%until2025,resultinginavalueofUS$11billion.Theincreasingconsumerawarenessregardingenvironmentalsustainabilityisakeydrivertogetherwiththeincreaseoflandfillbansworldwide.DemandforrecycledPETiscreatedbyseveralindustriessuchasthetextilesindustry,consumergoods,automobilesandfoodandbeveragepackaging[GrandViewResearch,2019b].

Hence,incorporatingcirculareconomyconceptswillgeneratemorerevenueandtherebymorejobsinthefieldsofdesigningcircularproducts,collectingandsorting;allofwhicharecrucialfactorsforreusingandrecycling.Thisrequireshigh-skilledaswellaslow-skilledlabour.

Reducing the overall amount of plastics used while increasing the reuse and recycling of the generated plastic quantities are the key elements for transitioning the plastics economy into a circular one.

Figure 7:

Expected development of the plastic and plastic recycling market


2.3.3 Global Circular Economy ExamplesWorldwide,severalcountrieshaveinitiatedshiftstowardsacirculareconomytoaddresstheirwastesituation.Whiletheirapproacheshaveseveralsimilarities,theyalsoexhibitnoticeabledifferencesduetothedifferentconditionspresentintherespectivecountry.

Topushcirculareconomyalsoonaglobalscale,thereareseveralglobalcommitmentsdrivenbybothgovernmentsaswellasprivatesectorinitiativestotransittoawaste-freecircularplasticseconomy.Moredetailontheseglobalpracticesispresentedinannex8.5.

Belgium InBelgium,wastemanagementisadevolvedresponsibilitywhichisorganisedattheregionallevel,puttingthethreeregionsFlanders,Wallonia,andBrussels-Capitalincharge.In1996,toensureacomprehensivepackagingwastecollectionsystemandarespectiveEPRsystem,thethreeregionsjointlyagreedonanationwidepackaginglawtoestablishastrong,legalbasis.Sincethen,Belgiumhasdevelopedanextensivecollectionsystemacrossthecountry,whichisreflectedinthehighrecyclingandrecoveryratesofBelgium,amongthehighestinthewholeEuropeanUnion(EU)[Eurostat,2019].

Additionally,toincreaserecyclingrates,Belgiumisaddressingtheissueofabetterwastepreventionbydevelopingcomprehensiveplasticswastestrategiesthatcontaindedicatedpolicyinstrumentsforwasteprevention[EEA,2019].

TheProducerResponsibilityOrganization(PRO)oftheBelgianEPRsystemiscalledFostPlus;itoperatesasanon-profitorganisation.FostPluswasfoundedinBelgiumasavoluntaryinitiativeoftheprivatesector.Althoughtherearenocompetitiverestrictions,onlyonePROhasbeencreatedsofar.Thus,FostPlusenjoysanoperationalmonopoly.Itcomprisesapproximately5,000members,eachpayingparticipationfees.Today,thereisapackaginglawthatcompelseverycompanyputtingmorethan300kgofhouseholdpackagingannuallyontotheBelgianmarket(forconsumptioninBelgium)effectivelytobecomemembersofFostPlus.Eachofthesecompaniesisobligedtopayforthecollection,sorting,andrecyclingofpackagingthatisbroughtintothemarket.FostPlusisresponsibleforallpackagingsalesaccordingtospecificdefinitionsandpublishesarespectivecriteriacatalogue.Fastfoodpackagingandpackagingfromonlinesalesalsofallunderthis.Asidefromthefundingofwastemanagement,FostPlususes10%ofitsannualbudgetforeducationandawarenesscampaignsfocusingonlitter.

Theresultsofthissystemaregoodintermsofcollection,sortingandrecycling.However,mixedplasticsandfoilsarenotcollectedwithinthissystemthroughoutmostofBelgium.From2022onwards,itisplannedtoexpandthesystemtocoverallotherpackagingmaterials.By2022,90%ofbeveragepackagingwastegeneratedintheregionofFlandersismeanttobecollectedandrecycled.Asthenextstep,by2023,65%ofallplasticpackagingwasteissettoberecycled.By2030,thegovernmentaimstoraisetherecyclingrateto70%ofallplasticspackagingwaste.Thesequantitativetargetsarelaiddownintheagreementwiththesector[EEA,2019].

From a circular economy perspective, the Belgian system is overall running well. The Belgian system started with only separately collected valuables like plastic containers and bottles beside metals. Other packaging like flexibles, films and mixed plastics were collected together with mixed municipal solid waste for later incineration.Due to the increase of recycling quotas set by the EU, Belgium is now expanding its separate collection to all packaging for subsequent sorting. and recycling.



Denmark InJanuary2018,theEUintroduceditsEuropeanstrategyforplasticsincludinggoalstomakeallplasticspackagingrecyclableby2030,toreducesingle-useplasticswhereapplicableandtorestrictintentionaluseofmicro-plastics.Moreover,bindingregulationsareplannedwhichobligemanufacturerstouseacertainamountofrecyclatesintheirproductsandobligesMemberStatestorecycle50%oftheirplasticpackagingby2025and55%by2030.

The current waste management system in Denmark has acomprehensivewastecollectioninfrastructure.However,accordingtoastudybytheDanishMinistryofEnvironmentandFood[2018],themajorityofthiswaste,63%,isincineratedwhileonly36%ofallplasticsandonly18%ofallplasticspackagingarerecycled.Thus,theDanishgovernmentintroducedtheirnewstrategytotransitiontoamorecirculareconomyandmeetthegoalssetbytheEUplasticsstrategy.IntheirActionPlan(Figure8),theDanishgovernmentportraysaholisticapproachwithmeasuresallacrossthevaluechain.Inparticular,theyhighlightsixfocusareasand27reinforcingactionmeasuresinordertotransitionintoamoresustainable,morecirculareconomy.Thesixfocusareasare:

• Tostrengthenenterprisesasadrivingforceforcirculartransition• Tosupportthecirculareconomythroughdataanddigitalisation• Topromotecirculareconomythroughdesign• Tochangeconsumptionpatternsthroughcirculareconomy• Tocreateaproperfunctioningmarketforwasteandrecycledmaterials• Toincreaserecyclingofmaterialusedinbuildingsandbiomass

Allstakeholdersinthevaluechainofplasticpackagingareincludedintheseactions.Toincreaserecyclingofplasticsfromhouseholds,astandardisedwastecollectionisplanned,aswellasamandatoryEPRsystem.Also,betterplasticswastehandlingispartofthegoaltotransitionintoamorecirculareconomy.Danishcompaniesareencouragedtodevelopsustainableplasticssolutionsfordesign,reuse,recycling,circularbusinessmodelsandrecyclingtechnology.

VEmbracingamorecircularapproachalsooffersgreateconomicbenefitsasitisestimatedthatforevery1,000mtofrecycledplasticwaste(whicharenotincinerated),threetofourjobsarecreatedalongwithadditionalrevenueof6millionDanishkroner(equallingapprox.US$900,000).TheDanishgovernmenthassetasideEUR16milliontoimplementtheseinitiatives[MFVM,2018].

Despite extensive waste management frameworks in place, the majority of Danish municipal waste is still incinerated. In Denmark, it is assumed that per 1,000 metres of recycled – not incinerated – plastic waste, three to four permanent jobs and an economic value of roughly US$ 900,000 can be created.

Figure 8: The Danish Plastic Action Plan


Chile PushedbyanOECDreportof2016thatlistedChilealongsideTurkeyatthelowestendofOECDmemberstateswithregardtorecyclingquotas,thecountryhasinitiatedachangetowardsacirculareconomythroughseveralmeasures.Oneofthekeyfactorsdrivingthischangeistheestablishmentofasoundlegalbasis:in2016,along-awaitedwastemanagementlawenteredthecongressandhasbeenofficiallypassedasthe‘WasteManagement,ExtendedProducerResponsibilityandRecyclingIncentivesBill’[LeyN°20.920,2016].

Thisbilldefinedcleargoalsandrequirementsforseveralcirculareconomy-basedmeasures.Asacentralpartofthelaw,ExtendedProducerResponsibility(EPR)systemsforsixproductcategoriesaredefined:tires,packaging,lubricantoils,wasteelectricalandelectronicequipment(WEEE),automotivebatteries,andportablebatteries.

Throughthislaw,aninstrumentforproducerresponsibilitywascreated,obligingtheproducersoftheseproductcategoriestocreateProducerResponsibilityOrganisations(PROs)ordeliverproofoftake-back.Acorrespondingproducerregisterhasalreadybeenestablished.Thislawwillgraduallystarttocomeintoeffect,asthespecificregulationsandtargets(collectionandrecoveryrates)aredefinedandpublishedinthepresentandcomingyears[datedJune2019]totailorthemtolocalconditions.Moreover,mostoftheChileanpopulationlivesinurbanareas,whilevastpartsoftheruralareasareonlyscarcelypopulated.Asaresponsetothis,wastesegregationandcollectionoftherecyclableswillfirstbeintroducedinurbancentresandthengraduallyexpandedtootherareas.Theadvantageofthisapproachisthatthefirstquantitieswillalreadybecollectedwhilethenecessaryinfrastructure,likeaccessibleroads,willbebuiltlater.

Asanotherkeyfactor,thelawconsiderstheinclusionoftheinformalrecyclingsector,mainlywastepickers,throughaformalisationasaccreditedwasteoperatorsoncetheyobtainthecorrespondingcertification[LeyN°20.920,2016].CollectionandrecyclinghavetobetenderedseparatelyandinformalrecyclersandmunicipalitiesaretreatedwithpreferencebythePRO.Throughincludingandformalisingtheinformalsector,Chilechoseaninclusiveapproachratherthantakingawaythelivelihoodoftheworkers,whichreflectsthesocialdimensionofthecirculareconomyapproach[MinisteriodelMedioAmbiente,2019].

Comparing these three countries, it appears that the following are requirements for success:

• Sound legal basis• Holistic approach with measures all across the value chain• Inclusive approach which integrates all actors (including the informal sector)• Focus on comprehensive and extensive waste collection and sorting to increase recycling• Establishment of an EPR system as a sustainable financing basis



Figure 9: Waste sorting at Taka Taka

Figure 10: The Business of Taka Taka

2.3.4 African Circular Economy ExamplesComplementingtotheglobalexamples,therearealsoexamplesofcirculareconomyconceptswhichhavebeenimplementedinAfricancountries.

Kenya TakaTakaSolutionsisoneoftheprominentexamplesofcompaniesactivelypresentinthecountry’sgarbagecollectionandrecyclingspaceinKenya.AsaleaderinwastecollectioninNairobiandonasmallerscaleinneighbouringcities,itissuccessfullycollectingandsortingwastefrommajorwastesourceslikenotablehotelsandmallsaswellasnationalandinternationalinstitutions(Figure9).

Toreducetheamountofwasteendingupindumpsites,TakaTakarecycles95%ofthewasteitcollects;thisispartlyundertakenbythemselvesor,predominantly,byoneofthenumerousrecyclersandconvertersthatfeedsortedandpre-treatedfractionsfromTakaTakaintotheirproductionprocesses.Wasteissortedintomorethan45fractionswithintheirtwosortingsitesinNairobi.

Aspartofitsrecyclingstrategy(Figure10),thecompanymakescompostsoutoftheirseparatedorganicwaste,whichissoldtofarmers.


Mr.GreenAfricaisanotherexampleofaninnovativebusinessmodelaimingtointroducecirculareconomyconceptsinKenya.Thecompanyworkswithinformalwastecollectors(pickers)byintegratingthemintotheirvaluechain.Thecompanycollaborateswiththeseinformalwastepickersandacceptsthecollectedwasteatoneof25tradingpoints,predominantlysetupinNairobi’slowincomeareas.Withtheuseofdigitalapplications,Mr.Greenmeasuresandkeepsarecordofeachofitssuppliers.Throughtheapp,thecompanyalsoinformsabouttheratesplasticwastesaresoldat,therebyassuringtransparentpricespaidtothesuppliers.Thecompanyhasmanagedtobuildarelationshipwiththeirsuppliersbygivingfairandstablepricesbutalsobyofferingsupplierloyaltyprogrammesandservices(seeFigure11).

Mr.Greenfocusesonthecollectionofplastics,specificallyPETbottles,HDPE,PPaswellasaluminiumandpaperslikecartons.Therecycledplasticsaresoldasflakes,bothlocallyandinternationally.Raisingawareness plays an importantrole in Mr. Green’s operationalmodel. Continuing their socialand environmental approach,Mr.GreenAfricapartneredwiththe international consumergoods company Unilever on aplasticsrecyclingprogrammeforprimary schools. The aim is toenticechildrenatanearlyagetobecomeenvironmentallyconsciousandtohelpleadsocietytowardsbehaviouralchange(seeFigure12). Figure 11: The Business of Mr Green Africa

Figure 12: Awareness rising in schools



Rwanda RwandaisapioneerinAfricaintermsofmaintainingacleanenvironment.Itiswellknownforitszerotolerancepolicyforlitter,whichisstillaprobleminotherpartsofEasternAfrica.

Forovertenyearsnow,thecountry’seconomyhasbeenrunningwithanactiveplasticbagbaninplace.Tounderstandandlearnfromthisexample,Rwandahas:i) Bannedtheuseofsingleuseplasticbagsin2008ii) Putinplaceaheavyfineonthebanneditemsiii) Madeiteasytopackagestuffwithpaper,whichareavailableinshopsandstallsiv) Investedineducationandawarenessv) Draftedabillonthebanofallsingle-useplasticsinthecountry.

Rwandahassuccessfullymanagedtopromoteawarenessamongstitspopulationinenvironmentrelatedtopics.In2011,theRwandaEnvironmentManagementAuthorityinitiatedaGreeningSchoolsProgramme[REMA,2019]. Inadditiontotreeplanting,greeningschoolgrounds,usingimprovedhandwashingfacilitiesandmakingchildrenawareoftheimportanceoftheharmfuleffectsofimproperwastemanagementthecountryhasmanagedtoeducateitscitizensontheimportanceofacleanlivingenvironment.

WithintheframeworkoftheUNEducationforSustainableDevelopment(ESD)programme,aconsortiumoftwolocalorganisationswiththesupportoftheBritishdevelopmentagency,DFID,enhancedawarenessbuildingaroundthetopicoftheenvironmentthroughthedevelopmentofEco-SchoolRwanda.TheaimoftheEco-Schoolsprojectistopromoteenvironmentaleducationinthecountrystartingatanearlyage.Thisisachievedbyusingeducationtohelpreducepovertylevels,aswellasdevelopenvironmentalprotectionandclimatechangemitigationknowledgeamongstthechildren[FoundationSaintDominiqueSavio,2014].

Rwandahasbeensuccessfullyabletokeepitsstreetscleanwithhelpofthelegalframeworkandheavyfinesputinplaceoncetheplasticbagbanwasimplemented.Rwandahasoneofthestringiestandstrictestfinesonthisinplace,whichallpeoplelivinginRwandaadhereto.ItensurescleanstreetswithinandoutsideofthecapitalKigaliandbeyond.

CompliancewithauthorityisacultureinRwanda.Therefore,regulationsputinplacebygovernmentarequicklyadoptedbythepopulation.Thewaythecitizenshaveadoptedthepolicyshowsthatabancanbequicklyassimilatedbyacountry.

Early2019,thecountryalsodraftedalawtobanallsingle-useplasticwhich,undoubtedly,willaffecttheindustry.Ifthispassedaslegislation,companiesaffectedwillhavetoadapttothis.

Thecountry’sinfrastructurestillremainsinadequateasthepopulationisfastgrowing.Thereareprojectstodevelopfurtherthecity’sinfrastructureandresidentialbuildings.Thecountryhasanextensiveprogrammetoconstructhighdensitybuildingsby2040,bymultiplyingthemediumriserowhousesaswellasthemulti-storeyapartmentsbymorethanthreetimesthenumber(StateoftheEnvironmentandOutlookReport2015,REMA,2015).

Rwanda has successfully managed to promote awareness amongst its population in environment related topics. As one measure, the Rwanda Environment Management Authority initiated a Greening Schools Programme in 2011.


EventhoughstreetsandroadsinRwandaareclean,recyclingremainsapracticewithaninsufficientinfrastructure.Somecategoriesofwastecannotberecycledinthecountryduetolackoffinancialandtechnicalcapacities.Thenumberofcompaniesinthesectorisinsufficientandthereforetheinfrastructureisnotfunctioningsufficiently.Thustherecyclingindustryisnotentirelydeveloped.

WithincreaseofthepopulationinCityofKigali,therehasbeenariseintheamountofwastebeinggeneratedondailybasis.Solidandliquidwaste(SLW)arecollectedfromhouseholdsandtransportedtoNdubalandfilltothetuneof300tonnespardayandonly2%ofsolidwasteisrecycled.Themainlandfill,Nduba,doesnothaveawastesegregationsystem.

Justasitisthecaseinmanydevelopingcountries,adumpsiteconstructedinKigaliisquicklyfilled.ThecitythereforecloseddownitsNyanzadumpsiteandisnowoperatingthelandfill[OfficeofTheAuditorGeneralofStateFinances,2016].

Asmuchasthecountryhasanefficientwayofensuringthestreetsandthepublicenvironmentarecleanandfromfreeofwaste,thefinalhandlingofthewasteisstillachallenge.Mandatorymonthlystreetcleansaredonewhichinadditiontotheregulatoryframeworkhelpstokeepthestreetsclean.Butthesectorofwastemanagementstillneedstobeimprovedinordertoapplymorecircularpracticesinwastemanagement.



Tunisia In2004,Tunisiasetupseveralsystemsforthecollection,treatmentandvalorisationofcertaincategoriesofwaste,suchasECO-Lef.Tofosterthedevelopmentofthesector,theTunisiangovernmentencouragedthecreationofmicroenterprisesbyawardingcontractstogetherwiththemunicipalities.

Thesystemwasfinancedbyaneco-tax,althoughitwaslabelledasanEPRsystem(fordifferenceseechapter5.1.1).Afeeof5%onthenetaddedvaluehastobepaidforimportedplastic,includingemptypackagingandrawmaterials.Fortheimportofalreadypackagedgoods,notaxneededtobepaid.

Thefundscollectedviatheeco-taxeswere(partially)usedto;• FinancetheECO-Lefsystem,• Coverpartoftheoperationalfeesofthemunicipalandhazardouswasteinfrastructures,and• CoverpartofthefunctionalcostsoftheNationalAgencyforWasteManagement.

ECO-Lefisapublicsystemfortherecoveryandrecyclingofpackagingwaste,implementedinpartnershipwithlocalauthorities.ItincludesthecollectionofpackagingwasteandrecyclingofplasticwasteaccordingtotheconditionssetbytheNationalAgencyforWasteManagement.TheEco-Lefsystemcoversonlyspecificpackagingtypes,namelyPETbottles,milkbottlesmadeofHDPE,plasticfilmsandbagsmadeofPPaswellasmetalcans–cardboardpackagingisexcluded.

Thecollectionofrecyclablematerials isdonebyapprovedandauthorisedcompanies.Theseusuallysmallcompaniescanalsobuymaterialfrominformalcollectors,whichplayamajorroleintherecoveryofrecyclablesinTunisia.Inturn,thecollectionscompanies(can)selltheircollectedquantitiestoECO-Lef;however,thisisnotmandatory.Eventually,thematerialissoldtorecyclers.Despitetheirgreatimportanceintherecyclingsystem,theinformalsectorisnotvisibleintheECO-Lefsystem.

Afteraninitialsuccess,whichpeakedin2008withcollectionof15,700mtofpackaging,collectionandrecyclinggraduallybutsignificantlydecreasedto5,400mtofcollectedpackagingwastein2017.Thereasonofthissignificantdeclinewasrootedinthemismatchbetweenfundsgeneratedfromtheeco-taxesandtheactualpackagingwastequantitiesandthelackofadequatesteeringfunctionoftaxesontheactualcollectionandrecyclinginfrastructure.Thiswasexacerbatedbyfurtherstructuralweaknesses,asthedecreaseoftheprofitabilityofcertainpartsofthesystemwasdiminishedduetothedecreaseincollectionactivity.Furthercausesforthepooroutcomesincludealackpropercontrol,complaintsoverthequalityoftherecyclersandproliferationofnon-approvedrecyclingcompanies,longtransportdistancesconnectedtorelativelyhighcosts,and,lastbutnotleast,limiteddomesticrecyclingvaluechains.

Toimprovetheirsystem,theNationalAgencyforWasteManagementiscurrentlymakingrevisionstotransformitintoanactualEPRsystem.


2.3.5 Alternatives to PlasticsInlightofthegrowingwealthandconsumptionandthereforealsoincreasedresourcedemandrequiredtomeetthisgrowth,efficientandeffectivewastemanagementhasbecomemoreimportantthaneverbeforeandplaysacentralrolefornatureandresourceconservation.

Aspartofthereductionpillarofthecirculareconomy,itisimportanttoconsiderthealternativestoplastics,i.e.thesubstitutionofplasticmaterialwithothermaterialsinpackagingandotherproducts.Aswillbedescribedinthefollowingchapters,thereiscurrentlynocomprehensivewastecollectionandtreatmentinfrastructureforwasteingeneralandplasticsinparticularinKenya.Inlightoftheprevailingwastemanagementconditions(predominantlylandfill,lowrecyclingstructureforglassandplastic,norelevantreusablesystems),theuseofresources,forinstanceintheformofpackaging,shouldbereducedasmuchaspossibleinordertominimizeresourcelossesandunorderlydepositswiththeassociatedecologicalconsequences.

Againstthisbackground,itisimportanttocompareplasticsvisavisalternativesandanalysetheirfeasibilityandimpactsinregardstoamultitudeofimpactcategories.Suchacomparisonandanalysishasbeendoneaspartoftheresearchandispresentedinannex8.9.Inparticular:

• carbonemissions(expressedthroughtheglobalwarmingpotential(GWP))andwaterfootprintasecologicalindicators

• health,safety,collectionandrecyclingsituationaseconomicindicators

ThesecomparisonsarebasedonLifeCycleAnalyses,whichcompareddifferentmaterialsolutionsforthesamepurposeatitemlevel.LifeCycleAnalysis(LCA)isatechniquetoassesstheenvironmentalimpactassociatedwithallthestagesofaproduct’slifespan(fromrawmaterialextractionthroughmaterialsprocessing,manufacture,distribution,use,repairandmaintenance,todisposalorrecycling). Indoingso,theprevailingframeworkconditionsineachcaseareconsidered.LCAsindicatetheproduct’simpactregardingclimatechangeorglobalwarmingpotential,acidification,photo-oxidantformation,ozonedepletionpotential,terrestrialeutrophication,aquaticeutrophication1,particulatematter,totalprimaryenergy,non-renewableprimaryenergy,useofnature,wateruse(relatedtowaterinput).

Generally,itisnotpossibletoderiveageneralrulestatingthataspecificalternativeisbetterthanplastics;assuchastatementisalwaysitem-specificanddependentonamultitudeofcontextualfactorssuchastheavailabilityofaproperwastemanagementsystem.Thus,fromaresourceconservationpointofview,thedevelopmentofanorderlyandcomprehensiverecyclingstructureisthepreferredalternativetosimplesubstitution.Intheforeseeablefuture,substitutionwilllargelynotbeabletoreplacethespecificandformanypurposesfavourableattributesofplastics.

1Aquaticeutrophicationdescribestheprocesswhenanaquaticbodybecomesover-enrichedinnutrients,whichcausesexcessivealgalblooms,potentiallyleadingtooxygendepletionandashiftinspeciescompositionoftenassociatedtodetrimentaleffectsontheaquaticecosystem[Chislocketal.,2013].Terrestrialeutrophicationisbasedonasimilarprocessandoutcomes,althoughtheenrichmentofnutrientscausedbyairpollution[EEA,2018].



2.4 Kenyan Plastic Mass Flow

2.4.1 Quantification of plastic volumesToquantifytheflowofthevariouspolymertypesinKenya,thefinishedgoodsimport,useandexport,aswellasthepercapitaconsumptioninKenya,theplasticsmaterialflowateverystepofthevaluechainhavetobeverified.Theapproach(Figure13)considersthatplasticmaterialisintroducedinKenyaeitherthrough;

i) importedrawmaterialforplasticpackaging(rawmaterialforresinsandplasticresins),ii) importedpackagingmaterialaswellasplasticgoods,oralreadyasiii) wastematerial

WithinKenya,therawmaterialforplasticsisconvertedintoplasticpackagingandplasticproducts,which–togetherwiththeimportedpackagingandproducts–aresoldtocompaniesand/orconsumersandeventuallybecomewaste.Thiswasteissubsequentlypreparedforreuse,recycled,disposedofordumpedthroughformalandinformalchannels,orpotentiallyevenexportedtoothercountries.Otherpossibilitiesformaterialoutflowofthecountryarethroughtheexportofplasticpackagingandplasticproductstoothercountriesaswellastheexportofrawmaterials.

The researchers conducted a mass flow analysis by combining:modelling of national data sets on plastics and plastic packaging consumption from 2016 inflated to 2017 with a survey of Kenyan recyclers regarding the quantities of recycled plastics and plastic packaging waste.

Figure 13: Mass flow of plastics material within Kenya


Toidentifytheflowofplasticmaterialateverystepoftheplasticsvaluechain,anonlinesurvey(seeannex8.7)wasconductedviaKAMwithrelevantactorsfromallstepsalongthevaluechain.Inthissurvey,theintervieweeswereaskedtoindicatetheiractivitiesinrelationtoplasticuseandfractionsaccordingtotheseven,internationallycodedfractions(seeannex8.2),therespectivevolumespurchasedandpotentialchallengestheyface.

ThisiscomplementedbyinsightsderivedfromthekeyinformantinterviewsconductedfortheKenyaPlasticActionPlan’sresearch.Theresultsoftheonlinequestionnaireshavebeencomparedandcomplementedwithresultsofpreviousstudiesconductedinthisfieldtoincreasetheaccuracyofconclusions.Inparticular,twostudieswereused.ThefirstwasastudyundertakenbyEunomia[2018]whichidentifiedthequantityofplasticpackagingwasteannuallygeneratedinKenya.Eunomia’sresearchisbasedontheassumptionthatthequantityofplasticpackagingputonthemarketequalsthequantityofwastegenerated,duetotheveryshortin-usephaseofpackaging.However,ithastobeconsideredthatthisassumptionisnotfullyaccurateintheKenyancontext.Animportantshareofpackagingisreusedeitherforthesamepurposeorforadifferentone.Thus,thein-usephaseisprolonged.Themainresearchmethodisinterviewsofdifferentstakeholdersinthevaluechain.Thenumberspresentedasresultscanthereforeratherbeconsideredestimates.ThesecondimportantstudyconsideredherewasundertakenbyIpsos[2019]withfocusonPETbottles:withinthecourseofthemarketassessment,amassflowanalysisofPETmaterialinKenyawasalsoconducted,basedondatafrom2017.

Import of plasticsAlthoughKenyapossessescrudeoil,therearenoplanstosetuparefineryinKenyaintheforeseeablefuture.Domesticcrudeoilisthereforenot(yet)usedforthegenerationofplasticmaterial,i.e.everyplasticmaterialand/orproductmusthavebeenimportedtoKenyaatsomepoint(includingimportedasresinsandrawmaterialforresins).Thisassumptionmatcheswiththeapproachoftheotherstudies[Eunomia,2018;Ipsos,2019].Thus,quantifyingthisinterfaceisthemostrelevantone.

AccordingtoEunomia[2018],anestimated567,000mtofprimaryandnon-primaryplasticswasimportedintoKenyain2017.TheIpsos-studyreports453,781mtofimportedprimaryplasticsinthesameyear(and469,400mtin2016).Duetothelackofprimaryplasticproduction,itisassumedthatthisnumberconsistsofbothprimaryplasticsintheformofgranulates,resins,etc.andprocessedplasticsintheformoffilm,emptycontainersandotherplasticsproducts.In2017,theplasticindustryprocessedaround240,000mtofprimaryplasticswiththebalance,roughlyhalfthetotalimportedvolumes,andassumedtobepre-processedplastics.Theimportofplasticsintheformofalreadypackedgoodsis,however,notaccountedfor[Ipsos,2019].Althoughthenumbersofthetwostudiesarenotfullycongruent,theyaregenerallyclosetoeachotherindicatingascaleof450,000to570,000mtofprimaryandnon-primaryplasticimportsfor2017.Thedifferencesarebasedonthedifferentnatureofthedata,asoneisanestimatedvalue,basedonthepreviousyear’sdataandpreviousdevelopments.Moreover,italsoshowstheuncertaintyofthemarketwithreliabledatadifficulttoobtain.PuttingintoperspectivethatEunomiaalsoincludespacked/madeproductsinitsestimates,representingaround20%ofallgoodsconsumedinKenya,thegapshrinks–makingbothassumptionsquitecongruent.

Themaincountriesfromwhichthematerial is importedareChina,IndiaandtheUnitedArabEmirates.Forinstance,86%ofimportedPEToriginatesfromChinaandIndiaalone[Ipsos,2019].


The numbers on imported plastics of the two reviewed studies are not fully congruent, but they are generally close to each other indicating a scale of 450,000 to 570,000 mt of primary and non-primary plastics for 2017.


Theinterviewsrevealedthatsortedplasticsfractionsarealsooccasionallyimported,forinstancefromUgandaorTanzania,toberecycledinKenyaasthepricesforwastematerialaresignificantlycheaperintheseneighbouringcountries[KenyaPlasticActionPlanInterviews,2019].Theseamountsseemtoberelativelynegligibleincomparisontothedomesticvolumeflows,altoughnoexactquantitiescouldbeassessed.Anotheraspect,whichcouldnotbeassessed,wastheillegalimportofplasticsinanyform.Thus,themagnitudeofthisremainswidelyunquantified.

Domestic processing of plastics and production of packagingAsthedomesticproductionofplasticsmaterialandproductsisdependentontheimportoftherequiredrawmaterials,thematerialflowsfromtheprevioussteptothisoneareinevitablyinterlinkedandhenceserveasanimportantverificationofthemassflow.

Asbrieflymentionedintheprevioussection,thedomesticproductionofplasticsmaterialisnon-existent;theimportthereforecoversthewholedemand.Aroundhalf(equalling240,000mt)oftotalplasticsimportsareprocesseddomestically.TheselocallyprocessedplasticshavetocompetewithoftentimescheaperpricesfromChina,IndiaandtheUAE,forexample[Ipsos,2019].Theresultsoftheonlinesurveydisplay,particularlyrawmaterialforLDPE,HDPEandPPisimported,whilethequantitiesforPVCandPSareonlyofminorimportance–whichisalsoreflectedintheirlowrecyclingnumbers(seebelow‘Wastemanagementandrecycling’).

InKenya,thedomesticpackaging,supposedlylinkedtodomesticproduction,issignificantlyhigherthantheimportofpacked/madegoods.AccordingtoEunomia[2018],aroundfourfifthsofpackagingmaterials’volumeisusedlocallyfromimportedpackaging,importedvirginmaterial(processedintopackagingdomestically)and,toalesserextent,domesticallyrecycledmaterials.Onlyaroundafifthofpackagingisimportedintheformofpacked/madeproducts.TheKenyanprivatesectorcomprisesadiversifiedstructureofbothlocallygrownandmultinationalconsumergoodscompaniesthatserveKenyaandsurroundingmarketswithawiderangeofproducts.Withproductionandpackagingoperationsonsite,theytogetherrepresenttheclearmajorityofpackagingmaterialconsumedinKenya[KenyaPlasticActionPlanInterviews,2019].

ExportJustasthewiththeimportgroup,thisgroupisanumbrellaforthreedifferentformsofexport:theexportofrawmaterials(bothmadevirginmaterialsaswellasrecyclatesassecondarymaterial),exportofplasticproductsincludingpackaging,andtheexportofwaste.Regardingtheexportofrawmaterials,Eunomia[2018]reportedthat4,691mtofrecycledplasticshavebeenexported.Exportedplasticproductsareestimatedat51,000mtfor2017[Eunomia,2018;Ipsos,2019],althoughtheprimarysourceofexportdatadoesnotclearlyindicateifthevolumeofallpackagedproductsandplasticgoodsisincludedinthisnumber.Informationaboutexportsofplasticwastecouldnotbeidentified.

Around 80 % of packaging materials volume is used locally from imported packaging, imported virgin material processed into packaging domestically and domestically recycled materials.

The numbers on imported plastics of the two reviewed studies are not fully congruent, but they are generally close to each other indicating a scale of 450,000 to 570,000 mt of primary and non-primary plastics for 2017.


Waste management: recycling quotaToanalysethequantitiesoftheplasticfractionswhichhavebeenconsumedinKenya,theexportquantitiesofexportedrawmaterials(onlyprimary,notsecondary)andexportedproductsaredeductedfromthequantitiesofplasticsintroducedonthemarket(eitherimportedorproducedlocally).

AspresentedbytheEunomiastudy,atotalof36,193mtofplasticwastewererecycledin2017(seeTable1),meaningprocessingplasticwastethroughwashing,flaking,shredding,grinding,pelletizingand/orusingrecycledplasticsintheproductionofnewproducts.Thevolumeforwardedtorecyclerswashigherat42,950mt, indicatingthatonlypartsoftherecoveredmaterialsmetthecriteriaforrecycling[Eunomia,2018].Theamountofplasticpackagingrecycledwas23,006mt.Theremainder,13,907mt,wasthereforesourcedfromplasticsappliedfordifferentpurposes.WhereaspracticallyallPETrecycledinKenyaisderivedfrompackaging,significantpercentagesofotherrecycledfractionsHDPE,PPandLDPEwereoriginallynotusedforproductpackaging.Differentiatedaccordingtothesevenplasticfractions,thenumbersareasfollows:

Table 1 : Quantities of recycled plastics and plastic packaging acc. to fraction in 2017 [Eunomia, 2018]

Plastic waste forwarded to recyclers (mt / year)

Amount of plastics recycled (mt / year)

Amount of plastic packaging recycled (mt / year)

PET

Specificdatanotavailable

5,778 5,778

HDPE 10,943 4,407

PVC 177 0

LDPE 8,091 4,998

PP 6,806 4,873

PS 0 0

Others 4,398 2,950

Total 42,950 36,193 23,006

ReflectingonallstepsofthemassflowandtheplasticsconsumptioninKenya, itbecomesvisiblethattherecyclingcapacitiesregardingthedifferentplasticfractionsvarysignificantly:Ontheonehand,thisisrelatedtothedifferenceofthein-usephasesbasedonthesectoraluses,asexplainedinthepreviouschapter;somefractions,forinstance,areutilizedforlongerperiods,e.g.inconstruction.Theyarethereforenotcountedaswasteyet.Ontheotherhand,itisalsobasedonthedifferentlydevelopedrecyclingcapacitiescurrentlyexistinginKenya;forinstance,noPSrecyclinginfrastructurehasbeenidentified,indicatingjustonegapinclosingtherecyclingloop.

Overall,the quota for recycled plastics equals 7 % according to the data of the Eunomia study[2018]coupledwithexportdatafromtheIpsosStudy[2019].Puttingthesetwosourcestogether,theassumptionfortherecyclingquotaisbasedonthefollowingcalculation:

Theunderlyingdatashowscertainamountsofuncertainty.Therefore,utilizingalternativeinputnumbers,theresultingrecyclingquotavaries.Nevertheless,eventakingintoaccountdifferentdatasources,itissafetosaythattherecyclingquotaforplasticsinKenyastandsatlessthan10%.

36,193mt plastics recycled

(567,000 mt plastics imported - 51,000mt plastic products exported



However,differenttotheabove,thequotacanalsobeestimatedbyanalysingthegeneratedwaste.AccordingtotheWorldBank[2018],everyKenyangenerates0.39kgofwasteperday.Theportionofplastichasnotbeenevaluatedforthewholecountry.ForNairobi,thepercentagerangesfrom9%forlowincomeover12%formiddleincometo15%forhighincomehouseholds;11.8%forthewholeofNairobi[UNHabitat2019].DataobtainedbyJICA[2010]assumestheportionofplasticatthelowerendofthis,with9.5%ofthetotalmunicipalsolidwastevolume.

Takingatotalpopulationofapprox.50.2millioninhabitantsin2017[WorldBank,2019]intoaccountofwhicheachpersongenerates0.39kgmunicipalsolidwasteperday[WorldBank,2018],theequationcomestoatotalofalmost20,000mtofwastegenerateddaily;andaround7millionmtannually.UtilizingdatafromNairobithat11.8%ofthemunicipalwastestreamsarecomposedofplastics[UNHabitat,2019],around820,000mtofplasticwastearegeneratedannuallyinKenya.ThisestimateissignificantlyhigherthantheonefromEunomia[2018];amountsofimportedplasticsaresupposedtobehigherusingthismethod.Theoverallplasticsrecyclingratewouldthusbesignificantlylower.

Closingthegaprelatedtorecyclingandacirculareconomydependsonseveralcontextualfactorssuchascurrentwastemanagementpractices,recyclingpossibilitiesanddemandforrecyclatesaswellasthepoliticalandlegalframework.

Waste Management in KenyaKenyacountsapopulationofaround50millionpeople.ThemetropolitanareaaroundthecapitalNairobimainlyincludesneighbouringcountiesKiambuandMachakosandcomprisesapopulationofuptosixmillionpeople;thecityNairobiitselfhousesaround4.6millioninhabitants[UNHabitat,2019].Thesecondbiggestcity,Mombasa,countsmorethanonemillioninhabitantsandformsanothermajoreconomicandlogisticalhub,particularlyapparentinitsroleasthemainharbourforseveralcountriesinEastAfrica.OthereconomiccentreslikeKisumu,EldoretandNakuruexistinthemoredenselyinhabitedhighlandstowardstheWesternandCentralpartsofthecountry.Especiallyintheagriculturallyproductivehighlandsandanarrowstretchofthecoastline,populationdensityisquitehigheveninruralareas,whileparticularlynorthernandeasternpartsofthecountry,towardsthebordersofSouthSudan,EthiopiaandSomalia,arescarcelypopulated.Kenya’scharacteristicsasarapidlydevelopingcountryarealsopresentinthewastegenerationdata.On average, 0.39 kg of waste per capita occur daily,comparedto2.7kgpercapitainGermany[WorldBank,2018;OECD,2017].

In the Greater Nairobi areas, Kenya’s political and economic hub, 3,000 mt or 0.64 kg per capita of municipal waste occur dailyfromresidentialareas,industryandotherprivatecompaniesaswellaspublicinstitutions[UNHabitat2019],aslightincreasesincetheestimatesbyJICA[2010].Allinall,thewasteismainlyorganiccompostplusminoramountsofglass,paper,metalandothers.AccordingtoJICA[2010],plasticfractionsaccountfor9.5%.RecentdatacollectioncarriedoutbyUNHabitat[2019]assumesplasticcontentinarangeof9%to15%,specifiedasperdifferentincomelevelsinNairobi;countrywidedataisnotavailable.Lowerincomeareas

countrelativelylowervolumesofplasticsontheonehand.Ontheother,highincomeareasaccountforthehighestvolumesofplastics.Middleincomeareasare,byfar,themostrelevantareasintermsofabsolutevolumeofplasticsinmunicipalsolidwaste.Duetoitsfunctionastheeconomicandpoliticalhub,asignificantnumberofKenya’shigh-incomeareasareconcentratedinNairobi.

Puttingallthesefindingstogether,plasticsaccountforthelargestshareofmunicipalsolidwasteafterorganicwasteandpaper.Thesevolumespredominantlyoriginatefromplasticpackagingincludingtradedandlocallymanufacturedgoods[Eunomia,2018].

Estimates for plastics used in Kenya range from around 500,000 to 800,000 mt per year. Less than 10 % of these plastics are currently recycled.

Roughly a tenth of municipal waste volume in Kenya comes from plastics, mainly packaging material.


organic waste; 66,0%

paper; 12,0%

plastics; 9,5%

rubber, leather, textile; 2,5%

glass; 1,5% metals; 1,5% Other; 7,0%

2.4.2 Collection SystemsThepublicsectorasastakeholdersteersthegeneraldirectionofKenya’swastemanagementinstrategiesandactionsplans.InstitutionsliketheNationalEnvironmentalManagementAuthority(NEMA)issuelicencesforoperationinthefield.Additionally,somerulesandregulationsaresetbytheCountyGovernments,whichareresponsibleforexecutingnationallawbyimplementingwastemanagementinfrastructureaccordingly[GoK,CountyGovernmentAct,2012].Adetailedoverviewofrelevantlegislationandtheinstitutionalframeworkisprovidedinchapter3.

Withinitslegalboundaries,NairobiCityCountyGovernmentisinchargeofcollectingwasteeffectively.However,inefficientpublicservicesledtotheriseofadominantinformalstakeholdergrouprangingfromwastepickers(alsocalledscavengers),collectorsandsorterstorecyclers[UNEP,2015].Privatecollection,segregationandrecyclinghappenwithoutrestrictions,basedonanopencompetitionofbuyersandsellers,andisalargelycash-basedeconomy[UNEP,2015].WastecollectionundertakenbytheinformalsectoralsoplaysamajortodominantroleinallotherCountiesofKenya,thoughtherespectivelevelsmayvary[KenyaPlasticActionPlanInterviews,2019].Collectionsystems,runofficiallyinsomeCountiesbythepublicorprivatesector,areneverthelessshowntohavemanyirregularitiesoraresimplynon-existent,hencecountry-widedataisonlylimitedornotavailableatall[KenyaPlasticActionPlaninterviews,2019].

Figure 14: Composition of waste generated in Nairobi [JICA, 2010]

In Nairobi, economic activities and services relating to waste management are mainly undertaken by the informal sector.



Thus,systematicwastemanagementinfrastructureislacking.ArecentlyundertakenstudybyUNHabitat[2019]estimatesthataround75%ofNairobi’swastevolumeiscollectedinamatterthatcouldbedescribedas‘limited’atbest.Theremainingroughly25%ofwastevolumeendsupbeingdumpedintheriversortherespectiveneighbourhoodsorself-treated,i.e.incineratedonsite[JICA,2010].

Tothecontrary,someprofessionalsinthewastemanagementvaluechainassumetotalcollectionratesofonlyaround25%tobemorerealistic[KenyaPlasticActionPlanInterviews,2019].About75%ofresidentialwasteiscollectedinhigh-incomeareas,whereasitisrespectivelylowerwithdecliningincome.Ageneralobservation,confirmedinbothstudies,isthatcollectionratesaresignificantlyhigherinhigh-incomeareas;withthereversebeingtrueinlowincomeareas.UNHabitat[2019]assumesacollectionrateof100%inhigh-incomeareas,referringto13%ofNairobi’spopulation.Thecollectionrateisestimatedat66%inbothmedium-andlow-incomeareas,representingaround35and52%ofthetotalpopulation,respectively.

Atgenerationof‘domestic’source,mainlyhouseholdsbutalsopublicandprivateoffices,wasteisusuallynotsegregated.Thesameistrueforwastefromstreetsandpublicareaswhereitisliterallypicked;hencetheinformalpartofstreetcollectiondoesnotcleantheenvironmentbutresultsinthecollectionofvaluablewasteonly.Ingeneral,ifcollected,wasteistransportedinamixedcollectionlorry.Duringtransport,casualwasteworkerssegregatematerialsandpickoutitemsthatseemofvalueforthesubsequentrecyclingchain.Whenreachingadumpsite,someresalableitemslikemetal,rigidplastics,PETbottlesandglasshavebeenputaside.AccordingtoUNHabitat[2019],therespectiverecoveryratebeforereachingadumpsitestandsatslightlymorethan20%ofthetotalwastevolumeorslightlylessthan30%ofthecollectedvolume.Afterthisfirstsegregationonthecollectionlorry,wastepickersfurthersortoutmaterialsatthedumpsite.Particularlyonthedumpsite,thehealthofworkers,thesurroundingpopulationaswellastheenvironmentinproximityanddownstreamofthewaterbodiesisadverselyaffected.Bothonthecollectionlorryandonthedumpsite,sortingcapacitiesarelimited.Thisismainlyduetolackingsegregationatsourceanddecliningvalueofdirtyandmoistmaterials[JICA,2010;KenyaPlasticActionPlaninterviews,2019].Thesesecondaryrecoveryactivitiesatthedumpsitebarelycover1%ofNairobi’stotalwaste,oraround2.5%ofthewastevolumethathasreachedadumpsite,i.e.roughly97.5%ofthewastevolumeoffloadedatadumpsitewillneverberecovered[UNHabitat2019].

Puttingthesenumbersintoproportion:InNairobi,around3,000mtofmunicipalwasteoccursdaily.2,250mtofthesearecollected,750mtaredirectlydisposedintoriversorburntonsite.640mtofthetotalwastearerecoveredeitherbeforeoronthecollectiontruckandanother40mtfromthedumpsite,outofatotalvolumeofalmost3,000mt.TherecyclingrateofmunicipalsolidwasteinNairobicanthereforebeassumedataround22%ofthetotalwasteor30%ofthecollectedwastevolumes.

Asidefromtheabovementioned“domestic”waste(includingprivateandpublicoffices),wasteisalsogeneratedonamoreindustrialscale,usuallybyprivateenterprises.Somemanufacturingindustriesorganizetheirownwastemanagementbyeithercontractingprivatecompaniestocollect–wherebythefurthertreatmentisusuallyunknown–orbymanagingitinternally.Smallscalebaling,shreddingandrecyclingiscommontomoveproductionwastebackintotheloopasrawmaterialsortosellitto(usuallysmallscale)companiesthatresellitforsecondaryuse.Toalimitedextent,incinerationispractisedaswell;particularlyinthecaseofhazardouswaste.Someindustrialsteamboilershavethecapacitytoburnplasticsasaby-productandonepyrolysisplantexists,howeverbothbusinessmodelsarenotrealizedatscaleandareoperatingonlyaspilotsyet.

Waste segregation at generation of source is generally absent in Kenya.


Somecompaniesprovetobeespeciallyinnovativeastheyexpandtodifferentmarketsandproducts,basedontheirby-product;henceclosingmaterialsloopwithinownoperations.Thegeneralobservationisthatthemanufacturingsectorhasappliedpropersolidwastemanagementpracticesinitsproductionprocessesbyfeedingbackmostfractionsintotheproductionprocessesandsellingremainingfractionstosecondaryusers/recyclers.[KenyaPlasticActionPlaninterviews,2019].

2.4.3 Recycling InfrastructureRecyclinginfrastructureinKenyaiscomposedofprivatecompaniesthataccesswastethroughmarketmechanismsandsubsequentlyconvertitintosecondarymaterialsthatcanthenbefedintonewproductionprocesses/beusedforanewpurpose.Materialsthatarerecoveredbywastecollectors,includingwastepickers,areusuallysoldtoawasterecycler.Afterundertakingsomematerialprocessingsteps,dependingonthematerialandincludingprocesseslikee.g.sorting,washing,shredding,etc.,thesegregationattherecyclingyardisusuallyundertakenbyhand,enabledbyrelativelycheapcostoflabour.

Thesecondaryresourcesarethenresoldtomaterialconvertersthatproducenewproducts.Convertersarepartoftherecyclingvaluechainbutareusuallynotregardedasrecyclersthemselves.Thewholepicture,nevertheless,alsoconsistsofmanycompanieswhosebusinessareasoverlapintoseveralpartsofthisrecyclingvaluechain.

Organic MaterialWitharoundtwothirdsofthevolume,organicmatteraccountsforthevastmajorityofmunicipalsolidwasteinKenya.Compostingfororganicwasteisundertakenusuallyonasmallscaleandratherforagriculturalandhorticulturalwaste,whereasonlyoneindustrialcompostingfacilityexistsinthecountry,inNairobi.Particularlyinurbanareas,mostofthecollectedorganicwasteisdisposedondumpsites.Someoftheorganicwasteisfitforanimalconsumptionandespeciallypigsarefedandbredbothinruralareasandintheproximityofdumpsites.Especiallyporkthatisproducedinthesurroundingofdumpsitesisdeemedaspotentiallycontaminatedandonlylimitedlysuitableforhumanconsumption.

Rigid plastic recycling (like recycling of PE bottles, PP cups or PET bottles) is common with a large number of small-scale recyclers throughout Kenya. In bigger economic hubs, recycling infrastructure for HDPE and PP is in place; other areas are yet to attract recycling businesses.



Paper, Glass and Metal RecyclingForpaperrecycling,severalprocessingfacilitiesthatconvertwastepaperintomateriallikesanitarypapersandcartonboxesformvaluechainsthatrecyclehighpercentagesofwastepaper,bothfromdomesticsourcesandfromneighbouringcountries.Afairnumberofpapersegregatorsarelocatedthroughoutthecountry,withtheconvertingfacilitiesmainlyconcentratedintheGreaterNairobiarea;oneexceptionbeinganewlyset-uppaperplantinKisumu/WesternpartofKenya.

Onlytwocompanieshavethecapacitytoproperlyrecycleglassbottles.Accordingtomarketinsights,theirexistingrecyclingcapacityisbarelysufficienttosupplythetwomainexistingtake-back-schemeswithrecycledglass;oneislocatedinthecapitalNairobi,beingrunbythemarketleadingbrewery.Themarketforsecondaryglassisdominatedbythesecondone.Basedonthecoast,thiscompanybuysglasswastefromalloverthecountry.Theglassrecyclingplantisthereforebothafocalpointandabottleneckforlocalvaluechainsinsortingandaggregatingglasswaste.Seenfromaclosed-loopperspective,thelimitedrecyclingcapacitiesforglassconnectedwiththesupposedlyhighinflowofimportglassresultinpoorrecyclingrates.Theshreddingofglassforsubsequentusease.g.fillingmaterialinconstructionisacommonlyexercisedpractice.

Duetotherelativelyhighvalueandgoodrecyclability,thescrapmetalrecyclingvaluechainseemstogenerallyfulfilitsrequirements.MetalisusedinrelativelylowquantityforpackaginginKenya,accountingforaround1.5%ofhouseholdwasteinNairobi[UNHabitat2019].Thetwomainapplicationsincludebeerand,alreadytoalowerextent,softdrinkcansaswellastinnedfoodswithbothcommandingrelativelylowmarketshares.ThereseemsnorecyclingfacilityforcannedbeveragesoperationalinKenya;recyclingvaluechainsaresupposedlydirectedabroadwhichduetoitsvalue-weightratioseemstobeafeasiblepractice.Packagingfortinnedcansisrecycleddomestically.

Plastic RecyclingRigidplasticrecyclingiscommonwithalargenumberofsmall-scalerecyclersthroughoutvariousareasofKenya.Rigidplasticitemsarestableinform,e.g.PET-bottles,PPcups,plasticpipes(incontrasttoflexibleplasticitemssuchasfilm)andmoreeasytocollect.Forthemainfractions,HDPEandPP,arecyclinginfrastructureconvertingwastematerialsintoflakesisinplacewithinthebiggereconomichubsandparticularlyinthesurroundingsofbiggerdumpsites.Newlyurbanisedareasoutsidethetraditionaltownsarelaggingbehind.Asmuchaslocalvaluechainsforthementionedplasticsdoexistine.g.Eldoret,KisumuandNakuru,otherareassuchasNyeri,MeruandKisii,amongothers,haveyettoattractrecyclingbusinessesandbuildlocalvaluechainsconsistingofseveralrecyclingcompanies.

Figure 15: The hierarchy of the plastic waste recycling chain


Especiallyoutsideofareaswithfunctioningrecyclingvaluechains,so-calledaggregatorsorcollectors,usuallysmallbusinessesbynature,serveasfocalpointsforinformalwastepickers.Theyundertakemanualsegregationandsubsequentlysendthefractionsforrecyclingintootherpartsofthecountry.Duetologisticalcostsassociated,recyclinghappensmoreselectivelyandrecoveryratesarelower.

Similartotheabovedescribedpracticesforrigidplastics,recyclingisundertakenforflexibleplasticsaswell,namelyLDPE.Recyclingratesseemtobelowerandtherecyclingvaluechaincountsfeweractivecompanies,mainlyduetomorelogisticalchallengesincollectingtherelativelylightandunstablematerial.

Mechanicalprocessesmainlyincludebaling,shredding,washing,flakingandpalletizing.Theinjectionorblowingintonewproductsusuallyhappensaftertheprimaryrecyclingatplasticconverters;here,secondarymaterialscanbemixedwithvirginmaterialstoproducerigidplastics,mainlyforhouseholditems,e.g.buckets,basinsandrelatedproducts.

PETplasticrecyclingisdonebyasmallnumberofcompaniesonfewlocationsthroughoutthewholecountry;recyclingsiteshavebeenidentifiedinKisumu,NairobiandattheCoast.Recyclingratiosarethereforelow,alsobecauseofeconomicsoflogistics,e.g.lackofdecentralizedbalingfacilitiesatpointsofcollectionincombinationwiththelowvolume-valueratio;similarmetricsarefoundforanyLDPE(flexible)plastics.Ifrecycled,outputisoftenexportedforfibreproductioninAsia.Currently,asingleprojecttodeepenthevaluecreationfromPETrecyclingisbeingundertaken.Withnewlysetupinfrastructure,PETisenvisionedtobeusedforgarments.Despitescatteredexistingandupcomingrecyclinginfrastructure,mostPETcurrentlyendsupbeingdumped[KenyaPlasticActionPlaninterviews,2019].

RecyclingvaluechainsforPVCandPShavenotbeenidentifiedwithinthisassignment.Currently,thesefractionsseemnottoberecyclabledomestically.Theyare,however,oflessimportanceforpackagingvaluechainsthantheaforementionedmaterials.Mixedpackagingmaterials,e.g.‘TetraPak”butalsootherflexiblematerialwithspecificattributes,e.g.coffeeorteamultilayers,lackrecyclingfacilities.Currently,thesetupofarecyclingfacilityconverting‘TetraPak’packagingintobuildingmaterialisunderway[KenyaPlasticActionPlaninterviews,2019].

2.4.4 Disposal PracticesThecurrentdisposalpracticesinKenyaaredescribedbestbyinitiallysheddinglightonthecharacteristicsofKenya’sbiggestwastedisposalsitebyvolume,theDandoramunicipaldumpsite(seeFigure16).TheDandoradumpsiteislocatedeightkilometresawayfromNairobicitycentreandspreadsacrossanareaofatleast30acres.Itwasoriginallydesignedasatemporarydisposalsite,butwasdeclaredanofficialdumpsiteinthemid-1970s.Dandora’scapacitystandsataround500,000cubicmetres.Sincetheyear2001,thislimithasbeenexceededwith1.8millioncubicmetresestimatedin2016[JICA,2016].Dandorahasalimitedofficialstatus,dumpingthereisunrestrictedandallkindofindustrial,agricultural,domesticandmedicalwastegetsoffloaded[UNEP,2015].A2010estimatestatedthatbetween1,200and1,500wastepickersworkatDandora,someofthemindependently,othersorganizedinstillinformal,oftenunethicalstructures[JICA,2010].Accordingtotheestimatesofthelocaloperators,2,000mtofwastearedisposedofatDandoraonadailybasis,while30to40mtofvaluablesarepicked,collectedandtransportedoutofDandoratorecyclersandconverters.ThiscorrespondsmostlywiththefiguresfromUNHabitat[2019].

Around70othersmallerdumpsitesarespreadacrossNairobi.Noneofthesehaveanofficialstatusasalandfilltodisposewaste.Inadditiontodumpsites,dumpingofwasteontheroadsideorinvacantspacesiscommon,moresoinlow-incomeresidentialareas.Alreadypollutedupstreambyinappropriatewastedisposal,NairobiRiverlaterflowsthroughDandora,causingdownstreamwaterusedfordomesticandagriculturalpurposestobehighlycontaminated[UNEP,2015].



ThewastedisposalpracticesinthesecondbiggestcityofMombasa,withmorethan1millioninhabitants,aresimilarlydysfunctional.Here,thecollectedvolumeofaround800mtofsolidwastedailyrepresentsacollectionrateofaround68%[UNEP,2015].Semi-formalandinformaldumpsitesexistthroughoutthewholecounty,particularlyintheproximityofurbanareas.TheproblemsdescribedforNairobiusuallyapplyinasimilarwayinallotherurbanizedareas,withtheirrespectivesizesalwaysbeingsmaller.WiththepotentialexceptionofanongoingsetupofanewdumpsiteinMurang’aCounty(duetoitsdistanceanditssizenotfeasibleforNairobi’swaste),nodumpsiteinKenyaisoperatedaccordingtointernationalstandardsforlandfills.

Allinall,theabsenceofformalwastemanagementservices,insufficienttreatmentfacilitiesandunsafedumpsitesoperatedinanunregulatedenvironmentbringseveresocietalandenvironmentalconsequences.Severalissuesexistwhichareyettobeovercomeinordertoenableaneffectivewastemanagementinfrastructureinorganisational,logisticalaswellaslegalterms.Thecurrentorganisationalstructuredemonstratesanimpropermanagement,insufficientmonitoring,lackinglegalenforcementaswellasverylimiteddataavailability.Alackoflandzoningfuelsconflictswhennewresidentialareasappearclosetoindustryandillegaldumpingspots.Intermsofthecollectionandtransportationsystem,theformalandinformalprivatesectoroperatesinaratherunorganisedandinefficientway.CollectionandtransportationareusuallybeyondthecontroloftheCountygovernments,hencesofarnotorganisable,resultinginillegaldumpingscatteredthroughoutallareasinallpartsofthecountry[JICA,2010].

Figure 16: Dandora dumpsite


2.4.5 Challenges for Plastic Recycling in the Waste Management Ecosystem

SegregationSystematicsegregationatsource,i.e.mainlyatthehousehold(andoffice)level,wouldprovidebetterrecoveryratesforrecyclablematerials.Severalfactorscontributetothisfinding,amongthemarelimitedawareness,lackinginfrastructure, informalwastecollectionservices,alooseregulatoryframeworkand,comparedtoworldwidefigures,lowplasticwastegenerationduetolowconsumptionofpackagedgoodsduetolowincome.Thehighportionoforganicwastemakestherecoveryofvaluablefractionsdifficult.Additionally,duetomoistureanddirt,thevalueofthefractionsisloweredfurther,affectingtheeconomicsofsegregation.

LogisticsThevalueofthepotentiallyrecycledmaterialinitsunprocessedformisofteninsufficienttocovertheaggregatedcostsofcollection,segregationandtransport,duetothelowvolume-valueratio.Recoveredmaterialsoftenhavetobetransportedoverfardistancestocertainhubstobefedintotherecyclingvaluechain;facilitiesforupfrontbalingorshreddingaremissing.OnlytheareasaroundNairobiand,toamorelimitedextent,Mombasaofferpossibilitiestorecycleallmainfractions(nottospeakofcompletelymissingvaluechainsforcertainfractions)whereaslogisticshavetobeorganisedinordertoshipcertainfractionsoverlargedistances.

Licensing/ Regulatory FrameworkTheregulationsandpoliciesrelatedtosolidwastemanagementareoutlinedinchapterthree.Astheyaregenerallyloose,thecurrentlybiggesthurdlefortherecyclingvaluechainarelicencesthatarerequiredformovingwaste,i.e.secondarymaterials.Theattributedcostsandfrequenttime-delaysinobtainingtheselicencesdamagetheeconomicsoftransportingwaste.Furthermore,thereislimitedclarityonwhethertheselicencesapplyalsotosecondaryresources.Itisthusunclearifsinglefractionshipmentsareconsideredwaste.

Product DesignWithcertaincriteriatakenintoconsiderationwhendesigningproductpackaging,recyclingprocessescanbesignificantlyeased.Currently,someproductscontainanunfavourablemixtureofmaterialwhichlowerstherecyclingvalue.Additiveslikefillingchemicals,partiallyappliedinrigidplastics,aredifficulttoidentifyforthecollectorandlikewisetherecyclerandmayonlybenoticedbythecustomerofthesecondaryproduct(usuallytheconverter).Bythen,allcostswithintherecyclingvaluechainhavealreadyoccurredwhereasnovaluehasbeencreated.Thechangeofmaterialforacertainpackaging,e.g.fromHDPEtoPET,canalsodistorttherecyclingvaluechainascasualcollectorsandworkersarenotawareoftherespectivedifferences.Formanyfractions,differentcoloursimplydifferentvalue;e.g.therecyclingvalueforcolouredPETiscurrentlysignificantlylowerthanthealreadymarginaloneforclearPET.

AbottlerofcarbonateddrinksinKenyaiscurrentlyharmonizingitsproductdesignbyshiftingtoclearPETandutilizingPETlabels.Thisisexemplaryforaproducer’sactiontocreatemorevalueforrecyclers.

Challenges in the Recycling Value Chain:

• Segregation• Logistics • Licencing/ Regulatory Framework• Product Design• Secondary Market• Awareness/ Education



Secondary MarketThecurrentplasticrecyclersarebyandlargesmallcompaniesprocessingrelativelysmallvolumesofplasticswaste,therebyusuallybuildingthetransitionpointbetweentheinformalandformalsector.Bothrecyclersand,subsequentlyinthevaluechain,theconvertersfaceanumberofhindrancestoscaleupoperationsandincreaserecycling.Twomainfactorsareunpredictableandunreliable:massflowsandthequalityoftheinputmaterial.Theefficientutilizationoffixedassetscanonlybeassurediftheinputmaterialisavailable.Duetothelargelyinformalcollectionandaggregationstructuresthataresensitivetopricechanges,larger-scaleinvestmentsbearacertainriskofnotrecoveringtheircosts.Theoftentimeslowqualityofinputmaterialsisrootedinrudimentarysortingpractices,unfavourablecompositionoffractions(e.g.throughfillingmaterialordifferentcolours)aswellasthelackofwastesegregationatsource(dirt,moisture).Theuseofrecycledplasticsisthereforelimitedtoanarrowrangeofapplicationsthatonlyrequirelowqualities,whichiswhytherecyclingsectoralmostexclusivelypractises“downcycling”towardsend-of-lifesolutions.Recycledmaterialthereforefacesstiffcompetitionwithvirginmaterial–inregardstoprice,qualityandavailability.Thus,thevastmajorityofbusinessmodelsfortheKenyanrecyclingsectoraredisabledatthismoment.Thisisalsoprovenbythelowactualrecyclingrate.

Awareness/ EducationAwarenessandEducationareidentifiedasoneofthekeyhurdlesforbetterwastemanagementinKenya.Litteringinpublicatasmallscaleortheirregulardisposalofwasteonalargerscaleisstillpracticedwidelyandspansmultiplegenerations.Someprogrammesandactivitiesinschoolsandthegeneralpublicareundertaken;driversofthosearenon-profitorganizations,privatecompaniesincludingthoseintherecyclingvaluechainaswellasthepublicsector.Despitethesenumerousefforts,educationonwastemanagementlacksaclearbaseintheschoolcurricula.

Nevertheless,thecurrentlackofaproperrecyclinginfrastructurealsocreateslimitsforbettereducationonmanagingwaste;despitesomebehaviouralchangeswhenitcomestolittering,pollutingwaterbodiesandsimilarrelatedactivities,byandlargetherearejustnobestpracticesinplacethatcanpossiblybeundertakencurrently.



FollowingthepreviousdescriptionofKenya’swastemanagementsituation,thefollowingchapterelaboratesontheunderlyinglegalandinstitutionalframework.Thelegalanalysisincludestheidentificationofregulatorygapswhichhavetobeaddressedtoachieveaproperwastemanagementsystem.Currently,differingstrategicdirectionsandgoalsarestatedbyavarietyofpoliciesandplans.Lookingattheoverallpicture,someareasareunder-,othersratheroverregulated.

3.1 Review of Kenyan (regional, national and county) legislation formulation on plastic and waste management

Plans and StrategiesIn2007,Kenya’sgovernmentpublishedastrategythatdescribedthepathwaytowardsdevelopingthecountryintoamiddle-incomeindustrialnationbytheyear2030[GoK,Vision2030,2007].ThisVision2030recognizestheneedforasustainablewastemanagementsysteminordertohandleindustrializationinlinewithitssocialpillar.Thelatteroneclaimsinparagraph5.4torealize‘ajustandcohesivesocietyenjoyingequitablesocialdevelopmentinacleanandsecureenvironment.’ Inparticular,thestrategycallsforreducingpollutionandestablishingwastemanagementsystemsthrougheconomicincentives.Regulationsregardingplasticsbagsandhazardousproductsareoneofitsfigureheadprojects[AWEMACetal.,2019].TheBigFourAgendaisthemedium-termstrategyoftheVision2030,setbythecurrentgovernmentafteritselectionin2017.WhiletheBigFourAgendadoesnotstatewastemanagementandcirculareconomyinparticular,itimpliestheneedforittoenableitsgoalsinregardstofood,health,manufacturingandhousingincoherencewiththelong-termvision[GoK,BigFourAgenda,2017].

TheThirdMediumTermPlan2018-2022(MTPIII)andGreenEconomyStrategyandImplementationPlan2016-2030(GESIP)comprisespecificreforms,programmesandprojectsfortherealizationoftheoverarchinggovernmentstrategy.Withregardstosolidwastemanagement,theycallforseparationatsourceaswellastheestablishmentofnewcollectioninfrastructure,treatmentfacilitiesanddisposalsites.Itisplannedfornewurbanprogramstobuildtheseinrespectiveareas.Thegoalfor2030isanationwidequotaof50%forwasterecovery,intheformofrecyclingandcomposting.Theimplementationofextendedproducerresponsibility(EPR)andlandfilllegislationisstatedwithinGESIP.Financial incentivestosupportfunctionalmarketsforwastemanagementshallbeestablished.Thisrelatestothepromotionofrecoveringandutilizingmoresecondarymaterialsandrecycledproducts.Furthermore,thenationalandCountyGovernmentsareobligedtoenforceandmonitorthetotalbanofplasticbags[GoK,GESIP,2016;GoK,MTPIII,2018].Despitepointingoutcertaingoalsforimproving

wastemanagementpracticesinKenya,thementioneddocumentsremainvagueinsettingoutimplementationmeasures.

The National Environment Policy requires thedevelopment of an integrated National WasteManagementStrategywitheconomicincentivestoentailcleanerproduction,wasterecovery,recyclingandreuse[GoK,2013].TheSolidWasteManagementStrategyoftheNationalEnvironmentManagementAuthority

In Kenya, waste is defined as ‘any matter prescribed to be waste and any matter whether liquid, solid, gaseous or radioactive, which is discharged, emitted or deposited in the environment in such volume, composition or manner likely to cause an alteration of the environment’ – according to the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA).

Kenya’s plans and strategies on waste management are guided by Vision 2030. Vision 2030 calls for reducing pollution and establishing waste management systems through economic incentives. In light of the pillars of the Big Four Agenda, it will be important that waste is managed in a manner that creates jobs and allows the manufacturing sector to flourish.

3. Legal and Regulatory Frameworks affecting the Plastic Sector


(NEMA)translatesthisintothe7RZeroWastePrinciple,applicableattheCountyleveltoachieve80%wasterecoveryand20%landfillingby2030.ThelatterstrategylinksEPRtoe-waste,makingelectronicsproducersaccountablefortheirproductsandendoflife.However,itmainlytriggerspublicawarenesscampaigns.Plasticrecyclingisnotspecificallymentioned.Formedicalwaste,theNationalHealthCareWasteManagementPlanguidestheplanning,implementationandmonitoringofwastemanagementacrossthehealthsector.Emphasisisplacedonsegregation,recyclingandsafedisposal[MinistryofHealth,2016].

Toensureaholistic,cleanandhealthyenvironment,theKenyaEnvironmentalSanitationandHygienePolicy2016-2030(KESHP)claimstoreducesolidwasteand,inparticular,tominimizetheuseofplastics.Solidwastemanagementsystemsandmechanismsshallbeestablishedandenforcedbynationalandcountygovernmentsineverycity,municipalityandtown.Especiallytheuseofplasticbagsshallberegulatedwithmarket-orientedincentives.Theprivatesectorisinvitedtoprovideservicesforrealization[GoK,KESHP,2016].

AnotherrelevantlegislativedocumentistheNationalClimateChangeActionPlan2018-2022(NCCAP).UnderPriorityNo.5:Health,SanitationandHumanSettlement,thePlancallsforcircularwastemanagement‘tosubstantiallyreducewastegenerationthroughprevention,reduction,recyclingandreuse’[AWEMACetal.,2019].By2023,fivewastemanagementplansandregulationsshallbedevelopedoncountylevels,inlinewithNEMA’sNationalWasteManagementStrategy2015[GoK,NCCAP,2015].Thelatteroneclaimsforacountrywideintegratedsolidwastemanagementsystemthatfollowstheprincipleofthewastemanagementhierarchy:reduction,reuse,recycling,resourcerecovery,incineration,andlandfilling[NEMA,2015].

Laws and RegulationsKenya’sConstitutionstatesthateveryindividualhastherighttoacleanenvironment.Inthatrespect,allwastegenerators,transporters,recyclersandinstitutionsthatowndisposalfacilitiesareobligedthattheiractivitiesdonotthreatencitizens’rights.Refuseremoval,refusedumpingandsolidwastedisposalisassignedtotheCountygovernmentsinordertoensureenvironmentalconservation[GoK,Constitution:Article42,2010].

Urbanareasandanyphysicalplanningneedstomanageanddisposeofwasteeffectively,offerdesignatedsitesandbearresponsibilitiesforadherenceaccordingtotheconstitution[GoK,PhysicalPlanningAct,1996;GoK,UrbanAreasandCitiesAct,2011].

TheEnvironmentalManagementandCoordinationAct1999(EMCA),withitsspecificpublicationonWasteManagementRegulationfrom2006,setstheapplicableruleoflaw.Theactdirectsanyonewhoseactivitiesgeneratewastetoimplementmechanismsforreducingandappropriatelytreatingremainingwaste;itprohibitsdangeroushandlingofwaste,deniesthedisposalofanywasteinawaythatcausespollutionanddelegatestheresponsibilityforpollutiontoitsproducer.Theprinciplethatthepolluterpaysneedstobeconsideredwhenexercisingjurisdiction[AWEMACetal.,2019].

Moreover,thetransportationofwasteandanydisposaloperationneedlicencesfromNEMA,whichcomewithstandardsforoperations.Effectivefrom2017onwards,abanwasenactedthatprohibitstheuse,manufactureandimportofallplasticsbagsusedforcommercialandhouseholdpackaging.Thisbancoversthecategoriesofcarrierbagsandflatbagsmadefrompolyethylene(PE).Bagsforindustrialpackagingandgarbagebinflatbagsareexemptfromtheban, ifclearanceisissuedbyNEMA.

According the Constitution of Kenya, every Kenyan has the right to a clean environment.

A majority of those interviewed welcome laws and regulations, however they would prefer that implementation is phased and predictable. This would allow the industry to be better prepared for changes and plan their strategic investments accordingly.



Clearanceapprovalissubjecttoexertingproducerresponsibility,e.g.intheformofatake-backschemeorsimilarmeasures;labellingneedstoenabletraceabilityoftheplasticsandsufficientdocumentationoftheinventoryanddisseminationneedstobeprovided[GazetteNoticeNo.2334&2356,2017;AWEMACetal.,2019].TheplasticsbagbanwasexpandedbyGazetteNoticeNo.4858inJune2019totheuseofplasticsbottles,strawsandothersingleuseplasticsinprotectedareas,i.e.NationalParks,Forests,Reserves,etc.ItwilltakeeffectinJune2020.

Countygovernmentsareresponsiblefortheimplementationofwastemanagementpoliciessetatthenationallevel.However,countiesarefreeintheirdecisiononhoweffectivelytoimplementthem.Countieshavetopublishapricingpolicythatsetstariffsforpublicwastemanagementservicesthatshallincludethecollectionandrecyclingofwaste[GoK,CountyGovernmentAct,2012].

Draft Policies and billsSeverallegislativedocumentsthataffectplasticsareinthepipelineorarebeingratified.TheBillfortheSustainableWasteAct,2019,optsforamoresustainable,circulareconomyinwhichwasteisrecognizedasasecondaryresource.Therefore,ZeroWastePrinciplesareapplied.WithintheBill,EPRisdefinedas‘measuresthatextenda[…]firm’sfinancialorphysicalresponsibilityforaproducttothepost-consumerstageoftheproduct’.EPRisstatedasbeingakeypillarforpolicydevelopmentandimplementationbytheNationalandCountygovernmentsinordertopreventcausingwasteandtoenablere-useinitiatives.

TheMinistryofEnvironmentistaskedwithdevelopingregulationstoexpandtherecyclingmarket,possiblyviataxincentivesandgovernmentprocurementpreferences[AWEMACetal.,2019];theNationalGovernmenthastocomeupwithamilestonetimelinetoimprovewastemanagementanddesignnecessaryregulations;privateentitiesareobligedtoapplycleanproductionprinciplesandarefinedifnotcompliant;citizensareobligedtominimizewastegenerationandapplyrecycle,reuseandrecovermeasuresfortheremainingconsumedmaterials.WastehastobedisposedinaccordancewiththeAct;prosecutorswillbeheldliableincludingthepossibilityofimposingfines[GoK,SustainableWasteManagementBill,2019].

Withinthebudgetstatementforfiscalyear2019/2020itwasproposedtolowerthecorporationtaxrateforplasticsrecyclingcompaniesfromtheusual30%to15%forthefirstfiveyearsofoperation.ServicesofferedtoplasticsrecyclingplantsaswellasthesupplyofmachineryandequipmentusedintheconstructionoftheseplantsaresupposedtobeexemptfromValueAddedTax.TheseproposalsareprovidedforintheFinanceBill2019thatisyettobepassed.

The draft policies emphasize recycling and recognition of waste as a resource that should be harnessed and exploited for the purposes of jobs creation and cleaning of the environment.


AnotherdraftEnvironmentalManagementandCo-ordination(PlasticsBagsControlandManagement)Regulation,2018referstoplasticsbagcontrolandmanagement.Everymanufacturerandimporteroflegalplasticbagpackaginghastoproposeandupholdarecyclingplantosupportthecollectionandrecyclingofplasticbroughtintothemarket.Theplancanbedevelopedindividuallyorincollaborationwithotherproducers.Itneedstobesubmittedtotheauthorityincharge(NEMA)forpublishinganddocumentingpreviousactivitiesandachievements.EachmanufacturerandimporterhastosubmitaRecyclingProgramReporttoNEMAwithdetailsonplasticsmassflowandtreatmentactivities.Duediligenceisrequiredthroughouttheplasticsvaluechain.Thegovernmentrequiresarecyclingrateof30%forthemanufactureofanyplasticbag,withrespectivelabelling.AlistofallplasticcollectionsitesshallbepublishedbyNEMA.NEMAisalsoaccountableforregularinspectionsofthementionedandallotherfacilitiesthathandleanyplasticpackagingmaterialthroughouttheirlifecycle[GoK,DraftEnvironmentalManagementandCo-ordinationRegulations,PlasticBagsControlandManagement,2018].

3.2 Discussion of the existing regulatory gapsWhereassomeformsofEPRsuchastake-backschemesarealreadyinplace,publicawarenessandnecessaryinfrastructureforwasterecoveryarenon-existent.Moreover,severalregulatorygapswereidentifiedacrossallthreeframeworkdimensions,i.e.policy,legalandinstitutional,thathamperanactualcreationofafunctioningwastemanagementsysteminKenya.Thefollowingdescriptionsarebasedoninterviewsconductedwithseveralstakeholdersalongtheplasticsvaluechain.ResearchundertakenbyAWEMACetal.in2019onbehalfofKAMisadditionallytakenintoaccount.Thefollowingcollectionassessesexistinglocalandglobalpracticesforpost-consumerplasticpackagingEPRschemesinKenya.

Policy FrameworkCurrently,certainprovisionsinthepolicyframeworkcontradictoneanother.Forexample,ononehand,bansontheimport,manufactureanduseofcertainmaterialshavebeendeclaredorannounced[GazetteNoticeNo.2334&2356,2017]whilstontheother,thebusinessoperationofrecyclingispromoted[e.g.GoK,NationalEnvironmentalPolicy,2013].Investmentsintorecyclinginfrastructureareatriskofsinkingifrespectiveinputmaterialsarebanned.Moreover,policiesarenotaligned.Forinstance,differentbillsstatedifferingrecyclingratetargets.Somepolicies,liketheSustainableWasteAct,proclaimEPRschemes.However,rolesarenotclearlyallocatedamongtheplasticsvaluechainandhencethefinancialand/orphysicalresponsibilityinthesystemlacksdefinition.Uncertainties,unspecificstatementsandvaguenessofthetimelineforenactingdraftpolicies,particularlytheawaitedNationalSustainableWasteManagementPolicy,2019,discouragetheprivatesectorfromengagingandbuildingvaluechainsthatentailthecapacityofafunctionalwastemanagementecosystem.

Legal FrameworkThedefinitionoftheterm‘waste’inKenyaiscurrentlydonebyNEMA.Itdoesnotconsiderthereclassificationofwaste.Theconceptoftransformingwasteintosecondaryresourcesoncevalueisadded,e.g.bysegregationorfurtherstepsintherecyclingprocess,doesnotexist.Thissituationcreateschallengesespeciallywhenitcomestotransportduringtheprocess,asthetrucksaresubjecttothesamestandards,costs,andrequirementsaswastecollectiontransporters(dumptrucks).

Currently, a number of political documents are tack l ing waste management practices. Nevertheless, different policies have little interconnection to each other, resulting in an overall blurry, partly self-contradicting framework.



Wastesegregationismandatorybylaw,butinrealityappliesonlytotheseparationofhazardousfromnon-hazardouswaste.Therearenoconsumerobligationsandregulationstosegregatewasteatsource.Inmostareas,thelocalauthoritiesfailtoprovideinfrastructureforadequatelitteringprevention.Willingnessofconsumerstosegregatewasteinanytermsisdifficulttoenforce.Acomprehensivestrategyonbuildingawarenessthroughe.g.campaignsorinsertionintocurriculaislacking.Lastbutnotleast–regardingthelegalframeworkofoverallwastemanagementatCountylevels–lawsandinfrastructurearenotharmonized.Forexample,transportleviesateverycountyborderimposecoststhatdiscouragevalueaddingprocessesandhindertheclosureofwastevaluechains.Puttingthementionedcircumstancestogethermakeswasterecoveryahardgoaltoachieve,astheeconomicsofcollection,transportingandprocessingofwastehardlybuildviablebusinesscases.

Inrespecttoplastics,firstresponsibilityfortheplasticlifecycleisallocatedtomanufacturersandimportersofendmarketgoodsonly;theroleofotherstakeholdersintheplasticsvaluechain,likecertainrawmaterialsimporters,retailers,collectorsandconsumers,amongothers,remainsundefined.Secondly,itisobligatorybylawtosetupappropriaterecyclingplantseitherindividuallyorjointly.However,regulationstoprovidecertaindirectionsonhowtosetupandimplementanyofthosedonotexist.Also,thelackortheinconsistencyofcollectionandrecyclingtargetsforobligedcompanieshindermonitoringprocesses.

RegardingtheestablishmentofanEPRsystem,existinglawsandregulationsdonotspecificallyoutlinerequirementsandthepotentialsetupofanoverarchingEPRsystem.Sofar,NEMAguidelinesaswellasthedraftEnvironmentalManagementandCo-OrdinationActonPlasticsBagslayoutcontrolandmanagementschemes–exclusivelyfocusedonpolythenebags,withotherplasticsfractions/productcategoriesbeingfullyleftout.TheNationalSustainableWasteManagementBillalsoclaimstosetupmeasuresandnecessaryrulesandregulationsforEPR,take-backschemesanddepositsystems.Inreality,itneithergivessufficientdetailsonconcretemeasurestobetaken,nordoesitprovideatimelinebywhenthoserulesandschemeshavetobeenactedorimplemented.

Moreover,nomeasurementinrespectofto‘howtoidentifytheplasticvolumeputintothemarket’isdefined.TheenforcementofapotentialEPRisthereforemadedifficult.Despiteprovisionsinthelaw,monetaryandnon-monetaryincentivesarenotsufficientlyalignedtospurchanges.Thisappliestominimizingwastegenerationatproductionandpackaging,aswellasputtingminimumcollectionratesinplacefordifferentfractions.Currentlawsallow‘cherrypicking’,anddonotproperlyoutlinehowtoincreaserecyclingrates;spacefor‘free-riders’avoidingcontributionstoapotentialEPRthroughoutthevaluechainisstillprovided.VoluntaryEPRschemesthereforeimplyrisingcostsandworseningcompetitivenessforparticipants/contributors.

Institutional Framework Anyenforcementandmonitoringbythegovernmentandtheauthorityincharge(NEMA)islackingduetounclearco-ordinationmechanisms.StandardsofKEBSforrecyclingproductsarecurrentlymissing.ThesameappliesforNEMAguidelinesthatcouldpromotecircularproductionpatterns,i.e.throughlabelsetc.Thesecouldencourageorobligethemanufacturingsectortoparticipateandactivelyengageinwasterecoveryandrecyclingprocesses.Countiesarelimitedintheircapacitytoimplementwastemanagementpracticesadequately.Forinstance,thesegregationandresponsiblewastedisposal/treatmentisdemandedbylawontheonehand.Ontheother,adequateinfrastructuretocomplywiththeseregulationsisnotprovided,neitherforlitteringconsumersnorforthedisposalindustry.Additionally,implementationofsupervisionmeasuresandcomplianceenforcementaredifficultconsideringthedoubleburdenfrombothnationalandcountylevellaws,requirementsandregulations.Thisisespeciallythecasewithregardstolicensingrequirementsandnon-harmonizedrules,feesandcharges.

Within the plastics sector, more so recycling, there are different government agencies in charge for regulations. Harmonization of the enforcement efforts between the different government agencies would greatly benefit the plastics industry. For instance, with no clear standard from KEBS on plastics waste, the transition from waste to resource cannot be specifically defined.



ThefollowingStrengths-Weaknesses-Opportunities-ThreatsanalysisevaluatesthestatusquooftheKenyanplasticsvaluechain.

Strengths

• Strongandwellorganisedprivatesectorwhichisambitioustotakeactiononbetter,‘smart’plasticwastemanagementpractices

• StrongneedforanEPRexpressedbybothpublicandprivatesector• Relativelywellworkingindividualrecyclingvaluechainsforcertainfractions,e.g.HDPE,PP,paper,etc.• PlasticpackagingvaluechaindoesexistinKenyaandcantakejointaction/productdesigndecisionswhich

canbeeffectedwithinthecountry

Weaknesses

• Spreadofplasticpackagingthroughoutthecountry/limitedlocalrecyclinginfrastructureatpointofconsumptionpairedwithhighcostoftransport/logistics

• Lackofawarenessandcultureonproperwastemanagementpracticesamongcitizensandespeciallyinthepartofthelowerincomeclasslivingabovethepovertyline

• Practicallynotraditionofwastesegregationespeciallyinhouseholds• Littleexperienceinformalizedwastecollectionsystems• Insufficientgeneralwastemanagementinfrastructure:lackofwastebins,formaldumpsitesandorganised

collection;poorroadsetc.• Littlelegislationconcerningwastemanagement/manyrelevantareasnotsufficientlycoveredbycurrent

legislation• Enforcementofexistingwastemanagementregulationspartlydeficient• Lackofcleardefinitions,responsibilities,roles,etc.,leadingtodifferentinterpretationsandwastemanagement

practicesacrossthecountry

Weaknesses

• Growingindustryoflocalconsumergoodsmanufacturerswithcontinuingneedforpackaging• Strongmultinationalswithstrictinternaltargetsonbettermanagingwastewhocanserveasforerunners• Lackofalternativestoplasticpackagingforarangeofapplications/banningcertainplasticswouldcause

moreproblemsthansolutions• Risingawarenessofsomepartsofthepopulationwithregardstobetterwastemanagement• Lowcostoflabour/highdemandforemploymentenablesbusinessmodelsforcollecting,sortingandrecycling• Raisingthevalueofdisposedplasticsevenmarginallyisaviablemechanismtoincreasecollection/recycling

ratesduetohighneedforevenmarginallypaidemployment/incomegeneration• Adaptationofcirculareconomyconceptscancreate“greenjobs”whileincreasingKenya’srecyclingrate

fromcurrentlylowrates.• Wastemanagementisadevolvedresponsibility,henceallowingpilotprojectsincertainpartsofthecountry

throughlocaldecisionmaking

4. SWOT analysis of the Kenyan Plastics Value Chain


Threats

• Unpredictableregulatoryframeworks• Riskyenvironmentforinvestmentduetouncertaintyofcominglegislation• Fragmentedopinionswithinindustryonthewayforward• Industrymaynotfindacommonvoice/voluntaryEPRschemesnotviable• Voluntarytake-backschemeswouldcausecompetitivedisadvantagesduetohighpricesensitivityofthe

market• EPRorganizationmaynotberecognizedbyallrelevantstakeholders/mightbecomeavictimofconflictsof

interestwithcompetitivedisadvantagesandfreeriders

TheinsightsfromtheanalysisoftheKenyanwastemanagementsituation,theidentifiedlegalandregulatorygapsaswellastheSWOTanalysisareconsideredforcreatingtailoredmeasuresreflectingtheKenyansituationinthesubsequentActionPlan.

4. SWOT analysis of the Kenyan Plastics Value Chain



Basedontheanalysesandevaluationsinthepreviouschapters,thischapterwillintroducespecificactionsteps,initiativesandmeasurestoaccelerateKenya’stransitiontowardsacirculareconomyfortheenvironmentallysustainableuseandrecyclingofplastics.Inparticular,itfocusesonpolicysuggestionsandsustainablefundingmechanismstocreateasoundbasisforfurtheractions.Thus,thefirstpartwillfocusonestablishingthenecessaryorganisationalandfinancialbasiswhilethesecondpartwillintroducespecificmeasurestobetakenforaction.

5.1 Establishing a Financial and Organisational BasisEconomicinstrumentsarecrucialtoestablishasoundfinancialandorganisationalbasisforsustainablewastemanagementandrecycling.Generally,therearethreedifferenttypesofeconomicinstruments;

• Revenue-raisinginstrumentswhichcreateadirectincomefromtheindustryand/orhouseholdsthroughtaxationorchargesas,forinstance,alandfilltax

• Revenueprovidinginstrumentswhichcreateanindirectincomeforindustryand/orhouseholdsthroughreductionofchargesorsubsidies,liketaxrebatesorvariableVATrates

• Non-revenueinstrumentswhichdonotcreaterevenuesbutmotivatetheindustryand/orhouseholdstoimprovetheirindividualwasteperformance,asitisdoneforexamplethroughEPRsystemsasdetailedinchapter5.1.2below

• Ideally,instrumentsfromallthreecategoriesareimplementedinacomplementaryfashiontoachieveidealresults.

5.1.1 Tax incentivesGenerally,taxescanberaisedonseveralproductsatseveralstepsalongthevaluechain.ItismostimportanttoavoidunfairdoubletaxationandusetaxeswhicharecomplementarytotheEPRleviesthatwillbeexplainedinthenextchapter.Thus,themostimportanttaxestoconsiderarethelandfillchargesandtherefundedvirginpayments.

Landfill Charges Generally,landfillchargesarecomposedofthegatefeesimposedbytheoperatorofthelandfillandthelandfilltaximposedbytheauthority:Thegatefeeischargedinordertogeneraterevenuesforkeepingthelandfillinaworkingorderandfinancetheprovidedservices.Thelandfilltaxisalevychargedbypublicauthorities(usuallyonanational,butalsoonaregionalormunicipallevel)forwastedisposalonalandfillsite;thecheaperthelandfilltax,thelowertheincentivetorecyclewaste.Thus,thereisclearandlinearcorrelationbetweenthetotallandfillchargeandthepercentageofrecycledwaste,i.e.landfillchargesareakeydriverfordivertingwastefromlandfills.

Toallowthesystemandtherelevantauthoritytoadapttoraisinglandfilltaxes,thelandfillchargesshouldbeincreasedgradually.However,itiscrucialtohaveclearcommitmentstoincreasethesecosts,whilegivingthemunicipalitiesandthe(informal)industrytimetoadapt.Fromalong-termperspective,legislativeregulationssuchaslandfillrestrictionsorbansmaybeeffectiveinredirectingwasteintoarecyclingprocess.Thisrequireswastesegregationatsourceandacorrespondingcollectionsystem.

5. Proposed Measures and Initiatives for the Action Plan


Refunded virgin paymentsRefundedVirginPaymentsisatwo-partmeasure:producersofproductswhichsolelyconsistofvirginmaterialspayafeethatisusedtorefundproducerswhoseproductsconsistofaspecifiedamountofrecyclates.Thereby,producersusingmorerecyclatesthantheirpeersbecomenetreceiversoftherefund,whileproducerswhopredominatelyusevirginmaterialsbecomenetpayersinthissystem.Thistaxhasanupstreamsteeringfunctiononrecyclateusage.

Toavoiddoublepayment,thistaxshouldonlybeappliedtoplasticproductsthatcannotbecoveredbyanEPRsystem.Sofar,RefundedVirginPaymentsarepilotedinSwedentoincentivisetextilesrecycling.

5.1.2 Extended Producer ResponsibilityExtendedProducerResponsibility(EPR)isanenvironmentalpolicyapproachinwhichaproducer’sresponsibilityforaproductisextendedtothepost-consumerstageofaproduct’slifecycle,i.e.whenaproductturnsintowaste.Intheapproach,alreadyduringtheproductionandsale(andexport),producersareresponsibleforthedisposaloftheirpackaging.Producers/importerspayafeeforlaterdisposalofpackagingalreadywhentheirpackedgoodsareplacedonthemarket.Thecontribution/feeisusedforcollecting,recyclinganddisposingthepackagingwasteandothercostsarisingfrommaintainingthesystem.Itisnotusedasacontributiontothegeneralpublicbudgetofastate.

The concept of Extended Producer Responsibility and its basic principlesTheconceptofanextendedproducerresponsibility(EPR)wasdevelopedinGermanyinthelate1980s.It isbasedontheideathattheproducerresponsibility,whiche.g.determinesthattheproducerisresponsiblefortheirproductsregardingaspectsofsafety,healthandenvironmentalimpacts,isextendeduntiltheend-of-lifestage.‘Producer’inthiscontextdescribescompaniesthatputplasticgoods(productand/orpackaging)onthemarketforconsumption,whichareusuallyreferredtoas‘users’intheKenyancontext.

ThismeansthatintheEPRscheme,theproducer(oruser)isresponsibleforallwastemanagementrelatedtotaskslikecollecting,sortingandrecycling.Thus,theEPRinvolvesproducersinthemanagementandfinancingofpackagingwasteandgivesthemtheobligationtoassumeresponsibilityfortheirwaste.AlthoughEPRsystemsvaryacrosscountrieswithregardtocertainaspectsoftheirset-up,EPRschemesshouldbedesignedtomanagetheobligationofproducerswhilebalancingthemandatesofenvironmentalpolicyinthelightofthe‘polluterpays’principle.Accordingly,thebasicsofEPRarealmostthesameineverycountry:

• Everyobligedcompanypaysafeewhenintroducingapackagedgoodonthemarket.• Thefeeservesforthecollectionandfurtherprocessingofthepackagingwaste.• Collection,sorting,recycling,orenergyrecoveryofpackagingwasteremainstheresponsibilityoftheobliged

companies.

ThisbasicconceptisillustratedintheFigure17onthenextpage.


Initssimplestform,EPRisrootedinanindividualresponsibilitythroughadirectinteractionbetweentheusers,importers,fillersandthesourceofwastegeneration;meaningthattheywilldirectlycollectorpaysomeonetocollecttheirwasteandtakeitback.ThisverysimpleformofEPRisalreadyappliedinKenyaasthecurrentlegislationobligesproducerstoorganiseatake-backschemeforthewasteoftheirproducts.However,thismodelisonlypracticablyapplicabletoalimitedextentasitrequirestheproducers/userstohaveknowledgeabouttheexactspreadingoftheirpackagingandhowtoaccessit.Furthermore,logisticalchallengeariseespeciallyifproductsaredistributedinsmallquantities,stillrequiringsimilarlogisticalinfrastructureandattributedcostsasapplicablewithbiggervolumes.

CollectiveresponsibilitythroughProducerResponsibilityOrganisation

Asitis,fromapracticalperspective,notpossibleforeachproducer/usertoassumeanindividualresponsibility,atransitiontoacollectiveresponsibilityisneeded.Asakeyelementtoachievethistransition,anEPRorganisationisneededasacentralelement.Ittakesoverthetake-backresponsibilitiesoftheobligedcompanies.ThisorganisationisreferredtoastheProducerResponsibilityOrganisation(PRO;sometimesalsoreferredtoassystemoperator)asitallowstheproducers/userstoassumeresponsibilitybycombiningtheireffortsandjointlymanagingthearisingwaste.Thus,thePRObecomesthecentralelementfortheorganisationofalltasksassociatedtotheEPRsystem.Inparticular,thismeansthat

• ThePROisthemostimportantstakeholder(organisation).• Thisorganisationisresponsibleforsettingup,developingandmaintainingthesystem.• Thisorganisationisresponsibleforthetake-backobligationsoftheobligedcompanies.

AsthecomplianceofthePROwithallitstasksandresponsibilitiesisnecessary,athirdpartylikeapublicagencyisresponsibleforsupervisingthePROinthisregard.Thefollowinggraphic(Figure18)showsthebasicprincipleofanEPRsystemwiththePROascentralorganisationforacollectiveresponsibility.

Figure 17: Basic idea of an EPR system



Figure 18: Basic scheme of an EPR system based on a collective responsibility

Figure 19: Comparison of collective and individual EPR system

Figure19emphasisestheorganisationaldifferencesbetweenthecollectiveandindividualEPRsystem:


AnotherspecificformofEPRsystemisadeposit-refundsystem(DRS):Inadeposit-refundsystem,thewastecollectionisbasedonconsumerparticipation.InaDRS,packagingorotheritemsreceiveaneconomicvaluebyobligingconsumerstopaymoneyasdepositwhenpurchasingtheitem.Uponreturnofthepurchaseditem,theygetbackthesameamounttheypaidasdeposit.Thus,consumersareincentivisedtobringtheseitemstotake-backstationsinsteadofjustdisposingthemaswaste.DRSaresystemsbasedonconsumerparticipationwhichreduceslitteringoftheseitems.Moreover,astheDRSfocusesonspecificgoods(likePETbottles),theyallowwellsortedmaterialfractionstobecollectedinlargequantities.Suchcollectionsystemstherebyallowforhighqualityrecyclingoftheseitems.Furthermore,DRSalsoincreasethecompetitivenessofreusableitemssuchasbottlesinsupermarketsorcutleryinfoodstores,therebycontributingtoanotherkeyprincipleofthecirculareconomy.

Areturnoftheitemstakesplaceatdesignatedtake-backstations,suchasretailersorspecificautomats,wheretheconsumerreceivesthereward.Inmostcases,thisrewardismonetaryandisreceivedpereachsingleitem:Thespecificproductissoldtotheconsumerswithadepositamountmeaningthatthepriceofanitem(forinstance$1.25)isthesumofthepriceofthesingleitem($1)andthedepositamount($0.25).Oncethisitemhasbeenreturned,theconsumerisrepaidthedepositamountoravoucherwiththeamount($0.25).However,otherrewardsarealsopossible,suchasvouchersforservices.

Creating DRS as form of EPR is limited to specific, easily identifiable items like beverage bottles. Thus, it is not suitable to cover a broad range of plastic items.

SuccessfullyimplementinganEPRsystemrequiresasystemwhichcanbeputintopracticebeingeconomically,environmentallyandsociallysustainableaswellasguaranteeingalevelplayingfield.Thisdemandsclearandunambiguouslegislationcoupledwithamulti-stakeholdercooperationbetweenall involvedactorsfromthevaluechain.Crucialactorsincludegovernments, localauthorities,producersorganisedinbusinessmemberorganisations(BMOs)andwastemanagementorganisations.Thelegalframeworkhastodetermineobjectives,responsibilities,enforcementmechanismsandatimelineforimplementationcomplementedbyaframeworkforthePRO.

The Producer Responsibility OrganisationSincethePROisresponsibleforoperatingtheentiresystem,itisthemostimportantactor.Itstaskscomprisethefollowing:

• Registrationofallobligedcompanies(incooperationwiththesupervisoryauthorities):Thesearethecompaniesintroducingpackagedgoodsontothemarket,whichareconsumedinthecountrymeaningthattheirpackagingneedstobedisposedinthatrespectivecountry(financedbytheimporters,fillers,andproducers)

• Collectionandadministrationofallfundsfromallobligedcompanieswhileensuringfaircostsandthereforenotharmingthecompetitivenessofaparticipatingcompany

• Tenderingandcontractingforcollectionandrecyclingofpackagingwaste• Documentationofcollection,sortingandrecyclingofpackagingwaste• Informingallwasteproducers/consumersabouttheimportanceofseparatecollection• Controllingallservicesthathavebeenawardedtoserviceproviders,specificallyservicesrelatingtothe

fulfilmentofcollectionandrecyclingbywastemanagementcompanies• Financingalltaskswithfundsprovidedbytheobligatedcompanies• Documentationandverificationtothesupervisoryauthorities:thePROhastoprovethatithascompletely

fulfilledallitstasksandaimsandusedthemoneyoftheobligedcompaniesaccordingly.Thiscanbedoneforinstanceinformofareport,whichisverifiedbyathirdpartyortheauthorisedpublicagency.



FulfillingthesetaskscanbeachievedthroughdifferentPROsetups.Themaindifferenceswithregardstothesetuparebasedon

i) whetherthePROisaprivateorganisationorapublicauthority,ii) whetherthePROisanon-profitorganisationorafor-profitcompany,andiii) whetheronePROorseveralPROsexistincompetition(seeFigure20).

ExperiencesinEuropeancountrieshaveshownthatthereisnosingularmostsuccessfulsetup,butthatthesuccessisdeterminedthroughaneffectiveandefficientorganisation,financing,administrationandcontrollingofthesystem.

ThemostdistinguishingcharacteristiciswhetherthePROissetupasafor-profitornon-profitorganisation.

• PRO(systemoperator)asnon-profitorganisation:SuchPROsareinthehandsoftheobligedproducersandindustry,asforinstanceinBelgium,theCzechRepublic, Ireland, Italy,France,theNetherlands,Norway,PortugalandSpain.Theobligedindustrycreatesonecommonnon-profitentitythatcollectsthenecessaryfunding.

• PRO(systemoperator)asfor-profitcorporation:ThelegalframeworkcanrequiredirectcompetitionbetweenseveralPROsinsteadofhavingasinglemonopolisticPRO.Suchmodelsexiste.g.inGermanyandAustriawheretheEPRsystemshaveevolvedfromhavingasinglePROtocompetitionbetweenseveralPROs.

• OtherdistinctionscancreatethefollowingPROset-ups:• Dualmodel:Industryhasfulloperationalandfinancialresponsibilityovercollection,sortingandrecycling.

Thereisaseparatecollectionsystemdelegatedtolocalauthoritiesbuttheirinfluenceisminimal(Austria,Germany,Sweden).

• Sharedmodel:Theresponsibilityissharedbetweenindustryandthelocalauthoritiesbasedoncommonagreementsregardingcollection.Municipalitiesareresponsibleforcollection,andoftenforsortingofpackagingwastearisingatthemunicipallevel,whileindustry’sfinancialresponsibilitydiffersfromcountrytocountry(Belgium,CzechRepublic,Italy,France,Netherlands,Slovenia,Spain).

• TradableCreditsModel:Thereisneitheralinkbetweenindustryandmunicipalitiesnordifferentiationbetweencommercialpackagingandpackagingarisingatthemunicipallevel(UK).

• Competingontheinfrastructure:EveryPROoffersitsowncontainertoinhabitants(Estonia).• EachPROinaseparatedistrict:EachPROsignsupwithasmanymunicipalitiesasneededtofulfiltargets

accordingtomarketshares(Poland,Romania,Bulgaria,Slovakia,Malta,Latvia,andLithuania).

Figure 20: The different set-up conditions of the PRO


Who is obliged to pay?

ThefeespaidfortheEPRparticipationaretobepaidexclusivelyforthewastemanagementrelatedcostsandonlyfortheproductsthatareconsumedandwillbecomewastewithinthecountry,i.e.foranEPRsysteminKenyathefeesonlyhavetobepaidfortheproductsthatwillbeconsumedandturnintowasteinKenya.Thisthereforeincludesbothdomesticallyproducedproductsaswellasimportedproductsequallyinordertoensurealevelplayingfield.However,productsmanufacturedforexportarenotincludedastheywillbeconsumedandsubsequentlyturnedintowasteinanothercountry.

TodeterminewhoisobligedtopayfortheoperationoftheEPRsystem,aclearlyidentifiableinterfaceneedstobedetermined.Inmostcountries,thisistheinterfacewhereaproductisputonthemarketforconsumptioninthecountryasitwillturnintowasteinthisrespectivecountry.

Thefeesthatneedtobepaidaredependentonseveralfactors,whichallinfluencethetotalcostsandthusneedtobecovered.Thesefactorsinclude:

• Typeofcollectionsystem• Thewastecomposition• Organisationalstructures• Contractualconstellations• Financialcontributionsofthemunicipalities• Recyclingquotas• Recoveryanddisposalinfrastructure• Existenceofdeposit-refundsystems• Distributionofcostsacrossdifferentmaterialfractions• Whereapplicable:modulationofcostsreflectingthedegreeofrecyclability(asforinstanceinFrance,see

‘globalexamplesandsuccessstories’)



Roles and responsibilities of the involved actorsAlthoughtheset-upoftheEPRsystemsandPROsaredifferentineachcountry,theinvolvedstakeholdersandresponsibilitiesassignedtothemare,inprinciple,thesame.

Table 2: Roles and responsibilities in an EPR system

Stakeholder Responsibility

Rawmaterialssuppliers,manufacturersandconvertersofplastics

Shouldenable reuse & ensure recyclabilityofmaterialsandshouldusesecondaryrawmaterialswherepossible

Consumergoodscompanies(fillersandimporters)

Obligedtopay fees for the EPR systemproportionaltotheproducts,whicharecoveredbytheEPRsystem

Distributors/retailersofpack-agedgoods

Canbeobligedtotakewastebackandtoensureitsproperhandling.ShouldalsoensurethattheirsuppliersareparticipatingintheEPRsystem

ConsumersHavetobeinformedaboutstrategiesforwastereductionandproperreturnordisposalofpackaging;shouldbuyasmanyunpackagedgoodsandproductsaspossibleandreusepackagingasoftenaspossible

Wastemanagementoperators

ReceivefundsfromtheEPRsystemfortheirservicesinhandlingpack-agingwaste.Shouldtrytorecyclepackagingaccordingtothehigheststandardspossibletoensurehigh quality recycling;includestheinfor-malsector

Governmentandotherpublicauthorities

Legislation&supervisionoftheEPRsystem

MunicipalitiesorCountiesLinkagesbetweenconsumersandwastemanagementoperators,mainresponsibilitiesforimplementationofEPRonthelocallevelthroughorganizingthecollection

Thus,anoperationalisedEPRsystemcanbeoutlinedasoutlinedinFigure21:


Figure 21: Operationalised EPR scheme

Legal basisEPRsystemscanbeoperatedonavoluntarybasisonlytoalimitedextent.Thus,mandatoryEPRsystemsarethepreferredchoiceinlightofeffectivenessandefficiencytotransitiontoasustainablewastemanagementandcirculareconomy.AmandatoryEPRsysteminturnrequiresarespectivelegalbasistoensurecomplianceofallstakeholders,whichiswhyasoundlegalbasisisacrucialelement.AsafirstintroductionstepforamandatoryEPRsystem,voluntarysystemsare,however,asuitablemeasuretopushtheintroductionthroughsuchself-commitment.

Thelegalframeworkisusuallyestablishedonthenationallevelthroughaframeworkforwastemanagementand,hence,theMinistryofEnvironmentthereforetakesaleadingrole.Inparticular,thelegalfoundationcanbelaiddownthroughenvironmentalprotectionlaw,aspecificpackaginglaworapackagingordinance–dependingonthelegalcontext.Toensureasuccessfulimplementation,theprocessofdraftingthelegislationshouldinvolveallkeystakeholdersfromthepublicandprivatesectoraswellasfromcivilsociety.



Thelegalframeworkshouldoutlineclearobjectives,responsibilities,enforcementmechanismsandatimelineforimplementation.Inparticular,thelegalframeshoulddetermine:

• HowtosetupaPRO(asaforementioned)• Whichcompaniesarelegallyobligedtotakeonresponsibility• Whoisresponsibleforfinancingandorganisingthesystem• Whoregistersalllegallyobligedcompanies• Whichitemsshouldbeincludedinthesystem• Whataretherequirementsandquotasforcollectionandrecycling• Whattheroleofthemunicipalitiesis• Howcantheinformalsectorbeintegrated• Whatkindofpublicsupervisionisrequiredandhowcanthisbeorganised

TherearealsosomeadditionalrequirementswhichdonotneedtobementionedinthelawbutcanbedefinedbythePRO.Thisincludes:

• Upstream: modulatedfeesbasedonrecyclability(seechapter5.2.1),recyclateusage,usageofmono-materials,preferredmaterials

• Downstream:Recyclingandrecoveryprocesses,quotaandhowtheyarecalculated;wastestreamspecifications,collectioninfrastructure

What can be financed by an EPR system?Firstofall,anEPRshouldcoverallcostswhichwillariseinthecourseofachievingthepursuedgoalsforthewastemanagement.Thisalsoincludeseffortsfore.g.datamanagementandadministration.Furthermore,complementarymeasurescouldalsobefinanced,suchas:

• Linkingplasticproducerstorecyclersintermsofdesign,recyclability,awareness(e.g.throughaforumorguidelines)

• Coordinating,givingincentivestoimprovecollectionandrecyclingwhilekeepingalevelplayingfield• Educatingrecyclingandcollectionbusinessesandactors• Raisingawareness,especiallyinthemiddleclass(abovethepovertyline)• Adaptingschoolcurricula;technicaleducationatuniversities• Runningpilotprojects(e.g.incertaingeographicareas,specialsectorsliketourism)andresearches• Usinglabellingonproducts

ThePROcanalsocontractthirdpartiestocarryoutcertaintasks,likeawareness-raisingcampaigns.


Measurements based on legal frameThegoalistobuildanEPRstrategywhichisproactivelydiscussedwiththegovernment.ThebasisforamandatoryEPRsystemisacorrespondinglaw.Throughsuchalaw,thefollowingtargetscanbeachieved:

• FairfinancialburdenforallparticipantsastheEPRfeesareproportionaltotheamountofproductswhicharepartoftheEPRsystem.Thereby,thecompetitiononthemarketbetweentheEPRsystemparticipantsisnotimpacted

• Enablingtheimplementationofnationwidesolutions• Requirementsforagradualsystemimplementationandrecoverytargetscanbelegallydefined• Establishmentofcontrolmechanismsandpenaltiesincaseofnon-compliance

Thus,thesetupofalegalframeisthepreferredsolutionfortheimplementationofasuccessfulEPRsystem.

Voluntary measuresInsmallerregions,itispossibletoestablishvoluntaryinitiativesorvoluntarycommitmentsaspilotprojectstocollectandutiliseplasticwaste.Asidefromgeographicalboundaries,thesepilotprojectsmayfocusonindividualtypesofpackaging,particularpointsoforigins,specificbrandsandalsoondefinedtimelyframes.Manufacturers,importersandotherstakeholdersmayworktogethertoimplementthesevoluntaryprojects.However,theeffectivenessofpilotprojectsislimitedduetothefollowingissues:

• Onlyafewcompanies(andnotall)willparticipateinvoluntarymeasures• Thefinancialcontributionofeachcompanyislowcomparedtothecontributioncompanieshavetopayin

anEPRscheme• Extentofthesingleactivitiesissmallandusuallycomprisesonlysmallerprojects• Impossibletoestablishanationwidecollectionsystembasedonvoluntarymeasures• Noofficialcontrollingsystems• VoluntaryinitiativesmayprolongimportantdecisionsregardingthesetupofanationwideEPR

VoluntaryinitiativesshouldratherbeusedasapreliminarybasisforthesystemoperatorofanEPRsystemtohelpdeveloptherespectivelegalbasisofthesystem.Voluntaryinitiativescanhelptogatherindividualexperiencesthroughpilotprojects.

Global examples and success storiesAsaforementioned,EPRsystemscanbeimplementedinmanydifferentways.InEurope,therearecurrently30countriesthathaveimplementedEPRintheirlegislation,withtheindustryhavingrespectivelysetupPROs.OutsideofEurope,suchorganisationshavebeenestablishedaswell,forinstanceinIsrael,TurkeyandJapan.BelowthesystemsofGermany,FranceandtheNetherlandsarepresented,whichallhavedifferentset-ups.

InGermany,thelegalframeworkallowsadirectcompetitionbetweenseveralPROsinsteadofhavingasinglemonopolisticPRO.SincethePROsareprivatecompanies,theyarenotinthehandsoftheobligedindustry,buteachobligedcompanyhastocontractaPROoftheirchoiceforthemanagementoftheirwaste.Therefore,theexactfeesarenotdisclosed.Furthermore,theEPRsystemexistsinparalleltomunicipalwastemanagementandmunicipalitiesarenotpartoftheEPRsystem.



Thissetuphasachievedverygoodresultswithregardstocollection,sortingandrecycling.However,thissystemrequiresintensemonitoringandsupervisingduetothecomplexandpartiallyunclearstructure,whichiswhysomecompaniesexploitthissystemtoparticipateinadequatelyoravoidparticipationinthesystem.The‘CentralAgencyPackagingRegulation’wasestablishedafterthepassingofanewpackaginglaw,whichenteredintoforceinJanuary2019asanewcontrollingauthority.

In2003,Germanyestablishedacompulsorydeposit-refundsystembylawforone-waybeveragepackagingmadefromglass,plastics,metalsorcompositematerials.From2003to2006,thedeposit-refundsystemwasbuiltonadirectrelationshipbetweenconsumersandretailers.Emptyone-waybeveragebottlescouldonlybereturnedattheoriginalpointofsale.After2006,thedeposit-refundsystemwastransformed.Sincethen,thelawobligeseveryretailertotake-backdepositedone-waybeveragepackagingmadeofmaterialstheysupplythroughtheirownproductrange.Thereby,Germanyimplementedauniform,nationwidesystemfordeposit-refundwithclearing.Asaclearingorganisation,theDeutschePfandgesellschaft(DPG)wasestablished,ownedbytheGermanRetailAssociationandtheGermanFoodAssociation.Throughemployingclearingserviceproviders,theproducersandimportersofdepositedbeveragesreceivetherecorddataofreturneddepositedbeveragepackagingandreimbursetherespectiveamounttotheretailers.Thereturnrateofdepositedbeveragepackagingwas98.4%in2015.

InFrance,Citeo(until06/2017namedEco-Emballages)wasdevelopedasthedominantEPRsystemthatisexclusivelyresponsibleforendconsumerpackaging.Eco-Emballageswasfoundedbyacoalitionofseveralindustrialparties(manufacturers).AsecondEPRsystem,Adelphe,wasestablishedbythewineandspiritsindustrytomeetthetake-backobligationsforglassbottles.Today,AdelpheisfullyownedbyCiteo,yetcontinuestooperateasanindependentcompany.

Citeoisanon-profitjoint-stockcompanywithapproximately240shareholdersfrommanufacturers,distributersaswellastheprint,servicesandrelatedsupplychainsectors.Intotal,CiteoisthePROforapprox.50,000members.ThefeesofCiteoarebasedontheweightofthepackaging,afixedpriceperpackagingunit,amalussystemfornon-recyclablepackaging(e.g.feesfornon-recyclableplasticsaspackagingmaterialaretwiceasexpensive).

Theproducersfinanceapprox.80%ofthesystemandthelocalmunicipalitiesfinancetheremaining20%.Moreover,themunicipalitiesarealsoresponsibleforperformingdisposalservices.

Thesystemachievesgoodresultswithregardstocollection,sortingandrecycling.However,mixedplasticsandplasticfoilsarenotincludedinthesystemthroughoutmostareasinFrance.Itisplannedtoexpandthesystemtocomprisealltypesofpackagingwasteby2022.

IntheNetherlands,theAfvalfondsVerpakkingen(packagingwastefund)wasestablishedjointlybymanufacturersandimporterstofulfiltheextendedmanufacturerresponsibilities. It isanon-profitorganizationwhichismanagedbyamanagementboard,whichis itselfappointedbyproducersandimporters.Thetasksincludethemaintenanceofthewastemanagementsystem,collaborationwithcommunitiesandotherstakeholderstoorganisecollection,andrecyclingofpackaging.Othertasksarethemitigationofpackagingwaste,monitoringandreportingoncollectionandrecyclingofpackagingmaterialsaswellasdefiningandreceivingcompulsoryfinancialcontributionsfrommanufacturersandimporters.

Anoticeablefeatureisthatthetasksofcollection,sortingandtransportationofwastetorecyclersareexclusivelydonebythemunicipalities.Inturn,Afvalfondspayscompensationforthecollectionandsortingofpackagingwaste.


SinceDecember2007,Nedvang,anon-profitorganization,actsasmediatorbetweenmanufacturers,importersandretailersaswellasrecoverycompanies,municipalities,andnationalauthorities.Moreover,Nedvangmonitorsthepackagingmarketandtherecoveryofpackagingwaste.Nedvangworksforthewastefundandmakescontractswithmunicipalitiesregardingthereportingofpackagingwaste,whichiscollected,sorted,andrecycled.Nedvangreviewsthisinformationand,followingtheirreview,dispatchesapprovalthroughpaymentfromthewastefund.

Overall,thissystemachievesgoodresultswithregardstocollection,sortingandrecycling.However,thecostsarehighcomparedtootherEPRmodels.

Local examples and success storiesInKenya,thereisnomandatoryEPRsystem.Thus,organisationsthatoperateasatake-backorganisationfollowtheprinciplesofanEPRsystemforselectedmaterialsonly.Theseorganisationsarebasedonthevoluntaryparticipationoftheirmembers.Inparticular,therearePETCOandCleanGreenKenya.

The PET Recycling Company Ltd. (PETCOKenya)registeredinDecember2017andstartedoperatinginJune2018withitsorganisationalscopebeinglimitedtoPETbeveragebottles.Throughself-regulationmechanismsfortheindustry,PETCOaimstocreatevalueforpost-consumerPETandencourageachangeinconsumerandindustrybehaviourtowardsrecyclingPETbeveragebottleswhichissupposedtohelpincreatingmoreemploymentpossibilitiesintherecyclingindustry.

Currently,theorganisationhas14activemembers.Themainfinancialsourcesarethemembershipfees,grantsfromretailers,plantownersandbottlers.Thegrantsareobtainedthroughnegotiationswithmembers.

ForthePETbottlecollection,PETCOhascontractedtwocompaniesasofnow,WEECOLimitedandKarsamLimited.TheplanisthatWEECOLimitedcollectsandrecycles4,800mt,whileKarsamLimitedcollectsandrecycles1,000mtannually.Overall,PETCOaims,togetherwithotherpartners,tocollectandrecycle6,000mtor300millionPETbottlesby2019.ThroughitscollaborationwithretailerssuchasNaivasKenyaandothermembers,PETCOKenyaaimstosetupdrop-offpointstoenhancethecollectionofrecyclables.

Toraiseawarenessandpromoteconsumereducation,PETCOtargetsstakeholderswhichcanbringmaximumreturnstotheconsumerawarenessprograms.Someinitiativesaimtocouplemediacoveragewithschoolrecyclinginitiatives.

Clean Green Kenya(CGK)isalsoavoluntarysystemwiththesetgoalofdevelopingacirculareconomy,bringingawarenessofproperwastemanagementtoallsectorsandbecomingahubofinformationintherecyclingsector.ThecompaniesAlternativeEnergySystemsLimited,RAMCOandKingPlasticssubsequentlyfoundedCGKasanNGOin2017.TheideaofCGKistoestablishaplatformthroughwhichcollectors,recyclersandmanufacturersacrossdifferentindustriescaninteractandcreatesynergies.

Keyactivitiesincludethecollectionoffundsthroughamonthly‘EPRfee’,whichisinvestedinenhancingthewastemanagementcapacities.CGKalsoaimstosecurecollectors’supplychainsbasedonapricingmodelthatincentivisesthecollectionofpost-consumerwaste.Theorganisationcurrentlyhas22companiesregisteredonavoluntarybasis.Theseincludemanufacturers,recyclersandendconsumers.Theyhavecommittedtoamonthlylevywhichiscalculatedbasedontheirmonthlyplasticsproduction.Thecollectedlevyismainlyusedforcollectionandsortingofwasteplastics(doneatdumpingsites),pre-processingactivities(transportation,cleaningandcompactingofwasteplastics)andeducationalcampaignsandcapacitybuildinginschools.



5.1.3 Comparing tax incentives and EPRInmanycases,measuresarereferredtoandpublishedunderthelabelofEPR.However,inlightofthedefini-tionofanEPRscheme,thesearemostlygreentaxesandenvironmentalchargesoreco-taxes.Theseenvi-ronmentaltaxesorimportdutiesarechargedonrawmaterialsandgoods.Inthesecases,mostofthefundsusuallyflowintothegeneralpublicbudget,sothereisnoproducerresponsibilityfulfilledasdefinedinanEPRsystem.

ThefollowingtablecomparesthefeespaidwithinanEPRsystembytheobligatedcompanieswithgreentaxesandenvironmentalcharges.

Table 3: EPR fees and green taxes in comparison

EPR fees for packaging Green taxes / environmental charges

ThefeesaredeterminedbythePROor-incaseoffor-profitcorporations-negotiatedwiththeobligedcompanies.

Thetaxisdefinedbylaworthroughotherpublicregulationsandacts.

ThePROreceivesthefee. Theresponsiblepublicagenciesreceivethetax.

EPRdescribesextendingtheproducerresponsibili-ty:Thosewhointroducecertaingoodsontoamar-ketarealsoresponsibleforthesubsequentwastemanagementanddisposalofthearisingpackagingwaste.

Eco-taxescanbechargedwithoutbeingdirectlyrelatedtoaspecificresponsibilityofaproducer.Thedutyisfulfilledthroughpayments.

Thefeesarepreciselyrelatedtotheproductscov-eredbytheEPRscheme,whichareintroducedonthemarketoftherespectivecountryinwhichtheywillalsoturnintowaste.

Eco-taxesdonothavetoberelatedtotheconsump-tionintherespectivecountry.Forinstance,theycanalsoberelatedtorawmaterialsorimports.

ThereisadirectrelationbetweentheEPRfeeandthequantitiesofarisingwasteintherespectivecountry.

Thereisnorelationtothearisingpackagingwastequantitiesintherespectivecountry.

TheEPRfeesaremeanttobeexclusivelyusedforcollection,sortingandrecyclingofthewaste.Thisalsoincludesacorrespondingcommunicationandpublicawarenesswork.

Eco-taxesusuallycontributeintothegeneralpublicbudget,sothereisno‘polluterpays’-principleinthesenseofanEPRsystem.

Generally,bothEPRfeesandgreentaxescanhaveasteeringfunction.Greentaxescansteerrawmaterials,materialsandgoodswhicharenewlyintroducedontothemarket;forinstancethroughtaxeswhicharestaggeredbasedonecologicalcriteriasuchastherecyclability,usageofrecyclates,ororiginofthematerial(upstreamimpact).


ThesteeringfunctionofEPRfeesalsocoversthepartwhenrawmaterials,materialsandgoodarenewlyintroducedontothemarket,butexpandsbeyondthisasEPRfeesalsoimpacttheestablishmentofanoperativesystem,meaningEPRcanfinance,amongstotherthings,infrastructure,communication,andcampaignsagainstlittering(up-anddownstreamimpact).

Thus,EPRfees–iftheycanbeappliedtoaspecificproduct–arethepreferredchoicewithregardstotheirsteeringfunction.

5.2 Action Measures

5.2.1 Recycling and/or End of Life OptionsTheEndofLife(EoL)optionsforwasteplasticsaregearedtothewastehierarchy(seechapter2.2),whichisasetofprioritiesfortheefficientuseofresourcesandwastetreatment,listingthemostpreferredtoleastpreferredoption.Basedonthewastehierarchy,thefollowingEoLoptionsexistforwasteplastics:

Preventionreferstomeasurestakenbeforeasubstance,materialorproducthasbecomewaste.Thesemeasuresreducethequantityofwaste(includingthroughthere-useofproductsortheextensionofthelifespanofproducts),reducetheadverseimpactsofthegeneratedwasteontheenvironmentandhumanhealth,orreducethecontentofhazardoussubstancesinmaterialsandproducts.Prevention measures are taken before a product becomes waste!Examplesforpreventionmeasuresincluderesource-efficientprocessingleadingtolessmaterialbeingmanufactured(thinnerwallthicknessofbottles,cans)ormultipleuseapplications.(cansorbasketsusedforthesameoranothertaskandthereforeremainwithintheutilisationphase).

Preparation for re-usedescribesmaterialsanditemswhichhavebecomewaste,arecleaned,refurbishedandremanufacturedforreapplication.

Recyclingmeansanyrecoveryoptionbywhichwastematerialsarereprocessedintoproducts,materialsorsubstances,whetherfortheoriginalorforotherpurposes.Itincludesthereprocessingoforganicmaterialbutdoesnotincludeenergyrecovery(whichispartofrecovery!).Recyclingalsoincludesre-granulationaswellasproductionofflakesandagglomeratesoutofplastics.

Other recovery processes, e.g. energy recovery:Forthispurpose,theenergeticcontentoftheplasticsareusedtogenerateheat,coldand/orelectricenergy;mostlythroughincineration.

Disposal describesanyoperationwhichisnotrecovery,evenwheretheoperationhasasecondaryconsequenceforthereclamationofsubstancesorenergy.Thus,disposaldoesnotcountasrecoverymeasure.Disposal does not mean littering or the landfilling in unsuitable locations.

Generally,nocomprehensivecollectionand,further,properwastetreatment(householdandcommercialwaste)is implementedinKenya,especiallywithregardstoplastics.Consideringthewastemanagementpractices(improperlandfillingintermsoforganizationalandenvironmentalaspects,lowrecyclingstructuresforglass,paper,plastics,norelevantmultipleusesystems),theusageofresourcesfore.g.packagingshouldbewidelyreduced(prevention)totacklethechallenges(lossofresources,littering,impropertreatmenttoreducenegativeenvironmentalimpacts).

Asarecommended,complementaryfirststep,thedevelopmentofasystematicrecyclingstructureiscrucial.Thisalsoincludesthetreatmentofplasticswhicharenotrecycledatthemomentorwhicharebynaturenotsuitableforrecycling(seesectionrecyclability).



SimilartoEurope,thelong-termgoalshouldbetotransferthecurrent,unsystematicdisposalofplasticwasteintoasuitableformoftreatmentthroughplanningandreconstructinglandfillswithadequatesafetymeasures(e.g.waterproofing,gasretention,wastewatercollectionandpurification).

Thisshouldgoalongwiththerequirementonlytotransportpre-treatedwastetolandfillsites.Sincethebeginningof2006,thereisaso-calledlandfillbaninEurope.Itstatesthatwastewhichissupposedtobelandfilledmustonlyhaveaverysmallamountoftotalorganiccarbon(TOC).Thisisaccomplishedwhen;

• Wasteisalreadyseparatedandcollectedatsource• Containedrecyclablefractionsaresorted• Remainsunsuitableforrecyclingareusedenergetically

ThelattertwopointsarekeyelementsforacirculareconomyandshouldthereforebeputintofocusthroughtheimplementationofanEPRsystem(seechapter5.1.2)andmeasures(seechapter6).However,itshouldbeconsideredthatevenwithahigherusageofplasticrecyclatesinproductionprocesses,thereisstillaneedforvirginmaterials,whiche.g.areobligatorytofulfilcertainqualitycriteriaduringmanufacturingprocesses.

Moreover,therecyclingprocessesshouldnotbelimitedtoKenyalocation-wiseaslongastheinlandmarketisnotestablishedsufficiently;i.e.exportofwasteorsecondaryresourcesforprocessingabroadcan,atleastinaninitialphase,beaviablepartofthesolution.

Foralong-termsuccess,structuresoutsideofrecyclingneedtobeestablishedaswellasstructuresforwastetreatmentfornon-recyclableplastics.Thisgenerallyhappensthroughincineration(energywithheatgenerationasthebestoption),astheresultingashesarelandfilled.Alternatively,theoptionof‘catalyticpressurisedoiling’andthegenerationoffuelareconceivableforplasticsbutstillindevelopmenttoscalethemtoanindustriallevel;alsoinEuropewherepackagingwasteismanagedonacomparablyhighlevel.

TheEPRsystemshallcreatefinancialincentivesformoreplasticsrecycling,especiallyinlightofthefactthatcurrentdisposaloptionssuchasunsanitarylandfills likeDandoraorimproperdisposalsitesinresidential,agriculturalandprotectedareasarestillthecheaperoptionscomparedtorecycling.

Thecreationofrecyclingtargets(suchasacertainamountofusedplasticswhichmustberecycledwithinayear)shallresultinreducedattractivenessofunsystematiclandfillsandlesswasteremainingwithinthecity.Thesimultaneousimplementationofalandfilltaxpromotestheshifttomorerecyclingatthesametime(seechapter5.1.1).


5.2.2 Segregation at source as best practice and waste collectionSegregationatsourceandtherespectivewastecollectionisacentralpartofsustainablewastemanagementandrecycling.Sincesegregationandcollectionsystemsneedtobetailoredtothelocalconditions,theyvaryglobally.EveninEuropeancountrieswithestablishedEPRsystems,thecollectionformofthedifferentlightweightpackagingmaterialsvariesasshowninTable4below.

Table 4: Collection structures for packaging for the individual material fractions in five different countries with EPR systems

Germany France Spain Italy Netherlands

Plasticfoil(plasticbags)1) X6) 3) X5) 4) X6)

PEandPP X6) X2)5)6) X5) X2)5)6) X6)

PS X6) 3) X5) 4) X6)

PETbottles X6)7) X5)6) X5) X5)6) X6)

PETnon-beveragebottles X6) 3) X5) 4) X6)

Mixedplastics(rigid) X6) X2)5)6) X5) X2)5) X6)

Mixedplastics(flexible) X6) 3) X5) 4) X6)

Beveragecartons X6) X5)6)8) X5) X5)6)8) X6)

Tinplate/ferrousmetals X6)7) X5)6) X5) X5)6) X6)

Aluminium/non-ferrousmetals X6)7) X X5) X5)6) X6)

Paperandcardboard X5)6) X5) X5) X5)6) X5)6

1) Thetargetfractionisnarroweddown(size>DINA4)inordertoensureasignificantenrichmentofLDPE.2) Atthemoment:onlybottlesand/orcontainers3) Expectedfrom2022onwards4) ItisexpectedthatthecollectionsystemsofCONAI(Italy)willbeexpandedtothesefractionsaswelltofulfil

thequotasfor2025setintheEUpackagingdirective.5) Dropoffsystem/‘bringityourself’-system6) Kerbsidecollection/pick-upsystem7) Depositsystemforbeveragepackaging8) InFranceandItaly,beveragecartonsareoften(estimated50%to80%)collectedtogetherwithpaperand

cardboardandnotinthecollectionsystemoflightweightpackaginglikeinothercountries.

Generally,therearetwodistinctpossibilitiestocollectwaste:eitheratthehouseholdlevelthroughkerbsidecollectionsystemsoronthestreetsthroughbringbanks(alsoreferredtoasdrop-offsystemsor‘bringityourself’-systems).Someexamplesfromfourdifferentcountriesarepresentedonthenextpage(seealsoFigure22)



Figure 22: Waste segregation and collection in Germany (upper left) and Spain (upper right), Japan (bottom left) and Shanghai (bottom right)

In Germany, waste is usually separated intofourfractionsandcollectedatthehouseholdlevelthroughakerbsidecollectionsystem.Glasspackagingisusuallycollectedthroughbringbanks.Thecostsarisingfromcollection,sortingandrecyclingarecoveredbythePROs.Thecostsarisingfromthewasteofthe“paper,cardboardandcarton”fractionaredividedbetweenthemunicipalitiesandPROsasthisfractionincludesbothpaperpackagingwasteandotherprintedproductsforwhichthereisnoEPRscheme.

TheprevalentcollectionsysteminJapan isabringsystemwherethewasteissortedindifferentfractions.Nevertheless,therearealsosomekerbsidecollectionsystems. In several places, the waste collection iscomplementedbyadditionalcollectionforms,suchasgroupcollectionsorganisedbyresidents.Theoverallnumbersofwastefractions,whicharesegregatedatsource,varyacrossJapan.

InShanghai, China,awastesegregationandcollesctionsystemhasbeenintroducedwhichisbasedonsegregationatsourceintofourfractions:kitchenwasteforcomposting,valuablesforrecycling,specificwaste(likehazardous waste), and residual waste.Inhabitantswillbepenalisediftheyfailtosegregateproperly.

InSpain,collectionismainlyorganisedviadrop-offcontainers/banks.Rigidplastic,cansandcartonsbelongintheyellowcontainers,andpaperandcardboardbelongsintheblueones.Intotal,thereareover573,000yellowandbluecontainersavailablethroughoutSpaintocollectpackagingwaste(veryhighdensity).Fromthere,packagingiscollectedandtransportedtosuitablesortingplantsthatfurthersegregateintomorespecificfractions.


InTunis,severalcontainersforseparatewastecollectionofplasticpackaginghavebeensetupindifferentdistrictsacrossthecity.Thesecontainersarebuiltinsuchawaythatthecollectedplasticpackagingishighlyvisibleforeveryoneandcanalsoberemovedbyeveryone,whichisparticularlyinterestingfortheinformalsector.Asaconsequence,allvaluableplasticpackaging(likePETbottles)isremovedfromthecontainersandonlythevalueless,non-marketableplasticpackagingremainsinsidethecontainers.Anotherproblemisthehighamountoflitterwhichisgeneratedasasideeffectuponremovalattheplaceswherethecontainersaresetup.Thus,thecontainer design is an important element to consider when setting up a waste collection system(seeFigure24).

Figure 24: Container designs

ProblemsarisewhenwastemanagementoperatorsdonotfulfiltheserviceforwhichtheyhavebeencontractedandthecollectionpointsarenotappropriatelytakencareofasshownintheexamplesofPalermo,ItalyandTunis,TunisiainFigure23.

Figure 23: Waste collection in Palermo (left) and Tunis (right)

Collectedpackagingisclearlyvisible.Throughthedoor,theycanberemovedbyeveryone.

Openingissmallenoughthatnothingcanberemovedandnochildrencanenter.

Theopeningislargeenoughforremovingitems.Italsodangerousase.g.smallchildrencanbeputintothecontainersthroughtheseopenings(tofacilitatetheremoval).



AsthecollectioncostsarecoveredbythePRO,thefollowingdisposalserviceshavetobediscussedandnegotiatedforwastecollection:

• Establishmentofaninfrastructureforthecollectionofpackagingwaste• Documentationofthecollection• Regularemptyingofthecontainers• Cleaningofthecollectionpoints• Maintenanceandcareofthecontainers• Establishmentofinfrastructureforthesortingandrecyclingofplasticswaste• Documentationofrecoveryandrecycling

5.2.3 Product Design for enhanced recyclingRecyclabilityisthekeyfigureforthequalitativeandquantitativebehaviourofaproductinthepost-usephaseasitdeterminesitrespectiverecyclingprocesschainforprimaryrawmaterialsubstitution.Thismeans,itmustbepossiblethattheproductsafterusearecollectableviaexistingcollectionpossibilitiesandsortableinaqualifiedmanner.Itsreprocessabilitymustenablerecirculation.

Asaforementioned,therecyclabilityisdeterminedbytwofactors:i) thecompositionoftheobject,andii) theactualexistingrecyclingoptionsafterusage,whichiswhyaplasticsobjectisonlytrulyrecyclableifan

actualrecyclingpathwaysexist.Otherwise,itremains‘readyforrecycling’.

However,thesetwofactorshaveareciprocalconnectionsincethecompositionoftheobjectoftendetermineswhetheranobjectcanberecycledthroughtheexistingrecyclingpathwaysintherespectivecountry.Inturn,theexistingrecyclingoptioncaninfluencethecompositionanddesignofaplasticobject.Thereareseveralstepswhichneedtobeconsideredwhendesigningtheproduct.Theyareillustratedinaflowchart(seeannex8.11).

Thedecisionabouttherecyclabilityismaterial-dependent–meaningthatthedecisionflowcharthastobeappliedtoeachmaterialandtherespectiveitemdesign(bottleortray).

BasedontheprevailingcollectionandrecyclingstructuresinKenya(seechapter2.4),itcanbeassumedthatrecyclablesareaggregatedonanitembasisboththroughformalcollectorsaswellasthroughinformalwastepickersandthesubsequent,largelymanualsorting.

Thus,technicalrequirementsforplasticspackagingaswellasnon-packagingplasticsitemswithregardstotheirsuitabilityforautomaticsortingdonotneedtobeconsidered.Nevertheless,negativelyimpactingdesigntrendsontherecyclabilityhavebeenalreadyrecognisedintheKenyancontext:inparticular,thisreferstothesubstitutionofPEorPPasvaluableandwellrecyclablepolyolefinpolymerswithPET(sometimesopaque;seeFigure25),whichcannotberecycledbypolyolefinexistingrecyclingcompaniesspecializedinPEorPP.

Anotherdevelopmentleadingtoreducedrecyclabilityistheusageoffillermaterial(likechalk).Thisincreasestheweight,whichinturncausesthematerialtobesortedoutasresidualwasteduringthemandatoryswim-sinkseparation(amandatorystepintherecyclingprocessofpolyolefin;formoredetailsseeannex8.3).


Also,materialcomposites,whicharehardtoseparate,shouldbeavoidedasmuchaspossible.Forinstance,theattachedlidonbottleshastobecutoffofthebottleandisdisposedasresidualwasteatlandfillsinsteadofbeingrecycled(seeFigure26).

Moreover,thecombinationofincompatiblematerials(PETbottleswithfullsleevesmadeofnon-PET)ortheusageoffullycoloured(opaque)PETmaterialsignificantlylowersexistingPETrecycling.

Thus,itisrecommendabletocreaterecyclabledesignstandardsforselectedpackagingandnon-packagingitems.

Figure 26: Attached lids on Bottles

Figure 25: PET substitution



Modulated feesIncentivesforanimprovedproductdesignforincreasedrecyclingcanbeincorporatedintoeconomicinstrumentsliketaxesorEPRfees.InFranceandItaly,forinstance,theEPRparticipationfeeforplasticsisdependentontherecyclabilityoftheplasticspackaging,meaningthatthefeesfornon-recyclableplasticspackagingaresignificantlyhigher.Thus,usingnon-recyclablepackagingissignificantlymoreexpensiveforcompaniesputtingthispackagingontothemarket.Thecriteriaforrecyclabilityandnon-recyclabilityareclearlydefinedandtransparent.InthecaseofFrance,theEPRparticipationfeefornon-recyclablepackagingistwiceashighasthefeesforrecyclableplasticpackaging.

TheapproachofmodulatedfeesisbeinggraduallyimplementedinotherEuropeancountriestoprovidemonetaryincentivesopposingthetrendofnon-recyclablepackagingdesignandincreaseactualrecycling.Moreover,thisinstrumentispowerfulforraisingawarenessamongpackagingandproductdesignersforthetopicsofEoLandrecycling,informingthemandtransferringknowledgeabouttheissueofrecyclabilityupstreamthesupplychain.AbonusontheEPRleviesforrecyclableproductdesignisonlygrantedforproductswhichdeliverproofoftheirrecyclability.Usually,therecyclabilityisdeterminedandcertifiedbyexternalinstitutesandbasedonregulationsandrequirementssetbythelegalframeorPRO.

Moreover,modulatedfeescanalsobeappliedfortheusageofrecyclatesintheproduct:Iftheproductcontainsrecyclates,abonusloweringtheEPRleviesisgranted.Thiscanroughlybeverifiedthroughtheannualproductionquantities,annualusageofvirginmaterialsandtheannualusageofrecyclates.

5.2.4 Consumer awareness – communication and educationComplementarytotheactionswhichneedtobetakenupstreamanddownstreamofthevaluechain,inclusionoftheconsumersinthetransitiontoacirculareconomyhastobetargeted.Achievingincreasedplasticsrecyclingratesisdependentonchangingtheconsumerattitudetowardswaste.Awarenessofthebenefitsofaproperwastemanagementaswellastheadverseeffectsofanimproperwastemanagementisakeyelementtostartthischange.Inaddition,alackofawarenessofwaste,itseffectsonhealthandontheenvironmentcontributesignificantlytomismanagementofwaste.Fromcommunitiestoschoolsanduniversities,tobusinesses,organisationsandgovernments:Allofthemplayaroleinbuildingacultureinwhicheffectivewastemanagementsystemsthrive.Therearevariousmeanstoraiseawarenessamongconsumers,suchas:

• Guidelinesandsigns• Printedmedia• Digitalmedia• Environmentaleducationprogramsinschools• Eventsandcampaigns• Eco-labellingschemes• Marketing• Productfees

Consumerawarenessstartsonanindividuallevelandcanberaisedthroughmultipletools.Educatingpeopleonthebestwaystodealwithwasteandkeepingthemupdatedwiththelateststrategiesanddecisionsrelatedtowasteandwastemanagementcansignificantlychangethewaywasteishandled.Anoverviewofselectedglobalexamplesispresentedinannex8.10.


School education for long-term impactOneofthemostpowerfultoolstoachievebetterwastemanagementareenvironmentaleducationprogrammesatschools,asitiseasiertoimpactchildren’sbehaviourthanthatofadults.Childrencanalsobeanactivepartinthelearningprocessbytransferringtheirknowledgetotheirparents,closefamily,andcommunity.Teachingchildrenfromanearlyagealsoguaranteesalong-termimpact,becausethosechildrenwillgrowwiththeknowledge,thenpassitontolatergenerations.

Schoolscanbecomeamaindriverofchangeneededtoachieveabetterwastemanagement:Thefirststepistointroduceinformativecurriculaaboutwaste,wastemanagement,andtheresultsof improperhandlingofwaste,aswellasthebestpracticestodealwithwaste.Integrationofwastemanagementcurriculaindifferentclassessuchasscience,socialstudies,etc.,helpsstudentstolinkmismanagementofwastewiththeeffectsithasonhealthandtheenvironment. Italsoinstilsinstudents’mindsthatwasteisinseparablefromtheirlives,andthatitcanbecome–ifproperlytreated–avaluableresourcefornewproductsandapplicationsofferingeconomicandsocialbenefits,suchasintroducingdifferentcareersintheenvironmentandwastemanagementsectorsinthefuture.

Inadditiontocurricula,workshops,events,andcampaignsareconsideredessentialtoolstopracticallyeducatechildrenonwastemanagement.Engagingchildreninactivitiesthatcombinetheoreticalandpracticalknowledgewillenhancetheircriticalthinkingandanalyticandproblem-solvingskillswhichenablesstudentstomakeinformeddecisionsaboutwasteissues.

SuccessfulexamplesinotherAfricancountriescanbefound,forinstance,inGhana(seegreenbox).

Product fees as customer incentive for reuse of single use plastics (SUP)Singleuseplastics(SUP)aregloballyrecognisedasgrowingproblem:duetotheirconvenience,theirglobaldemandhasbeenincreasing;however,sincetheyareusuallyonlyusedonceandthendisposedof,theyhaveaveryshortin-lifephaseandgeneratesignificantquantitiesofwaste.SolutionstobetterdealwiththearisingquantitiesofSUPsareindemand,suchaschargingaproductfeewhensellingcertainSUPstoincentivisethereuse(oneofthethreekeyprinciplesofcirculareconomy)overanewpurchase.Althoughthechargesareusuallyminimal,itisenoughtoincentivisethereuseasmeanstosavemoney,whichisthushighlyeffectiveincountrieswithprice-sensitiveconsumers.

Generally,itispossibleeithertoincreasethepricewhenhandingoutanSUP(oftenusedforcarrierbags)ortogiveadiscountforbringingone’sown(reused)SUP(e.g.oncoffee-to-gocups).WhichofthetwopossibilitiesisKenyaintroducedafullbanontheuse,manufactureandimportofallplasticsbagsusedforcommercialandhouseholdpackagingmadeofPE(seechapter3.1).Forothercarrierbagswhicharesoldatsupermarkets,thesupermarketscollectafundfromthesaleofthesebags.OthertypesofSUPproductsarestillavailable,suchassingle-usecoffeecups.

In Ghana, the NGO Environment360 works with schools through programs that focus on teaching children about the proper segregation of waste at source; and introducing them to the green economy and green technology careers. They also collaborate with the Ghana Recycling Incentive Program for Schools (GRIPS) to help schools save money by reducing their waste, and to earn rewards for proper waste segregation.

Moreover, Environment360 runs volunteering programs in which volunteers participate in the initiatives and activities organised by the organisation at schools and communities. An example is the annual Float Your Boat competition, where children design and build boats using plastic bottles and then participate in a race in order to raise funds for environmental education programs in coastal and urban regions in Ghana. ‘Float Your Boat’ also teaches students how to segregate waste and helps them discover exciting ways to reuse their plastic waste, thereby reducing the amount of waste generated.



5.2.5 Biodegradable plasticsTheterm‘biodegradableplastics’isoftentimes(incorrectly)usedinreferencetobothbio-basedplasticsaswellasbiodegradableplastics.However,asdescribedinchapter2.1,bio-basedplasticsarederivedfromrenewablesourcessuchassugarcaneandprocessedintoplasticpolymerslikePE.Bio-basedplasticscanberecycledjustlikeconventionalplastics.Incontrast,biodegradableplasticsarecharacterisedbytheirabilitytobedegradedbymicroorganismsintowater,carbondioxide(ormethane)andbiomassunderspecifiedconditions.However,biodegradableplasticscanbemanufacturedfrombothfossilaswellasrenewablesources[PlasticsEurope,2018].

Biodegradableplasticsareusedforawiderangeofapplications,suchasorganicwastecollection(e.g.askitchenwastebags),andagriculturalpurposes(e.g.asfilms).Theycanbefoamedintopackingmaterials,extruded,andinjection-mouldedinmodifiedconventionalmachines.Differenttypesoffillerscanbeusedwiththesystem,suchaswoodflour,lime,clayorwastepaper.Mostoftheapplicationsforwhichtheyareusedhaveashortorveryshortin-usephase.Forinstance,therearedrinkingstrawsandcoffeecapsulesmadeofbiodegradableplasticsavailable[PlasticsEurope,2017].

Toensurethatbiologicaltreatment,suchascomposting,isasustainablewastemanagementoption,boththebiodegradabilityandcompostabilityaswellastheresultingcompostanddigestatehavealsotocomplywiththeappropriatestandards.

However,thecriticalsidetobiodegradableplasticsisthattheseplasticscanonlybedegradedundercertaintemperatures,oxygenavailabilityandhumidity,andinthepresenceofcertainmicroorganisms.Theseconditionscannotbeguaranteedeitherduringconventionalcompostingoratlandfills.Biodegradableplasticscancontributejustasmuchtolitterandtheexistingwasteproblemasconventionalplasticsaslongasthereisnopropercollection,sorting,andrecyclingorcompostinginfrastructure.

Evenincaseofaproperwastemanagementchain,thereareseveralcriticalissuesregardingtreatingbiodegradableplasticsincomposters:

• Mostindustrialcompostersarenotabletocreatethespecifiedenvironmentalconditions,i.e.biodegrad-ableplasticswillnotbedegradedinthemandwillinsteadbecomeacontaminantinthecompost[DUH,2018]

• Thequalityofdegradedbiodegradableplasticsdoesnotfulfiltherequirementsforcompostquality(e.g.EuropeanstandardEN13432)leadingtocontamination[DUH,2018]

• BiodegradableplasticsdonotholdmanysoilsubstancesandmerelydegradeintowaterandCO2;there-fore,fromanenvironmentalpointofview,incinerationwithheatorelectricitygenerationwouldbeapreferredoption[DUH,2018]

• Inaccurateclaimsoverthecompostabilityofbiodegradableplasticsmightconfuseconsumersoreventrickthemintothinkingthatlitteringtheseplasticsisnotharmfultotheenvironmentastheyaredegraded,whichisnotthecase,aswasrecentlyshowninresearchbytheUniversityofPlymouth,wherebiodegrada-bleplasticsbagswereabletoholdshoppingitemsevenafterthreeyearsofbeingburiedinthesoilorthesea[Williams,2019])

The usage of biodegradable plastics does not pose an advantage over conventional plastics, particularly in comparison to sturdy and long-lasting materials such as cotton or thick plastics suitable for reuse which have more advantages. Repeated usage of the material through recycling is more environmentally friendly than the loss of the material through degradation. For their decomposition, biodegradable plastics require certain temperatures, oxygen content and humidity which would be difficult to achieve outside a laboratory.


Anotherterm,whichisoftenbroughtupinrelationtobiodegradableplasticsareoxo-fragmentableplastics.Oxo-fragmentableplasticsareplasticswhichcanbecharacterizedbythefastfragmentationafterusage–however,theyarenotdecomposable.Therefore,thefragmentedplasticparticlesremainintheenvironmentasmicroplasticslitter,contributingtoenvironmentaldegradation.

5.2.6 Integration informal sectorInformalcollectorsandrecyclersareincreasinglyrecognisedforcreatingvaluefortheircitiesandcountries.Theycontributeinformofloweringwastequantities,conservingresources,loweringCO2emissionsandespeciallysupplyingthelocalvaluechainwithrecyclablematerial.

ThesameappliesforKenya,whereinformalwastepickerscollectrelevantamountsforsubsequent,ratherformalisedrecycling.However,thesituationisinsufficientbothforthepeopleworkingintheseinformalrelationaswellasfortheeffectivenessofthewastemanagement.

Thesituationfortheinformalcollectorsishighlyexploitativeas;• theirincomeisirregular,• theirsocialsituationisinsecure,• theyareexposedtohighhealthrisks,• theyarevulnerabletounfairbusinesspracticesand• theylackaccesstosocialsecuritysystems.• fromawastemanagementperspective,amainlyinformalsystemisinefficientas• onlyvaluableswillbecollected,whileinvaluablematerialsremainuncollected(wastepicking,nocleaning

service),• collectionoccursonlyinareaswithdemandforrecyclables(inproximitytothefacilityand/ortradingpoint),• formalcollectionofremainingwastewillbecomemoreexpensive(becausevaluablesarealreadyremoved),• informalcollectionandseparationoftencontributetolittering.

Thisiswhyinformalworkersshouldbeintegratedorformalisedinwastemanagementpractices,especiallyEPRsystems.InthiscontextinKenya,afewinitiativeshavealreadybeenestablished(seeexamplesofMr.GreenAfricaandCleanGreenKenya).TheirimplementationshouldbeevaluatedinrelationtopositiveimpactmechanismsforexpansionallacrossKenya.Fromasocialsustainabilityperspective,itisnecessarythattheinvolvedpersonskeeptheirsourceofincome.




6.1 Implementing the EPR systemAsanalysedbefore,thegeneralwastemanagementstructureaswellastheplasticswastemanagementstructureinparticularlackorganisationalandfinancialresourcesinKenya,whichcanbothbeimprovedthroughtheimplementationofanExtendedProducerResponsibility(EPR)system.ThebasicmechanismsofanEPRsystemwereintroducedinchapter5.1.2,complementedbyafewglobalexamples.Also,thefirststepstowardsimplementinganEPRsysteminKenyahavealreadybeeninitiated.

Aspreviouslyexplained,EPRsystemsallowforaproperandpracticalstrategytoaddresstheplasticssituationthroughtheirsteeringfunctiononmaterialusage(upstream)andtheoperativewastemanagementsystem(downstream),especiallycollectionandrecycling.ThefirstandforemostprioritywithregardstodevelopinganEPRsystemforplasticpackagingandotherspecifiedplasticsitemsisdefiningtheorganizationalresponsibilitiestocreateasoundProducerResponsibilityOrganization(PRO).ThesubsequentparagraphsoutlinetheimplementationofanEPRsysteminKenyaunderthegivencontextualconditionsinordertodefinepolicyrecommendationsforapolicyframeworkforatransparentandfairsystem,whichensuresthatfundsareonlyspentonwastemanagementpurposesandcompetitionbetweenthestakeholdersalongthesupplychainiskeptalive.Forthewastemanagementpractice,thisimplies:

• Transitionfrompickingandcollectingvaluablestocleanlinessasaservice.• Transitionfromindividualresponsibility(take-backschemes)tocollectiveaction.

Thesetransitionsrequirethatthefollowingaspectsaredefinedindetail,tailoredtoKenyanconditions:

What are the first important steps for implementing an EPR system in Kenya?AgainsttheKenyanbackgroundsystem,itiscrucialtoestablishasystemthatis;

i) basedonanalignedunderstandingandplanningthroughouttheprivatesector,andii) robustenoughtowork,yetquickandeasytoimplement.Thus,itisessentialtoestablishasystemwhich

includesallstakeholdersinthesupplychain,designatesunambiguousrulestotheobligedcompaniesandguaranteesalevelplayingfield.

AsindicatedinthenameEPR,extendingtheproducerresponsibilityisinitiallyapurelyeconomictopic.Inalmostallwell-functioningsystems,thisobligationoftheeconomyisaccompaniedbythefactthatsuchasystemisalsoinitiatedandimplementedbytheprivatesector.AlsoinKenya,thefirststepsfacilitatingandinfluencingthesetupofanEPRsystemshouldbeinitiatedbytheprivatesector,ideallyorganisedthroughbusinessmembershiporganizations(BMOs)suchasKenyaAssociationofManufacturers(KAM)orKenyaPrivateSectorAlliance(KEPSA),forinstance.Moreover,theycanensurethatallstakeholdersalongthesupplychainareinvolvedintheprocess.Thisappliesundertheconditionthatthereareexternalcontrolandvalidationbodies.Theadvantageinthatistheopportunityfortheobligedindustrynotonlytoreactbutalsotoshapeandtailorthesystemtolocalandeconomicallyviableconditions.

Atthesametime,politicaldecision-makersneedtobeinvolvedintheprocessaswellinordertopreparetherespectivelegalframework.Asseveralbranchesarepotentiallyaffected–forinstanceenvironment,transport,economics–itisimportanttoincludedecision-makersfromallofthesefields.Furthermore,existingpolitical

6. Implementing the Action Plan


actionsneedtobeputincongruenceandexistinglegislationclarifiedinregardstocertainaspectsas,forexample,providingsufficientdetailsonconcretemeasurestobetaken.

Adaptingandpassingalegalbasisisaprocesswhichtakestime.Thus,itisrecommendedtofoundavoluntaryPRO,potentiallysupportedbytheresourcesofanexistingBMOsuchasKenyaAssociationofManufacturersorKenyaPrivateSectorAllianceinwhichcompaniesandorganisationscanorganisethemselves,collectivelynegotiatewiththedecisionmakersaboutthesetupofthemandatorysystem.VoluntaryprojectsrelatedtoEPRcanbeoperatedinordertogainfirstexperiences.TheparticipationinthePROwillthenbecomemandatoryafterthelawhasenteredintoforce.Simultaneously,additionalmeasuresbasedonthelegalbasisneedtobecreated.

Recommendation on financing the first stepsThefirststepsarefinancedthroughthevoluntarilyparticipatingcompanies,whicharestakeholdersintheplasticvaluechain.AstheprocessofestablishinganEPRsystemiscomplexandrequirestime,itisrecommendedtosupporttheprocess(implementationofPRO,firstmeasuresandpilotprojects,discussionsaboutlegalframe)throughexternalthirdparties.Therefore,aprojectshouldbeinitiatedwhichbuildsontheKenyaPlasticActionPlanandadvancesit.Moreover,itislikelytoreceivefundingparticularlyfromEuropeanstatessincetheplasticswasteissueiscurrentlyatopicofhighimportance.TheKenyaPlasticActionPlanisasuitablebasistoapplyforrespectivefunding.

How should the EPR system be set up?ItisrequiredtoensurethehighestleveloftransparencypossiblefortheEPRsysteminordertoestablishafoundationoftrustandacceptance.Againstthisbackground,itisrecommendedtostartwith;• onlyoneEPRsystemandonePROor• onePROumbrellaorganisationunitingtheexistingschemeslikePETCOandCleanGreenKenya

which,inthebeginning,exclusivelyregulatesthefinancingandorganisationofdefinedplastics.Moreover,othercomplementingeconomicinstruments,suchaslandfilltaxes,shouldbeimplementedinparallelforthepropertreatmentofplastics,coveringareasthatcannotbecoveredbytheEPRsystem(seechapter5.1.1).

OneindustryownedPROcanbeinitiatedwithintheorganizationalresourcesofanexistingbusinessmemberorganizationsuchasKenyaAssociationofManufacturersorKenyaPrivateSectorAlliance.Itshouldpursue–aspartofitsstatutorypurpose–apublicservicemissionregardingthecollection,recovery,andrecyclingoftheplasticswastecoveredbyEPR.Inlightoftransparencyissues,thisPROshouldbeanon-profitorganizationwhichactsasasuperiorinstitutionindependentlyfromtheindividualcompaniesandinterests.

TheprivateindustryiswidelyalignedtoestablishanEPRsystemwhichisinthehandsoftheprivateindustryandaPROwhichisrunasnon-profitorganisation;thisreflectstheidealsetupofaPROthatcoversallplasticfractionsequally.

ItisalsopossibletoestablishdifferentPROsfordifferentplasticsfractions.However,thiscomesattheexpenseofregistration,controlling,monitoringandtransparency.Moreover,itneedstobeagreeduponhowtofinancejointresponsibilities(e.g.awareness-raisingandeducation)andhowtobalanceouttheunequalvaluesofthedifferentplasticfractions.Inaddition,itneedstobedefinedhowthedifferentPROsassumeresponsibilityforthedisposaloftheresidueoriginatingfromthemixedcollectionandsubsequentsortingandhowthecostsfordisposalaredividedbetweenthem.


How are the different stakeholders affiliated with the PRO?ThePROisthemostimportantstakeholder(organisation)withinanEPRsystem.Thisorganisationisresponsibleforsettingupanddevelopingthesystem.Inordertotransformtheirindividualresponsibility,whichhasbeenfulfilledinKenyathroughthevarioustake-backschemes,toacollectiveone,theproducers/users,importersandfillersshouldgiveamandatetotheindustry-ownedPRO.Thereby,thePRObecomesresponsibleforthefulfilmentofalltake-backobligationsoftheobligedcompaniesastherepresentativeentity.

AllstakeholdersinthesupplychainshouldparticipateinthePRO.Thus,theyshouldbecomemembersinthisneworganisation.Thereshouldbefourdifferentformsofparticipation:i) Obliged companies (more details below):producers/users,fillers,brandownerswhobringtheirplastic

packedgoodsandplasticproductsontotheKenyanmarket.Thesecompaniespayaproduct-basedfeethatisproportionaltotheamountinweightofplasticitemstheyintroducetothemarket,whichisthenusedtofinanceallwastemanagementservices.

ii) Members:Companieswhicharepartoftheplasticssupplychain.Thisincludesrawmaterialsuppliers,plasticpackagingandproductconverters,designers,manufacturers,retailersandtraders,andwastemanagementoperatorsforcollectionandrecovery,especiallyrecycling.ThesecompaniesshouldpayamembershipfeetothePROfortheoperationofthePRO.

iii) Affiliated members (advisory board):ThisincludesofficesoftheNationalgovernment,Counties,universities,NGOs,andotherauthorities.Noneoftheaffiliatedmembershavetopayamembershipfee.TheseinstitutionsandorganisationsimpacttheworkofthePROasanadvisoryboardandthereforeneedtobeinformedaboutrecentdevelopments,innovationsandnovelties,aswellassimilarupdates.

iv) Management (executive board):ThePROneedsanexecutiveboardtomanagetheoperativework,financialspendingandcontrolling.Thismanagementcanconsistofoneorseveralpersonswhichcanbeeitherchosenbythemembersorexternallyappointed.Generally,itisrecommendedtoappointonechairandavicechair.

Which plastic items (packaging/ non-packaging) are covered by the EPR system?Inmostcases,EPRsystemsforplasticsaresetupforplasticpackaging,whilenon-packagingplasticitemsareusuallynotcoveredbytheEPRsystem.However,asEPRhasthebeststeeringfunctionbothupstreamanddownstream,itisrecommendedtoincludebothplasticpackagingaswellasothernon-packagingplasticitemsintheEPRsystemtoachievebetterresultsinrecyclingandwastemanagement.Moreover,theEPRsystemwillincludeallsourcesofwastegenerationasitbestreflectstheKenyansituation.

Thus,itisrecommendedthatallplasticbasedpackaging(food,non-food,industrial,andtransportpackaging)aswellascompositepackaging,whichconsistofplasticsandatleastoneothermaterial,areincluded.QuotasforhowhightheplasticcontenthastobetobeobligedtotakepartintheEPRsystemneedtobedefined.Possiblesuggestionsincludeatleast50%ofthepackaginghavingtobecomposedofplastics;however,otherpercentagesarealsopossible.Sincepackagingitemsareconsumedquicklyandthushaveashortin-lifephaseleadingtonear-timewastegeneration,thepreferredapproachistocoverasmanyplasticitemsaspossibleinthescopeoftheEPRsystem.Inaddition,thecollectionandrecyclingstructureforthedifferenttypesofplasticsconcerned(PET,HDPE,PVC,LDPE,PP,PS,others)willbeimproved.Generally,itisalsopossibletocreateseparateEPRsystemsforhouseholdwasteandnon-householdwaste(i.e.industrialandtransport;secondarypackaging)asitisdoneforinstanceinothercountriessuchasGermany.



Inadditiontotheplasticpackaging,otherplasticitemswhichcanbecoveredbyanEPRsystemshouldbeincluded.Thishastobedecidedonacase-by-casebasisbydesignateddecision-makingbodies.Thisconcernsparticularlyplasticitems,whicharesimilartopackaging,forinstanceplasticbuckets,plastichangers,plasticbagsandsingleuseplastics(SUPs)(see,forinstance,theEUSUPDirective).Theseadditionalitemsalsoneedtobeclearlyoutlinedinthelegalframe.

ItisrecommendedtoclearlylabelplasticpackagingandselectedplasticitemswhicharecoveredbytheEPRsystemandtakepartinitbypayingthefees.Onceanobligedcompanypays,theyareallowedtoaddthelabeltotheirpackagingand/orproducts(comparableto“GreenDot”).

Thus,companiesintroducingplasticpackaging(soldtoprivatehouseholds,agriculture,industrialandtransportpackaging)and/orotherplasticitemscoveredbytheEPRsystemontotheKenyanmarketaslaidoutinthelegalframe,areobligedtoparticipate(theyare‘theobligedcompanies’).Moreover,itmeansthatthefollowingapplicationsareexcludedfromtheEPRscope:packagingforhazardouscontent,andothernon-plasticpackagingmaterialsandplasticitemsthatcannotbecoveredbytheEPRsystemlikeplasticitemsforpermanentbuilt-incomponentssuchaspipes.

Asmentioned,othernon-plasticpackagingiscurrentlynotincluded,whileinmostcountrieswithEPRsystemsgenerallyallpackagingmaterialsarecovered.Thisismeanttokeepabalancebetweenthevariouspackagingmaterialsandtherebyavoidundesired,ecologicallyquestionablesubstitutioneffectsofdifferentpackagingmaterials.

Who are the obliged companies that have to pay for the EPR system?InanEPRsystem,ithastobelegallydeterminedwhohastopayforthesystemandthroughwhichinterfacetheseobligedpartiescanbeidentified.Asaforementioned,theobligedcompaniesarebasedonthedefinitionofwhichplasticitems(packagingandnon-packaging)arecoveredbytheEPRsystem.Moreover,itisade-terminingrequirementthattheseplasticitemsareputonthemarketinKenyaforconsumptioninKenyai.e.willbecomewasteinKenya.Thus,thesecompanieshavetofinancetheoperationofthewastemanagementservices.Inparticular,thisincludestwogroups(seealsoFigure27):

• Users(producers)/fillersforthesaleoftheirpackedgoodsinKenyaforconsumptioninKenya• ImportersforthesaleoftheirgoodsinKenyaforconsumptioninKenya

Through which interface can it be ascertained which packaged goods and other non-packaging products are being put on the market in Kenya?Theobligedcompanies(seedefinitionabove)compriseof:

• PlasticpackagingwhichisfilledinothercountriesandisimportedtoKenya• PlasticpackagingwhichisfilledinKenyaandconsumedinKenya• Othernon-packagingplasticproductswhichareimportedtoKenya• Othernon-packagingplasticproductswhichareproduced,soldandconsumedinKenya

Tomeasuretheexactamountsoftheseitems,thefollowingcriteriacanbeused:salesrevenues(intherespectivesegment),mass(weight),numberofitems,fillingvolume,andarea.Inmostcountries,masshasbeenprovenasthemostpracticalmeasurementunit;somecountries,suchasSpain,alsohaveanadditionalnumberofitem-basedfees.


Figure27illustratesthemostsuitableinterfaceforthestepsinthesupplychainwhentheitemsareintroducedontothemarket.

Figure 27: Interface for determining the obliged companies

How to oblige the informal packaging users?Sincetheinformalsectorisnotonlylimitedtowasteoperatorsbutalsoincludespackagingusers,itisimportanttointegratetheseinformalpackagingusersintotheEPRsystem;itisofmajorimportanceasthemajorityofthedomesticpackagingusersbelongtothisgroup.Thus,itiscrucialtofindanapproachwhichalsofinanciallycoverstheseplasticsquantitiesintheEPRsystem.Onepossibleapproachistoobligethemanufacturersthataresellingpackagingmaterialtothesenon-licensedpackaginguserstopaythefeesforthem,insteadoflevyinginformalbusinessesdirectly.Thisshouldbecomplementedbyadefinitionofamaximumquantityofpackagingperyear(e.g.300kgperyear)peruser.Inturn,themanufacturersforwardthecostsforpayingtheEPRfeestothenon-licensedpackagingusersinformofasurcharge.Thiseconomicincentiveisaimedatthenon-licenseduserstointegratethemselvesintothesysteminthelongrun:ifapackagingusershowstheirlicencewhichverifiestheirparticipationintheEPRsystem,nosurchargefromthemanufacturerisraisedasthepackaginguserspaytheirleviesdirectlytotheEPRsystemforthepackagingusedintheKenyanmarket.



How much should be paid by the obliged companies?Theexactamountthatneedstobepaidisproportionaltothespecificgoalswhicharepursued.Tokeeptheriskofunder-oroverestimatingthecostsneededforthewastemanagementtaskfinancedbytheEPRsystemaslowaspossible,itisrecommendedtopursuespecificmeasuresasgoalsastheircostsaretheeasiesttocalculate.SincethePROshouldbesetupasanon-profitorganisation,thetotalamountspaidbytheobligedcompaniesshouldequaltheexpensesforallwastemanagementcosts.Tocalculatethecosts,itisrequiredtoestimate;

i) theamountsofwastewhichwillarisefromtheplasticsitemscoveredbytheEPRsystem,andii) thecostsneededforthetreatmentoftheseamountsofwaste.

Itisrecommendedtocalculateadefinedamount(permaterialandmass)whichwillbeevaluatedafterthreetofiveyearsandadaptedtodevelopmentsandtrends.Itisalsopossibletointroducemodulatedfeestoprovideasteeringfunctioninregardstorecyclableproductdesign(seechapter5.2.1).

Toprovideanideaontheexpectedcosts,anoverviewofcurrentEPRfeemodelsisprovided.ItshouldbenotedthattheunderlyingEPRsystemsarewellestablishedandinsomecasescompriseonlyhouseholdpackaging(H).Othersalsoincludecommercialandindustrial(C/I)packaging,asitisalsorecommendedforKenya.Thefeesareultimatelyadaptedtotheprevailingconditions(includingunderlyinginfrastructure,measurestobefinanced,costs,organisationandcontrol).

Table 5: Plastic packaging fees in EU-28 EPR schemes [Watkins et al., 2017]

Plastic (general unspecified)c

PET/ HDPE Beverage cartonsOther/Composite

MaterialH C/I H H C/I H C/I

Austria(ARA) 0.6100 - - 0.5800 - 0.6100 0.1000

Belgium(FOST-PLUS) 0.2823 - 0.2107 0.2455 - 0.2823 -

Bulgaria(EcoPack) 0.0800 0.0800 - - - 0.1000 0.1000

Croatia(Eko-Ozra) - - 0.0550 0.0550 0.0550 0.1000 0.1000

Cyprus(GreenDot) - 0.0380 0.1060 0.1230 - - -

CzechRep(EKO-KOM)0.2060

>5l:0.15400.0220 - 0.1580 - 0.2230 0.2230

Estonia(ETO) 0.4090 0.1090 - 0.1050 - - -

France(Eco-Emballages/CITEO) 0.3120 - - 0.2470 - - -

Greece(HE.R.R.Co) 0.6600 0.6600 - 0.5700 0.5700 - -

Hungary(Ökopannon) 0.1850 - - 0.0620 - 0.1850 -

Ireland(Repak) 0.0892 0.0892 0.0892 0.0758 - - -

Latvia(LatvijasZalaisPunkts) 0.1490 0.1490 - - - - -

Lithuania(Zallasistaskas) 0.0810 0.0810 0.0810 0.1220 0.1220 0.1250 0.1250

Luxembourg(Valoriux) - - 0.3703 0.2835 0.2835 - -

Norway(GrontPunkt) 0.3876 0.3876 - 0.1200 0.1200 - -

Poland(Rekopol) 0.0046 0.0046 - - - - -

Potugal(SociedadePontoVerde) 0.2319 0.2319 - - - - -

Romania(ECO-ROMAmbalaje) 0.1330 0.1330 0.1330 - - - -

Slovenia(Slopak) 0.1340 0.1340 0.0770 0.0100 0.0100 0.1340 0.1340

Spain(Ecoembedes) 0.4720 - 0.3770 - - - -

Sweden(FTI) 0.2440 0.2200 - - - - -

H = households; C = commercial; I = industrial; all prices are per kg


Itisrecommendedtopriceallplasticsthatconsistmainlyofmonomaterialswiththesameamount.Anexemptiontothiscouldbemadeforspecialcases,e.g.PVCfromhouseholdpackaging,sincetherearenoproperrecyclingoptionsinplaceinKenya.ThesameappliesforopaquePETpackagingandPETtraysingeneral.Inordertobalancepackagingfeesforbeverages,itisalsorecommendedtodefinealevyforbeveragecartons.Otherwise,thiscouldleadtounexpectedsubstitutioneffects.

Thepriceofcompositepackaging,meaningpackagingmadeofdifferentmaterials(e.g.materialcompositesthatcannotbemanuallyseparatedandofwhichnoneoftheusedmaterialsexceedsmorethan95%ofthetotalcompositepackagingweight)shouldbecomparablyhigh.Thisisduetothefacttheyarenotoronlypoorlyrecyclable,bothinqualityaswellasinquantity.

Inaninitiatingphaseofimplementingfees,thesamepricesshouldbeusedforbothhouseholdpackagingandadditionalproductsaswellasplasticspackagingandadditionalproductsfromcommercialandindustryresources.

Recommendation for modulated feesModulatedfeesarenotthefirststeptobetakenwhenimplementinganEPRsystem.EveninEurope,thisapproachhasbeeninplaceforonlythreeyears.IntheKenyancontext,theinitialfocusshouldbeonincreasingtherecyclingofplastics.Againstthisbackground,aregularforumshouldbeestablishedthatactsasaplatformforrecyclersandcollectorstodiscussrecentchallengesandproblemsandtodiscusspotentialsolutionstoincreaserecycling.Thisstepisfollowedbydevelopingstandardsforspecifiedproductsandpackagingcategories,followedeventuallybymodulatedfees.

Asarecommendationforpractice,formalisedandinformalcollectorsandrecyclersshouldcometogethertoidentifytheproblemswhichtheyarefacinginthedailybusinessinregardstoproductdesign(seechapter5.2.3)andsummarisetheminaguideasabasisfordiscussionwiththeplasticproducers.Basedonthisguide,astandardshouldbedevelopedatalaterstage.Pleasenotethatmodulatedfeesdonotequalvaryingfeesfordifferentmaterials(astheexampleshows,seeTable5)–modulatedfeesareameasuretoimplementanincentivetofurtheradvancerecyclinginanalreadywellrunningandbalancedEPRsystem.

What are targets of the EPR which should be fulfilled by the PRO?TheoverallsystemoftheEPRistheestablishmentofcollecting,sorting,andrecyclinginfrastructureforplasticswhicharecoveredbytheEPRsystem.Toachievingthis,severaltypesoftargetsarepossible:

a) Quotas (collection quotas, recovery quotas):ThesearethemostcommontargetsusedinestablishedEPRsystems.InthecurrentKenyansituation,thechallengearisesthatquotaattainmentispoorlycontrollable,ase.g.theabsolutesizeofthemarketedquantityisunknownandanumberofparticipantsaredifficulttoidentify.Prospectively,theinclusionofaquotaispossiblewithfurtherdevelopmentoftheEPRsystem.

b) Rate of linkages to system:Thismeansthatwithinacertainperiodoftime,acertainproportionofthepopulationshouldbelinkedtoawastecollectionstructure(forexample,afterfiveyears,20%ofthepopulationmustbeconnectedtoaninfrastructure).Again,itisdifficulttocontroltheachievementofgoals,sinceaformalcollectionstructurehasnotbeenachievedyetinlargepartsofthecountry.

c) Specific waste management measures:Alternatively,specific,measurablewastemanagementmeasurescanbespecifiedfortheabovementionedgoals.Theycanbeincreasedinthecourseoffurtherdevelopment.Thishastheadvantagethatthecostscanbecalculatedmoreprecisely(i.e.thefinancingrequirementsofthePRO),bebettercontrolledandreactmoreflexiblytowardsunexpecteddevelopments.InSpain,theEPRsystemwasinitiallyimplementedwithsuchtargets.



ForKenya,itisrecommendedtousec)specificwastemanagementmeasures.Regardingimplementation,itneedstobenotedthatsomemeasuresneedtobereconciledwiththirdpartiesliketheCounties.Decidingonarecyclingquotaortheincreasebasedonthestatusquoisnotrecommendedasthereisalackofreliabledata.Therefore,determiningaspecificminimum(e.g.50,000mt)ofannuallyrecycledplastics,whichneedstobeachievedwithinadefinedperiodoftime,ismoresuitable(e.g.3a).

Theestablishmentofareliablereportingandcontrollingsystemasbasisformonitoringandprogressingofthesystemisessential.Thecontrollingfocusesonthreedimensions:

i) Fulfilling the operational services of the PRO: ThePROstructureneedstobetransparent.Thisenablesvisibilityonpotentialmisconductofsingledeciderswithintheorganizationandallowsforthestructurestobeadaptedaccordingly(particularlyimportantintheinitialphase).

ii) Prevention of free riders among the obliged companies:AneffectivemeasureistoregisterallobligedcompaniestoreporttheiramountsofplasticpackagingandadditionalplasticitemscoveredbytheERPsystem.Inotherstates,ithasbeenprovensuccessfultopublishtheregisteredobligedcompanies(e.g.viawebsite).Thisway,freeriderscanbeidentifiedbytheauthorizedcontrollingbodyandalsobycompetitors.Furthermore,withthepublisheddataitispossibletovalidateplasticamountsatleastroughlybygainingknowledgeaboutthesectorandrevenuesofthesinglecompanies.

iii) Fulfilment of operational performance by waste management operators:Itisimportantthatallstakeholders(collectors,sorters,recyclers)whichprovideservicestothePROarepaidcorrespondinglyandarealsoregisteredandlicensed.Thisalsoincludesageneralsuitabilityassessment.Asanadditionalkeyelement,themassflowswhicharehandledbythemaspartoftheiroperativebusinessneedtobedocumented.

Who is controlling and which instruments are suitable?IthastobeanchoredinlawwhoisresponsibleforthesuccessoftheEPRsystem.Threedifferentcontrolmechanismscanbedistinguished.Itisrecommendedtoregardallthreeelementswiththefollowingtasks,whichcorrespondwiththeinterestsofcontrollingparties:

i) Self-assessment:Thiscontrolisbasedontheprinciplethateverydeviationfromtherulesleadstomarketdistortion(ifonepartydoesnotfulfiltheirresponsibilitiesandduties,allotherinvolvedpartieshavetobeartheresultingdisadvantages,e.g.freeriders).Thus,registration,datagathering,reportingaswellasaccountingofthefundsshouldbeinthehandsofthePRO.ThePROinstallsacontrollingmechanismbasedonself-interest,whichspecificallyfocusesonthepreventionoffreeriders.

ii) Control by a public agency (defined by the state):Theresponsiblecontrollingagencyhastobeexplicitlynamedinthelawandneedstobestaffedwithknowledgeandfinances.ThecontrollingtaskscoverthefulfilmentoftheoperativetaskofthePROwithregardstoachievingthetargetedgoals(collectionandrecycling).Thiscanbedonethroughbothrandomon-sitecontrolsaswellasthroughcontrollingthereportsofthePROintermsofthefulfilmentofthetargets.

iii) Public control: Thisdescribeswell informedconsumers,whocanrecognisemisconductandpointoutmistakesoftheoperativemanagement.

Fordevelopingalegalframework,onlythecontrolbyapublicagencyhastobedefined.Therefore,thecompetentauthorityhastobespecificallynamed.Inmostcases,anewsectionintheMinistryiscreatedwhichisonlyresponsiblefortheEPRact.Theycontrolandvalidatee.g.reportingbythePROthatdeclaresthefulfilmentoftheEPRaim.


Which taxes/ levies should be implemented additional to the EPR system?Incaseofawell-runningEPRsystem,nofurthertaxesorleviesinthesenseofpenaltiesforusers,importersandfillersofpackagingaswellasforadditionalplasticproductsareneeded,asitwouldotherwisebeadoublepayment.ThemonetarysteeringfunctionofanEPRsystemisparticularlyeffectiveifpoorlyrecyclableplasticproductsandpackagingitemsaresignificantlymoreexpensive.

ForeconomicimpactsthatcurrentlyburdentheKenyanrecycling,itisnecessarytoimplementadditionaltaxesorleviesinthelongrun.Thismeanslimitingthepossibilitiesofcheaplandfillinganddisposal.Forthis,improperdisposalneedstobepenalisedandthegatefeesofexistinglandfillsneedtobeincreased.Theraisedgatefeehastobeusedaimfullyforredevelopingmeasuresoflandfillsanddumpsitesaswellasdevelopingwastemanagementingeneral.Thisstrategycanonlyleadtosuccessesifillegaldumpingisstrictlycontrolledandprohibited.

How can the Counties/ local authorities be included?A close partnership between the Counties/ local authorities and the industry-owned EPR organisation is a relevant condition for the success as well as the economic and environmental sustainability of the EPR compliance scheme.

Municipalities/localauthoritieshaveseveralkeyrolestoplay,asthey

i) Helptosetupthecollectionpointsii) AgreewiththeEPRorganisationonthemostappropriatecollectionsystem,takingintoaccountlocal

particularitiesandtheconformitywithnationalrequirements.iii) CooperatewiththeEPRorganisationinregardsto:

• localpubliccommunicationandawarenessprogrammes• datagatheringandmonitoring• controllingthewastemanagementoperatorsand• tenderingforcollectionservicesandpilotprojects

How can the licences and fees for waste collectors and recyclers be harmonised?A fair and transparent EPR system requires the equal treatment of all participating stakeholders nation-wide.Thisalsoincludeslicencesandfeesforcollection,transportationandrecycling.Thus,discussionsareneededwiththecompetentauthoritygrantingtheselicensesuponEPRimplementation.InKenya’scase,therespectiveentityismostlikelytheNationalEnvironmentManagementAuthority(NEMA).Unequallicencesandrequirementswillinevitablyleadtoimbalancesinthewastemanagementandrecyclingsector.

Atthesametime,thealreadyexistingregistrationsystemforcollectorsandrecyclerscanbeintegratedintotheEPRsystem.Forinstance,itispossiblethatonlyregisteredcompaniesareallowedtoparticipate.Thisrequiresequaltreatmentandharmonizationaswellascountrywideintegrationandformalisation.

Incasedifferentfeesapply,theyhavetodependonlegalframeworkconditions.Thesizeofthecompany(No.ofemployees),processedamountand/orturnoverarepossibilitiestobedefinedinthiscase.



Which responsibility does each stakeholder have in the proposed EPR system?ThefollowingTable6summarisestheroleofallinvolvedstakeholdersintheplasticsupplychaininKenya.

Table 6: Role of each stakeholder within the proposed Kenyan EPR system

Stakeholder Role

Manufacturersofpackagingmaterialorofpackagingandadditionalplasticsproducts

•shouldenablereuseandensurerecyclabilityofpackagingmaterialsandshouldusesecondaryrawmaterialswherepossible

•exchange(forum)withcollectorsandrecyclersinordertoimproverecyclabilityandstandardisation

Consumergoodscompanies(users,fillersandimporters)

•obligedtopayfeestotheEPRsystemfortheplasticpackagingma-terialoftheirpackedgoodsandadditionalplasticproducts

•needtoberegisteredwithPRO

Distributors/retailers •canoptionallybeobligedtotakepackagingandselectedplasticitemsbackandtoensuretheirproperhandling

Consumers •havetobeinformedaboutstrategiesforwastereductionandprop-ercollection(incl.participationinpilotprojectsfore.g.separatecollection)

•publiccontrol

Wastemanagementoperators•receivefundsfromtheEPRsystemfortheirservicesforhandling

packagingwaste

•needtoberegisteredwithPRO/authority

Publicinstitutions• legislationandsupervisionoftheEPRsystem

•registrationofwastemanagementoperators

•supportpilotprojects

Countiesandmunicipalities •supportcollectionandrecyclingorcollectthemselves

• informconsumers

•takepartinpilotprojects


6.2 Implementing voluntary measuresAsthesetupofanEPRsystemisthecentralelementforcreatingthefinancialandorganisationalbasis,theproposedmeasuresbasedonchapter5.2areconnectedtotheproposedEPRapproach.

Forstakeholdersalongtheplasticsupplychain,especiallycompaniesproposedtobeobligeditisbeneficialtoparticipaterightfromthestartasthisoffersthemthepossibilitiesto

i) Activelyshapethesystemwhichwillbecomemandatoryii) Beconnectedwiththepublicauthoritiesiii) Bewellpreparedinsteadofonlyreactingiv) Givethemanindirectbenefitcomparedtotheirnon-participatingcompetitorsastheyarebetterprepared

Inordertodosoeffectively,itisrecommendedtofound an organisation which will act as pre-organisation to the PRO (so called PRO pre-organisation). Voluntary participation is, however, not limited to the obliged companies –developingatailoredsystemshouldbedonebyall companies and organisations along the plastic supply chain.

Thefollowingmeasuresshouldbeorganised,preparedandfinancedbythepre-organisation.However,thesefundsareindependentfromthefeeswhicharepaidwithinamandatoryEPRsystembytheobligedcompanies.

Implementingapre-organisationisalengthyprocesswithseveraltasksandstepstotake.Hence,tosupportingthedevelopmentofthepre-organisationthroughinternationalfundsshouldbediscussed.Forinstance,thisincludestheimplementationofasuitablelegalstatusoftheorganisationaswellasthepreparationanddevelopmentofinternalsectionsanddepartments.

Which measures on a voluntary basis are recommended?Prior to the formalised implementation of and EPR system it is recommended to first gain practical experiences on a voluntary basis; thesewillthenbeevaluatedinregardstothefurtherdevelopment.Thesearevoluntaryprojectsandhavetobeclearlydefinedinordertokeepthecostscalculableandtherisklow.Thisiscrucialforthevoluntarilyparticipatingcompanies.Suitablepilotprojectsrelatetotheevaluationandimprovementofcollection,recyclingandmonitoring,e.g.

• Separatecollectionandrecyclingofplasticsorrecyclablesingeneral inspecifiedsectors(e.g.schools,universities,retailers/malls,eco-tourismetc.)and/orareas(ruraltouristicareas,innercityetc.)thatserveasarole-modelcharactertoscaleupnationwide.

• Increasesorting,e.g.throughprovidingtechnicalplants,spaceand/oraggregatestailoredtotheregionalconditions.

• Increaseoftechnicalequipmentandknowledgefortherespectiveoperation,e.g.pressandforkliftertooptimisetransportprocesses.

• Increaseenvironmentaleducationandcommunication,e.g.throughcreatingaforumandconsumerawarenesscampaignswithafocusonmiddleincomehouseholds.



Promote segregation at source as best practice and waste collectionAswastesegregationatsourceisonlydonetoaverylimitedextent,itisimportanttoinitiatepilotprojectsforwastesegregationtostartgainingfirstexperiencesandintroducetheconsumersgraduallytothispractice.Suchpilotprojectscanbeintroducedinvariousfields,asshownbelow:

• Wastesegregationinschoolsanduniversities:Schoolsanduniversitiesareidealplacestoinitiatewastesegregationatsourceasthechildrenandstudentscanbewelleducatedthere,canimpacttheirfamiliesathomeandtheircommunity,andensurealong-termimpactifeducatedatanearlystageoflife.Moreover,schoolsanduniversitiesofferlessanonymousenvironments.Segregationshouldbeeasyyeteffective;forinstance,bycollectingalldryrecyclables(plastics,paper,metals)andtherestasresidualwaste.SuchprojectshavealreadybeeninitiatedinKenyainseveralschools(seeMr.GreenAfrica).Thematerialsegregatedandcollectedattheschoolsneedstoberegularlycollectedbyeitherthecounties/municipalitiesorprivatecompaniesandverificationsaboutthecollectedquantities,sortedandrecycledquantitiesandrevenuesandfinances.Simultaneously,acorrespondingsortingneedstobedeveloped.

• Companies,organisations,ministriesandotherpublicagencies:Similartotheset-upatschoolsanduniversities,wastesegregationprojectscanalsobeinitiatedatcompanies,organisations,ministriesandotherpublicagencies,whicharewillingtobecomerolemodelsinthisfieldandeducatetheiremployeesandmembers.Alsohere,thesesitesofferlessanonymousenvironments(comparedtoforinstancebigmarkets)andthematerialsegregatedandcollectedneedstoberegularlycollectedbyeitherthecounties/municipalitiesorprivatecompaniesandverificationsaboutthecollectedquantities,sortedandrecycledquantitiesandrevenuesandfinances.

• Eco-tourism:Inthefieldofeco-tourism,wastesegregationprojectscanbewellestablishedinthisfieldwithadditionalfocustoreduceplasticsasmuchaspossible(wheresuitable)andcollecttheremainingplasticwasteandforwardittosuitablesortersandrecyclers.

• Wastecollectionatthehouseholdlevelinurbanareas:Itisrecommendedtoinitiatepilotprojectsforwastesegregationatsourceandcollectionwithbringbanks,wherethecontainersareset-upinthestreets.Itisimportanttosetupthesecontainersinsufficientnumberswithinadefineddistrictsothatitiswithinacomparablyshortwalkingdistancefortheinhabitantssothatseparatingwasteisaconvenientactivity.Moreover,theinhabitantsofthisdistrictneedtobeproperlyinformedandeducatedabouttheneedforwastesegregation.Additionally,afewsitesforpilotingkerbsidecollectionisalsorecommended.

• Wastecollectionatthehouseholdlevelinruralareas:Establishingcentralpointforwastecollection,fromwhichthewasteiscollectedbytrucksandtherecyclablesdirectlysortedoutonthetruck.

• Integrationoftheinformalsectorincollection:Itisimportanttoensurethatallwaste(valuableandnon-valuable)iscollectedopposingtocollectingonlythevaluablewasteasthisleadstocherrypicking(e.g.PETbottles)whilenon-valuablewaste(e.g.mixedplastics)aswellaswaste,whichisdifficulttocollect(e.g.sweetwrappers),remainslittered,i.e.atransitionfrommaterialpickingtocleanlinessasserviceiscrucial.Aswastecollectionismainlyinthehandsoftheinformalsector,itisimportanttoincludetheminthistransition.Forinstance,itispossibletodivideacertainarea/districtandassignpartsofthisdistricttoinformalcollectors,whicharetaskedtocollectalllitteredwasteandsortissubsequentlyaftercollection.Theyarepaidforthecleanlinessoftheareainsteadoftheamountsofrecyclablestheycollect.Theamountofpaymentshouldequaltherevenuestheywouldmakefrompickingvaluables.Itisimportanttonotethatimplementingsuchpilotprojectsrequireaveryhighamountoforganisationandcontrollingtoensurethatthecleanlinessisprovided.


In regards to the collection at the household level, it is targeted to establish regular collection rhythm through formal collection.Therefore,boththeCounties/municipalitiesaswellasalreadyexistingformalcollectionservicesneedtobeincludedinthis.

Incaseofmixedwastecollection,it is importanttoensuresuitablesortingassubsequentstep.Thus,spaceneedtobeidentifiedincollaborationwiththecounties/municipalities,whichwillbeassignedassortingspaces.Thesespacesshouldbelocatedclosetothefollowingtreatmentstepsandeasilyaccessibletransportation-wise.Thetechnicalstepsofthesortingshouldbecomplementedthroughmanualsortingstepslikedrumsieves(forseparatingparticleswithasize<40mm,whichshouldincludemainlyorganicparticles).Moreover,theusageofmagneticseparatorsforremovingtheferrousmetalsisrecommended;however,thiscouldotherwisebemanuallydone.Generally,thesortingshouldregardtheexistingrecyclingandmarketingpossibilitiesofrecyclablestogeneratearesidualwastestream,whichcontainsaslessvaluablesaspossibleforthefollowingdisposal.

Toincreasetheeffectivenessofthetransportation,balingmachinesthatcancompressthematerialshouldbeutilizedonsite.Bymakinguseofthese,thevolumeofthewasteiscompacted;i.e.morematerialcanbetransportedpervehicle.Inturn,thisrequirestransportvehicleswhicharesuitablefortransportingtheincreasedweightandadditionalequipmenttoloadthebalesuponthevehiclesareneeded(e.g.forklifts).

Lastbutnotleast,collectioncanbecomealsolegaldefinedtargetoftheEPRsystem,e.g.bydefininghowmanycollectionbinsshouldbesetupwithinadefinedperiodoftimeinthepublicspace.

Recommendation on integrating the informal sectorTheinformalsectorplaysanimportantpartinKenyaforthecollectionandmarketingofrecyclablewaste.Thesepre-recyclingactivitiesshouldbeintegratedintotheEPRsystem.Theaffectedinformalworkersshouldnotlosetheirsourceofincome.Furthermore,theseworkersareexperiencedregardingthevalueofrecyclables,possibilitiestomarkettherecyclablesaswellaschallengesandproblemsandarethuswell-qualifiedforformalisedcompaniesthatneedemployeesforcollection,sortingand/orrecycling.Thepaymentfortheirworkinaformalisedcontextshouldbehigherthantheirrevenuesfromsellingrecyclablesinformally.Asestimatedfromtheresearchconductedforthisreport,theirindividualrevenuemarginallyexceedsthecurrentminimumwage.Moreover,itisrecommendedtoimplementrespectivepilotprojectstogainexperiencesonhowtobestintegratethem.

AsafunctioningEPRsystemoffersreliableorganizationalstructuresaswellasapermanentfinancingbasis,integratinginformalworkersintothesystemoffersmanybenefits.Generally,therearetwopossibilitiesforhowtheinformalworkercanbeintegrated:eitherasanemployee(seeTable7)orasabusinesspartner,whichoffersthemthepossibilitytoremainindependentasapersonbutformallycooperatewithestablishedcompaniesandorganisations(seeTable8).

Table 7: Integration of the informal sector as employees

Informal sector Integration as employees

Irregularincome Regularincome

Insecuresocialsituation Improvementofthesocialsituation

Highhealthrisk Minimisationofhealthrisks

Vulnerabilitytounfairbusinesspractices Reliableandfairbusinesspartners

Lackofaccesstosocialsecuritysystems Accesstosocialsecuritysystems



Table 8: Integration of the informal sector as business partners

Informal sector Integration as business partners

Uncertaincommercialbase Fixedserviceagreements

Uncertainmarketingconditions Reliableacceptanceofrecyclables

Uncertainsituationforemployees Improvementofemployeesituation

Highoperationalrisks Riskminimisation

Vulnerabilitytounfairbusinesspractices Controlledbusinesspractices

WastecollectionwillbecomeformalisedthroughtheimplementationofamandatoryEPRsystem,whichwillincreasethepressureoninformalworkerstointegratethemselvesintothesystemthroughformalisation.Ifnot,theyfacetheriskofhavinglimitedaccesstothewaste.Thus,itiscrucialtointegrateinformalworkersfromanearlypointonwardsandinformthemonpossibilitiesandsolutions.Inparticular,thefollowingaspectsarecrucialfortheintegration:

• Confidencebuilding,trustbuildingandhighlightingpotentialbenefits,• Informationandprofessionalsupport,• Legaladvice,• Employmentcontractsforemployees,• Servicecontractsforbusinesspartners

Promote recyclingByincreasingtheamountsandeffectivenessofcollectionandsortingofplasticwaste,moreandmorereliablequantitiesofrecyclableplasticwastebecomeavailableforrecycling.Tosupporttheformallyregisteredrecyclers,itispossibletoapplyforgrantsorsupportfore.g.equipment(funds,forinstance,grantedbythePRO).Theseapplicationsneedtobeapprovedbyanindependentbodyandconsiderusefulnessandnecessity.

Moreover,itisrecommendedtoidentifywhichplasticconverterswouldusetheproducedrecyclatesfornon-foodpackagingandothernon-fooditemsasfood-gradeapplicationsforrecyclatesareverycritical.AslongasrecyclingcapacitiesforplasticwastearenotfullydevelopedwithinKenya,itisrecommendedtosearchforrecyclingpossibilitiesabroadasanintermediatesolution(untiltherecyclingcapacitieshavebeensufficientlyincreased).Pleasenotethatit is recommended to only export sorted plastic fractions which are already prepared for recycling, but no mixed waste.

Promote product design for enhanced recyclingInlightofthecurrentKenyansituation,itisrecommendedasafirststeptostrengthencollectionandrecyclingbeforemeasureslikemodulatedEPRfeesareintroduced.Againstthisbackground,arecurringforumshouldbeestablishedwhichoffersaplatformforexchangebetweenrecyclers,aggregatorsandcollectorswithpackagingandproductdesignersandconvertersinorderto;

i) shareinsightsonrecyclableproductandpackagingdesign,

ii) discusscurrentdevelopmentsandchallenges,andiii) jointlydevelopstrategiesandsolutions to increase

recycling.Moreover, it is recommended toprepareguidelineswhichentailtheinsightsonrecyclabledesign.ThesemeasuresshouldbefinancedbythePRO.Asuitablecontactforexchangingwithrecyclersis,forinstance,‘TheKenyaAssociationofWasteRecyclers’.

Proposed National Recycling Rate


Fromamid-andlong-termperspective,thisshouldbefollowedbythedevelopmentofstandardsforspecificproductandpackaginggroupsaswellasamodulatedfeeoncetheEPRsystemhasbeensetup.

Recommendation on biodegradable, bio-based and oxo-fragmentable plasticsTheusageofbiodegradableplasticsisseenasproblematicandisonlyrecommendedforlimitedapplicationpurposesincludingthosewhichareinadirectconnectionwithorganicapplicationsectors(e.g.agriculturalfoilsremainingintheenvironment).Itiscrucialtoensurethatthesebiodegradableplasticsaredegradedunderthegivenclimaticconditionswithinashorttimeframe.Forallotherapplications,thebiodegradableplasticsarenotregardedassuitable,astheycanonlybedegradedeffectivelyunderlaboratoryconditions.

Theusageofbio-basedplasticsisnotaffectedbythis.However,itisimportanttonotethatfarmingtherawmaterialsformanufacturingthesebio-basedplasticscompeteswithfarmingforfood.Moreover,theyneedtoequalfossil-basedplasticsinthesensethattheyarenotobstaclestorecyclingthem.

Sinceoxo-fragmentableplasticsfragmentintoplasticparticles,whichremainintheenvironmentasmicroplasticslitterandcontributetoenvironmentaldegradation,itishighlyrecommendednottousetheseoxo-fragmentableplasticsforanyapplication;orevenenactabanonthem.

Promote consumer awarenessTheEPRcomplianceschemeshouldinvolveastrongcollaborationwithallstakeholdersrangingfrompublicauthoritiestoinhabitantsandwasteoperators–eachwithadesignatedroletoplay.Recommendation:PreciselyputdowninthelawthatthePROneedstoinformtheinhabitantsandallstakeholdersinvolvedinaproperandsuitablewaybyusingvariousformsofmediaandpublishingonaregularbasis.Therearemultiplechannelswhichcanbeusedforpromotingconsumerawareness,includingsocialmedia.

Itisalsopossibletoinitiatecampaignsondifferentscales(national,regionaland/orlocal),e.g.intheformofanationalclean-updayor“wasteweek”-campaignsinschools.WasteWeekisaprogrammedesignedtohelpschoolstacklewasteandrecyclingbothoncampusandintheclassroom.TheWasteWeekcampaignisdesignedtocomprehensivelyeducateandhelpstudentsseethedifferencetheycanmakeandencouragesschoolstoworktowardsEco-Schoolsaccreditation(aformalaward).Thecampaignhasuniquestudent-ledactivitiesfortheclassroomandeco-teams–studentsareinformed,inspiredandempoweredthoughthecampaigntoactivatechange.In2018,over1,800schoolstookpartininternationalWasteWeek.Accordingtoanevaluationofthesuccess;

• 84%ofschoolssaidithelpedraisestudents’awarenessoftheissues• 70%ofteacherssaidithelpedencouragestudentstotakeactionoutsideoflessons• 98%ofPrimarystudentsand91%ofSecondarystudentssaidthecampaignmadethemwanttoprotect

theenvironment.

6.3 Implementation MatrixSpecificmeasurestostartactionneedtobecontinuedbasedontheapproacheswhichweredevelopedaspartoftheKenyaPlasticActionPlan.ThecentralelementfortheimplementationistheoutlinedEPRsystem(seechapter6.1).Thisrevolvesaroundacomplexprocessinwhichmultiplestakeholdersneedtobeincluded.



Basedontheexperiencesfromothercountries, it isalsoaprocesswhichtakestimeandneedsalong-termorientation.Thus,werecommendstartingwithagroupofstakeholdersworkingonavoluntarilybasistowardstheestablishmentofalegalframe.Forparticipatingcompaniesandorganisations,thiswouldprovetobeadvantageousastheycanactivelyengageandthereforeshapetheimplementationprocess(seealsochapter6.1).

Accordingly,implementationofamandatoryEPRschemerequiresthreemainsteps,whichareoutlinedinthefollowingtables:

i) Establishing a legal basis for a mandatory EPR system(see):ItisrecommendedthatamandatoryEPRsystemisestablishedthroughacorrespondinglaw.Thisrequiresagreementsanddiscussionsbetweencompetentauthoritiesandtheprivateindustry.

ii) Establishing a pre-organisation on a voluntary basis (seeTable10):Toinitiatethisprocess,aPROonavoluntarybasisshouldbeestablishedasapre-organisationforalatermandatoryPRO,whenthelawcomesintoforce.Althoughsuchavoluntarysystemislimitedinperformanceandeffectiveness, it issuitableinestablishingtheorganisationalandregulatoryfoundationandcontrolmechanisms.Furthermore,thispre-organisationhastofulfilself-settargets(e.g.annualamountofplasticrecycled).Besidesthis,thepre-organisationwillconductessentialprojectsandmeasurestogainexperienceonhowtobestapplycertainmeasuresinaKenyancontext(e.g.intermsofcollectionandrecyclingaswellascreatingregistersandcontrolmechanisms,determiningthefeesetc.).

iii) Improving an optimising mechanism when the mandatory EPR system comes into force(seeTable11):EvenafteralegalframeworkhasbeenestablishedandamandatoryEPRsystemisinplace,stepsmustbetakentoensurethattheEPRsystemandthePROarecontinuouslybeingoptimizedandevolve.

Short term measures:describeactionsthatcanbetakenimmediately,givenapoliticalconsensus.Theyentail,withrespecttothelegislativeframework,enactingbansandotherorders.Theyalsoincludemeasuresputintoplacebytheprivatesector,possiblewithinthecurrentframeworkofpoliciesandlaws,e.g.changingbehavioursandbusinesspractices.Startingprojects,discussionsandinitiativesthatenablemediumandlongtermmeasuresarealsopartofthiscategory.

Medium term measures:describeactionsthatneedpreparatorytimeinordertofulfiltheirfunctions.Theset-upofanewinstitutionwithitstasks,itsorganizationalstructureanditsroleinthegivenregulatoryframeworkisincludedhere.Italsoreferstoprocessesofcoordinationthatdeterminehowtosharetasksandresponsibilitiesinbetweendifferentorganizationsandinstitutions.

Long term measures:buildondiscussionsstartedasshorttermmeasuresandoninstitutionalandorganizationalset-upsinitiatedasmediumtermmeasures.Inadditiontotheaforementioned,experienceshavetobebuiltinordertoachieveincrementalchangeandimprovestructuresandprocesses.

(seeTable11):EvenafteralegalframeworkhasbeenestablishedandamandatoryEPRsystemisinplace,stepsmustbetakentoensurethattheEPRsystemandthePROarecontinuouslybeingoptimizedandevolve.


Table 9: Establishing a legal basis for a mandatory EPR system

No. Objective Activities Target Actor Time frame

1Prepareforlegalframework

PresentanddiscussoutcomesofKenyaPlasticActionPlanwithrelevantstakeholdersofplasticsupplychain

AlignunderstandingofanEPRscheme,PROandKPAPacrossallrelevantpartiesinvolved(privateindustry)

KAM(optionalwithotheralignedasso-ciations)

Short-term(shouldstartimmediately)


PresentanddiscussoutcomesofKenyaPlasticActionPlanwithnationalandlocalauthorities

AlignunderstandingofanEPRschemeandplanacrossallrelevantpartiesinvolved

KAM(optionalwithotheralignedasso-ciations)

Short-term(afterlaunchofKPAP)


Setupacompetentbodyinordertocontrolreach-ingtheobjectivesofamandatoryEPRscheme

PrepareforEPRbeingputintoforcebyacompetentgovern-mentbody

Nationalauthority(ideallycoordinat-ingwiththeinitiat-ingprivatesector)

Mid-term


Establishknowledge,humanandstructuralresourcesofthecompe-tentbody

PrepareforEPRbeingputintoforcebyagovernmentbody

Nationalauthority(ideallycoordinat-ingwiththeinitiat-ingprivatesector)

Mid-term

5TailorEPRframe-worktoKenyanconditions

Define

- Responsibilitiesandobligedcompanies

- plasticscoveredbyEPR

- targets

- controlbycompetentbody

- exemptions

CreateamandatoryEPRschemethatispractical,clearlyde-fined,substantialandmeasurable

Competentbodyincooperationwithprivateindustry

Mid-term


- Coordinatewithparal-lellegislationtoavoiddoublepayment

- Harmonisingexisting(environmental)law(e.g.transport)

- Useexistinglawsforlicensing/registration

- Lawstosupportrecy-clingingeneral(e.g.landfilltax)

- exemptions

Createamandato-ryEPRsystemthatdoesn’tconflictwithbutisideallysupport-edbylaws

Competentbody Mid-term


Evaluatedraftedlegalframeworkanditsimpactontheprivatesector

Insightsonbenefits,upcomingissuesandpotentialfutureconsequencesfortheprivatesectorinordertoobservetheseafterimplementationandactaccordingly

Competentbody Mid-term

8RolloutoflegalEPRframework

Putdevelopedframeworkintoforce

MandatoryEPRsystem Nationalauthority Long-term



Table 10: Establishing a pre-organisation on a voluntary basis


1

Presentanddiscussapre-organisationonavoluntarybasis

PresentanddiscussoutcomesofKenyaPlasticActionPlanwithrelevantstake-holdersofplasticsupplychain

AlignunderstandingofanEPRscheme,PROandKPAPacrossallrel-evantpartiesinvolved(privateindustry)

KAM(optionalwithotheralignedassoci-ations)


2Setupapre-organ-isationonvolun-tarybasis

Identify,connectandcombinerelevantStakeholdersandobligedcompaniesthatarewillingtoparticipate

Establishparametersforapre-organisation

Createanorganisationthatparticipatesactive-lyinthedevelopmentofalegalframework(see)



3Setupapre-organ-isationonvolun-tarybasis

Define

- Responsibilities

- Targetsandaims

- membership

- membershipfees

- reporting

Prepareapre-organi-sationthatismeanttobecomethemandatoryPROS


Short-term

4Initiateapre-or-ganisation

Establishknowledge,humanandstructur-alresourcesofthecompetentbody

Prepareapre-organi-sationthateventuallybecomesthemandato-ryPRO


Short-term

5Initiateapre-or-ganisation

Publicrelationsworkandacquisitionofmembers

AllcompaniesandorganisationsalongtheplasticsupplychaincanbecomememberinthevoluntaryPRO,notjustthefutureobligedcom-panies.Developingatailoredsystemshouldbedonebyallcompa-niesandorganisationsalongtheplasticsupplychain.


Short-term

6Startpre-organi-sation

Establishingandrolloutofpre-Organi-sation

Implementanorgan-isationthatpartici-patesactivelyinthedevelopmentofalegalframework(see)


Mid-Term

7Runpre-organisa-tion

Runmeasuresandpilotprojectsinordertodevelopanentireandproperplasticcollectionandrecy-clingandwastedatagathering,evaluationofinsights

Createawasteman-agementstructurethatcanbescaledupthroughamulti-stepapproachandbethebasisforanationalimplementation

Pre-organisationto-getherwithpartnersofsupplychain

Mid-term


8Runpre-organisa-tion

RunmeasuresandpilotprojectsinordertodevelopasoundmandatoryPRO.Thiswouldinclude:

- registeringobligedcompanies

- calculatingtheirfeesandestablish-ingacontrollingsystemtoavoidfreeridersorfalsereporting

- measuresformassflowvalidation

- raisingawareness

- integratinginfor-malsector

- reportingtomeas-uregoalprogress

Createnecessarymechanismstopre-parefortransitiontoamandatoryPRO

Pre-organisationtogetherwithpartnersofsupplychain

Mid-term

9startmandatoryPRO

Transitionfromavoluntarypre-organi-zationtoamandatoryPRO

Createaproper,well-preparedmanda-toryPROtoachieveaimsoftheEPRframework

Pre-organisation Long-term

Table 11: Improving an optimising mechanism when the mandatory EPR system comes into force


1RunmandatoryPRO

- Collectfees

- Runregistrationsystem

- Runwasteman-agementpracticesbyusingfees

- Runcontrols

- Reportregularly

- Raiseawareness

Fulfilrequirementsoflegalframework

MandatoryPROLongterm(afterEPRframe-workisinplace)

2Optimisemandato-ryPRO

Usemodulatedfeestogivefinancialin-centivestostrength-enrecycling

Fulfilrequirementsoflegalframework,optimisingrecyclingamounts



Raisethedemandforrecyclatesbygivingincentives(finan-cialand/orquota/amount)

Fulfilrequirementsoflegalframework,optimisingrecyclingamounts



HarmoniseandformalisecollectionschemesforKenya

Fulfilrequirementsoflegalframework,optimisingcollectionamounts



Optimiseinternalcontrolmechanism

Formaliseinformalpackaginguserandwasteoperators

Closefinancialandorganisationalgabs





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Schmidt,M.,Ostermayer,A.,Bevers,D.(2000).LifeCycleAssessmentofPET(PolyethyleneTerephthalate)bottlesandotherpackagingalternatives.DiscussionpapersoftheInstituteofAppliedSciencesPforzheim12/2000.[pdf]Availableat:https://www.hs-pforzheim.de/fileadmin/user_upload/uploads_redakteur/Forschung/INEC/Dokumente/Team__Publikationen_/2000_LCA_PET_IAF_DP12.pdf;accessed02August2019.

Schonert,M.,Motz,G.,Meckel,H.,Detzel,A.,Giegrich,J.,Ostermayer,A.,Schorb,A.,Schmitz,S.(2002).ÖkobilanzfürGetränkeverpackungenII/Phase2,researchreport10350504,UBA-Texte51/02,ISSN0722186X.[pdf]Availableat:https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/publikation/long/2180.pdf;accessed:30July2019

Silva,A.,Rosano,M.,Stocker,L.,Gorissen,L.(2017).Fromwastetosustainablematerialsmanagement:Threecasestudiesofthetransitionjourney.WasteManagement,61,547-557.

Stahel,W.R.(2014).Reuseisthekeytoacirculareconomy.[online]Availableat:https://ec.europa.eu/environment/ecoap/about-eco-innovation/experts-interviews/reuse-is-the-key-to-the-circular-economy_en[Accessed04Jun.2017].

Stichling,J.,Singh,R.(2012).LCAofContainerGlassandcomparisonwithPET,BeverageCarton,PouchandAlCan,presentationatAllIndiaGlassManufacturer’sFederation,NewDelhiIndia2012.[pdf]Availableat:https://www.aigmf.com/LCA%20Study%20of%20Glass%20Containers%20in%20India.pdf;accessed02August2019.

Struble,L.,andGodfrey,J.(2004).HowSustainableisConcrete?InProceedingsoftheInternationalWorkshoponSustainableDevelopmentandConcreteTechnology,Beijing,201-1.

Su,B.,Heshmati,A.,Geng,Y.,Yu,X.(2013).AreviewofthecirculareconomyinChina:movingfromrethorictoimplementation.JournalofCleanerProduction,42,215-277.

TheAlliancetoEndPlasticwaste(2019).AlliancetoEndPlasticWasteWelcomes12NewCompaniesFromAcrossthePlasticsValueChain.[online]Availableat:https://endplasticwaste.org/latest/alliance-to-end-plastic-waste-welcomes-12-new-companies-from-across-the-plastics-value-chain/;accessed18July2019

TIMPSE(n.y.).AboutTIMPSE.[online]Availableat:http://www.tipmse.or.th/2012/en/about/history.asp;accessed13May2019

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TMR(2017).PlasticRecyclingMarketEstimatedtoReachUS$56.8Bnby2024;BanonPlasticsinDevelopedRegionsWidensScope:TransparencyMarketResearch.[online]Availableat:https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/plastic-recycling-market-estimated-to-reach-us-568-bn-by-2024-ban-on-plastics-in-developed-regions-widens-scope-transparency-market-research-612133843.html;accessed13August2019.

TradingEconomics(2019).Rwandapopulation.[online]Availableathttps://tradingeconomics.com/rwanda/population;accessed30August2019.

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UNEP(2015).EnvironmentalPollutionandImpactsonPublicHealth, ImplicationsoftheDandoraMunicipalDumpingSiteinNairobi,Kenya,04.2015.

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8.1 Annex 1: Background to PlasticsTheterm‘plastics’describesahugegroupofpolymers.Themaindistinctioncanbemadebetweentwogroups:thethermoplasticscomprisingallplasticswhichwillmeltwhenheatedandhardenwhencooleddowninareversiblemanner.Polymersofthisgroupareforinstance,polyethylene(PET),polypropylene(PP),polystyrene(PS),polyvinylchloride(PVC),andpolyethyleneterephthalate(PET).Ontheotherhand,therearethethermosets–agroupwhichentailsallplasticsthatwillchangetheirchemicalstructureswhenheatedleadingtothecreationofathree-dimensionalnetwork.Thischangeisirreversiblemeaningthattheseplasticscannotbere-meltedoncetheyhavehardened.Examplesforthermosetpolymersarepolyurethane,siliconeandepoxyresins[PlasticsEurope,2018].

Throughaprocesscalledpolymerisationthemonomersarechainedtogetherformingthepolymers,whichiswhypolymersareusuallyveryheavymoleculesastherearecomposedofthousandsofmonomers.Eachmonomercombination,thechemicalbindingofdifferentelementsandcompoundstothepolymerchain,theinclusionofadditives,andtheuseofcrystallizabilityyieldplasticfractionswithdifferentproperties.Theresultingplasticscanbemeltedtoformmanydifferentplasticproductsallowingforthisvastrangeofapplicationasaforementioned[AmericanChemicalCouncil,n.y.].

TheproductionofplasticsismainlyconcentratedinAsia,whichaccountedformorethan50%oftheglobalplasticsproductionin2017–MiddleEastandAfricaonlyaccountedfor7.1%(seeFigure28;PlasticsEurope2018).ThisisalsoreflectedinKenya’simportofplasticsmaterialincomparisontothedomesticproduction,inwhichtheimportstronglydominated[Ipsos,2019].

Figure 28: Distribution of the global plastics production, 2017 [PlasticsEurope, 2018]

8. Annexes


However,plasticsarenotnecessarilyconsumedwheretheyareproduced.WhileAsiaisthehubforplasticsmanufacturingglobally,theconsumptionrangesbetween0to0.2kgpercapitaperdaywhilethehighestplasticsconsumptiontakesplaceinGermany(0.48kgpercapitaperday),Guyana(0.59kgpercapitaperday)andKuwait(0.69kgpercapitaperday).

Onaglobalscale,theproducedplasticsquantitiesandthegeneratedwastevarysignificantlypersectorasshownintheresearchofGeyeratl.[2017].Avisualisationofthistablecanbefoundinchapter2.1,Figure3andFigure4.

Table 12: Quantities of produced primary plastics and generated waste acc. to sector, 2015 [Geyer et al., 2017]

Produced quantities in 2015 [Mt] Waste quantities in 2015 [Mt]

Packaging 146 141

Buildingandconstruction 65 13

Othersectors 62 43

Textiles 47 38

Consumer&industrialproducts 42 37

Transportation 27 17

Electrical/electronic 18 13

8. Annexes


8.2 Annex 2: The polymer typesEachindustrialsectorusesseveralpolymertypes. Inthefollowing,themostimportantpolymertypesarepresentedfollowingtheinternationalsevenplasticcodes.

PETisathermoplasticpolymer,whichoriginatesfromthegroupofpolyesters.Itisderivedfromtheesterificationofethyleneglycolwithterephthalicacidordimethylterephthalateandasubsequentcondensationprocess.Throughamouldingprocess,theeventualPETproductisthencreated.PETisasemi-crystallineplasticresin,whichstandsoutthroughpropertiessuchasgreattensilestrengthandchemicalresistanceaswellasitslightweight,elasticity,andstabilityoverawiderangeoftemperatures(-60°to220°C)[Robertson,2014].ProductsmadeofPETwereintroducedonthemarketsasearlyasinthe1950s,however,asfibrefortextiles.TheglobalproductionofPETstartedtoincreasedramaticallyinthe1970sasit’ssuitabilityforapplicationssuchasfoodpackaginghadbeendiscovered.Today,PETisusedaspackagingmaterialforfoodsandbeverages(particularlydrinkingwaterbottles),electroniccomponentsandasfibresinclothes[Plastikatlas,2019].Theinternationallyassignednumberis1.

HDPE(highdensitypolyethylene)ispolymermadefromPE,whichisderivedfromthegasethane,whichissplitintoethylene(andhydrogen)whenheated.Throughasubsequentlowpressurepolymerisationreaction,thepolymerisformed.Moreover,polyethyleneisalsothebasisforLPDEaswellasPETthroughthecreationofethyleneglycol[Posch,2011].Duetoitslowerdegreeofbranching,HDPEprocessesagreatertensilestrength,stiffnessandchemicalresistanceincomparisontoLDPE.Thus,HDPEisanidealmaterialforstructuralapplicationsandrigidpackagingsuchasbottlesformilkandhouseholdchemicals.Othercommonapplicationsareheavydutyitemslikepellets,cratesandintermediatebulkcontainersaswellasnumerousmedicalandpharmaceuticalapplications[Emblem,2012;Sastri,2010].Theinternationallyassignednumberis2.

PVCwasoneoftheearliestplasticsdiscoveredanduntilnowisstilloneofthemostwidelyusedpolymersglobally.Itiscreatedfromvinylgas,whichisderivedfromsalt(57%)andoilorgas(43%).Thevinylchlorideispolymerisedthroughfreeradicalsinsuspension,bulk,emulsionorsolutionmethods[Sastri,2010].TherearetwoformsofPVC:rigidandflexible.PVCisgenerallyverydurable,light,strong,fireresistant,hasexcellentinsulatingpropertiesandalowpermeability.Throughthecombinationwithadditives,applicationsofPVCcanbefoundinallkindsofsectors.Forinstance,itiscommonlyusedforbuildingproducts(suchaswindowframes,floorandwallcovering,andliningsfortunnels),coatings(suchasrainwearorcorrugatedmetalsheets),pipes,automotiveapplications,aswellasmedicalproducts(includingbloodbags,surgicalgloves,andtransfusiontubes)[PlasticsEurope,n.y.].Theinternationallyassignednumberis3.

LDPE(lowdensitypolyethylene)isapolymerderivedfromPEasaforementionedandisgeneratedinasimilarbuthighpressureprocesslikeHDPEresultinginaproductwithasignificantlyhigherdegreeinbranching.Thus,LDPEasamaterialismoreflexibleandhasahigherclaritythanHDPEyethasagoodbreakageandpunctureresistance.Itsoftensaround100°C,whichmakesitunsuitableforcock-inapplications,buteconomicallyhighlyattractivetoprocess.Thus,LDPEiswidelyusedforpackagingapplicationssuchasfoils,trays,plasticbagsforfoodandnon-foodpurposesandasaprotectivefilmonothermaterialslikepaper,textilesandotherplastics[Bayeretal.,2017;Sastri,2010].Theinternationallyassignednumberis4.


PPisthepolymer,whichisgeneratedthroughthecatalyticpolymerisationreactionofpropylenegasintolong-chainedpolymersofpropene.Therearetwoprocessingmethods:

i) lowpressureprecipitationpolymerisation,andii) gasphasepolymerisation,whichisthemorecommonone.

Asasubsequentstep,thepowderisprocessedintogranulate.PPiscurrentlythefastgrowingpolymerglobally.Thisisduetoitsabilitytoreplacebothconventionalmaterials, likeglassorwood,andotherthermoplasticpolymersatlowercosts.PPhasanexcellentstrength,lowsurfaceenergy,lowgasandliquidpermeabilityandisrelativelyeasytoprocess.ItresemblesHDPEinmanyregards.However,duetoitsmolecularstructure,itexhibitsahigherstiffnessandresistancetocreepaswellashightemperaturecapabilities.Thus,PPisusedforawiderangeofapplications.Itisusedinfilmsandmultilayerapplicationssuchasconsumerpackaging,medicalpackaging,labels,stickers,personalhygieneandconstructionfilms.Moreover,itisusedtoformfibres,whichrepresentsthesinglelargestuse.Thesefibresareusedforinstanceincarpeting,ropes,andautomobileinterior[Massey,2007;Sastri,2010].Theinternationallyassignednumberis5.

PSconsistsofamonomerstyrene,whichisaliquidpetrochemical.PSisgenerallyclear,hardandbrittleandavailableintwoforms:rigidPSandfoamedPS.Ithasanexcellenttransparency,hightensilestrength,butpoorbarrierpropertiesinregardstomoisturevapourandgases,whichiswhyPSisasuitablematerialfor‘breathable’films.TypicalapplicationsofPSarepackaging,take-awayfoodcartons,householdapplications,consumerelectronicsproducts,buildingandconstructionandmedicalapplications[Görtz,2001;Sastri,2010].Theinternationallyassignednumberis6.

Number7isgivenforthegroup‘others’andcomprisesallotherplastics,whicharenotpartofthepreviousgroupsasforinstancenylon,polycarbonatesormixedplastic,whichisamaterialconsistingofvariouspolymertypes.Differentiatingaccordingtothesesevenpolymergroups,theglobalprimaryproductionandwastegenerationperpolymerin2015isasfollows(Table13):

Table 13: Quantities of produced plastics and generated waste acc. to polymer, 2015 [Geyer et al., 2017]

Produced quantities in 2015 [Mt]

Waste quantities in 2015 [Mt]

Percentage of waste quantities in regards to production

PET 33 32 97%

HDPE 52 40 77%

PVC 38 15 39%

LDPE 64 57 89%

PP 68 55 81%

PS 25 17 68%

Others 127 86 68%

Thetableaboveshowsthattheplasticsfractionwhicharemainlyusedforpackagingapplicationshaveasignificantlyshorterin-usephasethanthosewhicharealsousedforapplicationsinsectorssuchasbuildingandconstruction,asforinstanceseeninPETandLDPEincomparisontoPVC.

8. Annexes


8.3 Annex 3: Recycling the different polymer typesRecyclingplasticpolymersishighlydependentonthepurityofthewastepolymerfractionsmeaningthepresenceofcontaminantsfromotherwastematerialsaswellasotherpolymertypesasmanyplasticpolymersarenotcompatibletocreaterecyclates.Anotherimportantfactorforrecyclingisthedistinctionbetweenthermoplasticsandthermosetasonly thermoplastics can be mechanically recycledduetotheirabilitytobere-melted(seechapter2.2,[Hopewelletal.,2009].Thetypicalstepsinmechanicalrecyclingarecleaning(e.g.theremovaloflabels),grinding,washingandre-extrusion,inwhichthematerialismeltedandformedintopellets,granulesorfibres.Moreover,thereareoftenfiltrationstepsintherecyclingprocesstoseparatethepolymersfromother,contaminatingpolymers[PlasticRecyclersEurope,n.y.].

PETisapolymer,whichcanbewellmechanicallyrecycled:thesimplestandmostcost-effectiverecyclingprocessisthere-extrusioninwhichthePETwasterecycledintofibresorgranulesandpellets.ThisrecyclateisusedforfibresinthenonwovenandtextilesindustryaswellasPETbottlesandotherPETpackagingapplications.Infact,PETistheonlypolymeryieldingrecyclateswhichcanbereusedforfood-gradeapplications–althoughthisrequirespecificprocessestoyieldveryhigh-qualityrecyclates.FeedstockrecyclingofPETwasteisalsopossiblealbeitbeingsignificantmoreexpensiveduetotheenergy-intensiveprocessofde-polymerisingbyhydrolysis,methanolysisorglycolysis[Park&Kim,2014].

JustasPET,HPDE,LDPE,andPParepolymerswhichcanbewellmechanically.TheHDPErecyclatecanbeusedtomanufactureseveraltypicalHDPEapplications,suchaspipes,filmsandsheets,ropes,toysandevenpackagingapplicationssuchasbottles(althoughnotforfood-gradepackaging)[Garrianetal.,2007].TheLDPErecyclateisusedtoproducepiping,trashbags,sheetingandfilmsforbuildingandagriculturalapplications,compositelumber,andotherproducts[PlasticRecyclersEurope,n.y.]whilePPrecyclatesareusedformanufacturingforinstancebatterycables,rakesandbins,bottlecapsorautocasebatteries.HDPE,LDPEandPPcanalsobechemicallyrecycledthroughathermalpyrolysisattemperatures>700°C.However,justlikethechemicalrecyclingofPET,theprocessisconsumesgreatamountsofenergy[Achialiasetal.,2007].

AlsoPVC isapolymer,whichcanbebothmechanicallyandchemicallyrecycled.AsPVCiswidelyusedinthebuildingandconstructionindustry,agreatshareofthePVCwasteisindustrialwasteandnothouseholdwaste,whichiswhythePVCwasteisrelativelypureandlesscontaminatedwithotherpolymers.Moreover,itiscriticaltorecyclePVCseparatefromotherpolymersasthehighchlorinecontentinrawPVCandhighlevelsofhazardousadditivesaddedtothepolymertoachievethedesiredmaterialqualitycauseadeteriorationoftherecyclatesofotherpolymers.Inthemechanicalrecyclingprocess,PVCisrecycledinacomparablefashiontotheotherpolymers.WhendifferentkindsofPVCwastearemechanically,itisdifficulttopredicttheresultingproduct’sleadingtoproblemsasmostPVCproductsrequireaspecificPVCcontent.Thus,materialrecyclingismoresuitableforpost-industrialwastethanforpost-consumerwaste.Forthechemicalrecycling,pyrolysis,hydrolysisandheatingareusedtoconvertthewasteintoitschemicalcomponent.Theresultingproductslikesodiumchloride,calciumchloride,andhydrocarbonproductsareusedtoproducenewPVC,asfeedforothermanufacturingprocessesorasfuelforenergyrecovery.TheadvantageisthatitisabletotreatmixedorunsortedPVCwaste.However,chemicalrecyclingisassociatedtoveryhighcosts[Rubio,2019].

PS –beingathermoplastic– isalsorecyclable:AsmanyPSproductsareso-calledexpandedpolystyrene(EPS)foams,acriticalstepinthemechanicalrecyclingisthecompacting,densificationordissolvingasEPSfoamcontainsasignificantshareofair.Afterthisstep,theEPSisfilteredtoremoveimpuritiesandshredded(dependingonthepreviousstep)andcanbeusedfornon-foodpackagingandproducts.Anotherbottleneckisthatatpresent,itismoreeconomicaltoproducenewEPSfoamproductsthantorecycleit[Rubio,2018].PSiscurrentlynotrecycledinKenya[Eunomia,2018].


Asaforementioned,thereisagreatdifferenceinregardstorecyclingthermoplasticsandthermosets.Asthegroup‘others’isanumbrellaforallotherpolymers,aswellasmixedplastics,meaningthatnogeneralstatementregardingtherecyclingcanbemadewhichisapplicableforallplasticinthisgroup.

22%

28%

29%

43%

45%

50%

64%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%

PVC

PET

PS

Others

LDPE

HDPE

PP

51%

19%

30%

12%

7%

7%

7%

5%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

Packaging

Others

Building & construction

Transportation

Medical purposes

Technical equipment

Agriculture

Electrical / electronic

8.4 Annex 4: Recyclate usageThe‘EuropeanPlasticConverters’analysedtheusageofrecyclatesacrosssectorsandpolymertypes[EuPC,2017].Pleasenotethatthepercentagenumbersrepresentthenumberofplasticproducersinthisfieldusingrecyclates(Figure29)aswellasthenumberofplasticconvertersusingacertainpolymertype(Figure30).

Figure 29: Recyclate use according to polymer fraction [based on EuCP, 2017]

Figure 30: Recyclate use according sectors [based on EuCP, 2017]

8. Annexes


Additionallytothat,aGermanstudycarriedoutbytheTradeAssociationGermany(HandelsverbandDeutchlandHDEe.V.)in2018examinestheusageofrecyclates,inparticularwhatandhowmanyobstructionscomealongwiththeusageofdifferenttypesofrecyclatesstemmingfromdifferenttypesofplasticpackagingavailableinGermany.Thestudy[GVM,2019]identifiesobstructionsinfivedimensions:availability,function,law,costsandecology.

Toidentifytheoverallresultsoftherecyclates,thestudyassembledachartfrom0to10,0meaningthattherearenoobstructionstotheusageofrecyclatesand10meaningthattheusageofrecyclatesisimpossible.Thescoresweresummarisedinfivefields:0-<2equalnoorverylittleobstructions,2-<4equallittleobstructions,4-<7equalmoderateobstructions,7-<9meanlargeobstructions,9-10meanverylargeobstructions[GVM,2019].

Theresultsofthestudyshowthatpackagingsegmentswiththefewestobstructionswerenon-foodsegmentssuchasboxes,palettes,plantpots,non-foodcansandbarrels,transportationfoils,labelsandcarrierbags.Thepackagingsegmentswhichprovidedthelargestobstructionswerethoseusedinconnectionwithperishables,suchasfoamplasticsusedforfood,compoundfoils,plasticbags,containersandothercups.Ingeneral,thelargestobstructionsarerelatedtotheavailabilityofhigh-qualityrecyclates,thelook-and-feeloftherecyclatesintermsofodourormissingtransparency,andtheinsufficientphysicalandmechanicalaspectsofthemajorityofrecyclatescurrentlyavailable[GVM,2019].

InGermany,approximately3.2milliontonsofplasticpackagingareused,ofwhichmerely10%providenoneorlittleobstructionsfortheusageofrecyclates.Therestofthemarketprovidesanequalshareofmoderateobstructions(~45%)andoflargetoverylargeobstructions(~45%)[GVM,2019].

Thestudystatesthatplasticrecyclateswillalwaysprovideworsetechnicalcharacteristicsthancomparablevirginmaterials.Requirementssuchasdurabilityaresignificantobstructionsforplasticrecyclatesandcould,iffeasible,onlyberesolvedbymixingrecyclateswithprimarymaterials.Inthelongrun,however,mixingrecyclateswithnewmaterialswillinevitablyhaveanegativeimpactonthequalityofthemateriallifecycle[GVM,2019].

Politicalregulationsorstakeholdercommitmentsfortheusageofrecyclateswouldincreasethedemandforrecyclatesandsetdirectionsforthemarketdevelopment.Atthesametime,however,certaintypesofobstructionswouldbeintensifiedthroughsuchaprocedure.Duetotherisingdemandandunchangedavailabilityofrecyclates,theratherfavourablematerialcostswillimmediatelybecomemoreexpensive.Moreover,withoutintroducingqualitystandards,thequalityofthemateriallifecyclewoulddiminish[GVM,2019].

Sustainableimprovementsfortheusageofrecyclateswouldbetheintroductionofamandatoryqualitystandard,thequickeningandde-bureaucratisationoftheapprovalofrecyclatesbeingincontactwithediblesandtheincreaseofconsumeracceptanceofrecyclatesandtheresultingconsequences.Forexample,packagingdoesnotneedtobetransparent[GVM,2019].

Asmentionedabove,bindingregulationsandstakeholdercommitmentscouldenforceasignificantdevelopmentonthemarketofrecyclates.Mandatoryqualitystandardsshouldensurethatrecyclatesmeettherequirementssothattheymaybeusedonparwithnewmaterial.Correctlabellingandcertificationisessentialtogaintrustofmanufacturersandconsumerstouserecyclatesfortheirpackagingandbuyproductspackedinrecycledmaterials.Inthatsense,itwouldberecommendabletoestablishtherequiredrecyclinginfrastructurepriortotheintroductionofsuchregulations.Ascompoundmaterialsarerarelyrecycled,ideallythepackagingshouldbemadeofmono-material.


8.5 Annex 5: The circular economy concept in detailThecirculareconomyoffersamoreefficientresourceuse,whichhaseconomic,environmental,andsocialbenefits.Economicbenefitsaretheresultofthedecreasedresourcedependencyonrawmaterialsandthuslessimportdependencyaswellasthecreationofemploymentpossibilities.Moreover,lessresourceextractionanddisposalofwastealsoofferssignificantecologicalbenefits,sincetheenvironmentalthreatsconnectedtoextractionanddisposalwillbereducedifthecauseisremoved.Lastbutnotleast,thisoffersalsosocialbenefitsasthethreatforhumanhealthdrivenbyenvironmentalimpactsofextractionanddisposalisreducedandtheneedtoreintroduceresourcesintotheeconomicsysteminsteadofdisposingthemoffersnewemploymentpossibilities[Stahel,2014;Wilts,2016].

Thecirculareconomyisbasedonthreeoverarchingprinciples:reduce,reuse,andrecycle[Ghisellinietal.,2015;Wilts,2016].Asthenameimplies,thereductionprinciplepursuesthemaximumreductionofrawmaterialandenergydemand,whichareneededforproductionaswellaswastethatisgeneratedduringproductionand/orconsumption.Thiscanbeachievedbyimprovingboththeproductionandconsumptionprocesses,e.g.bydevelopingmoreefficienttechnology,downsizingthepackagingmaterialorchangingconsumers’demand[Feng&Yan,2007;Suetal.,2013].

Thereuseprincipledescribesthatproductsorcomponentsofproducts,thatarenotwaste,arereusedagainor–iftheyhaveturnedintowaste–arepreparedforreuse[Ghisellinietal.,2015].Thisoffersespeciallyenvironmentalbenefitsasitdecreasestheresourceandenergydemandsincetheproductisnotnewlymanufactured[Castellanietal.,2015].Thelastprinciple,therecycleprinciple,referstoanyprocess,inwhichwasteisrecoveredthroughreprocessingthematerialor itschemicalconstituentstherebymakingitavailablefornewmanufacturingprocesses[Ghisellinietal.,2015,Hopewelletal.,2009].

Shiftingtoacirculareconomyasaresponsetothecurrentplasticsituationwouldfocusonclosingtheloopbyreducingtheoverallamountofplasticsusedwherepossible,e.g.forinstancethroughredesigningplasticproducts,substitutionwithothermaterialsorbanningcertainproductswheremoresustainablealternativematerialsexist,andincreasingtherecyclingandpreparingforreuseofthegeneratedplasticwastetoreducetheamountofplasticwastethatisdisposedandtopreventlitteringandimproperwastemanagementpractices.

Acirculareconomyhasimportantimplicationsforallstepsofthevaluechainandtherespectivemeasurescoverabroaderfieldthanjustwastemanagementmeasuresandareoperationalisedatdifferentscales–ideallydoneinacomplementingfashion(Figure6).However,thisisusuallynotthecaseandmostinitiatives,despitebeingoftenpromising,remainfragmentedandmeasuresacrossscalesareoftennotwellaligned[WEF,2016].Toovercomethis,agoodcoordinationandcollaborationbetweentheactorsofthevariouscirculareconomymeasuresisvital.Animportantprerequisiteforthatistoalignvariousmeasuresisacknowledgingtheimportanceofactorsoutsidethewastemanagementandeventuallybroadeningofthecircleoftheinvolvedactors.Particularlyactorsfromtheindustryareimportanttoincludease.g.theirproductdesignstronglyinfluencesifawasteitemcanbereusedoratleastrecycled[Silvaetal.,2017;Wilts,2016].Moreover,astrongerconsiderationoftheconsumers’influenceoncirculareconomymeasuresisalsoimportantastheyultimatelydetermineiftheybuyaproduct,whichcanbereusedorrecycled,ornot,aswellasifandhowwellwasteisseparated,whichalsoplaysacriticalroleifreusingorrecyclingisevenpossible[Wilts,2016].Thus,awell-executedcirculareconomybenefitsfromincludingandcooperatingwithmultipleactorsfromallsectors.

8. Annexes


Figure 31: Three principles and ten corresponding strategies towards circular economy [PWC, 2019]

ThefollowingFigure31illustratesthethreemainprinciplesandtencorrespondingstrategiestowardscirculareconomy.


8.6 Annex 6: Global trendsTopushcirculareconomyalsoonaglobalscale,thereareseveralglobalcommitmentsdrivenbybothgovernmentsaswellasprivatesectorinitiativestotransittoawaste-freecircularplasticseconomy,bothwillbeexaminedinthischapter.Inparticular,emphasisisputontheG7OceansCharterandtheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)aswellas‘TheNewPlasticsEconomy’publishedbytheEllenMacArthurFoundation(EMF).

Government driven initiatives – G7 Ocean Plastic CharterMarinelitteringposesaseriousthreattotheenvironmentworldwide.Basedon theurgingneed toaddress this issue throughaglobalcommitment,fiveoftheG7countriesadoptedtheOceanPlasticsCharteronJune9,2018todemonstratetheircommitmenttostopthegrowingmarinelitteringproblembytakingconcreteactionstoaddressandeventuallysolvetheissue(Figure32).Canada,France,Germany,ItalyandtheUKtherebycommittedtoamoresustainableapproachintheirusageofplastics[GovernmentofCanada,2018].

Asenvisioned,theOceanPlasticsCharterbringstogetherpartnerssuchaslocalgovernments,businessesandcivilrightsmovementstotakeactionandmovetowardamoreresponsible,sustainableuseofplastics.Toputthis intopractice,theCharterframesfivespecificresource-efficientapproachesinthemanagementofplastics:

1) Sustainable design, production and after-use marketstocreate100%reusable,recyclableofrecoverableplasticsby2030,reducesingle-useplastics(SUP),creatingsecondaryplasticsmarketsandalternativestoplasticsthroughgreenpublicprocurement,policymeasuresandinternational incentives,and–togetherwiththeindustry–reducemicrobeadsincosmeticsandpersonalcareproducts

2) Collection, management and other systems and infrastructuretosignificantlyincreaserecyclingratesthroughcollectiveactionswiththeindustryandlocalgovernments,increaseaproperplasticwastemanagementtoreduceleakages,shifttoawholesupplychainapproachtowardsgreaterresponsibility,significantlyincreasepublic-privatefundingandcapacitydevelopmentforwastemanagementparticularlyinhotspotareasincludingsmallislandsandremotecommunities

3) Sustainable lifestyles and educationtosupportindustryleadinitiatesandknowledgeexchangethroughexistingalliancesandplatforms,strengtheningpreventivemeasuresformarinelitterandempowerconsumerchoicesthroughlabellingandpromotesustainableconsumptionparticularlythroughgivingwomanandtheyouthaleadershiproleinthisregard

4) Research, innovation and new technologiestopromoteresearchanddevelopmentthroughsustainabletechnologies,designandproductionmethodsbytheprivatesectorsandinnovatorsfor;

• reducingtheplasticleakagesatallstepsofthevaluechain,• removingplasticsandmicroplasticsfromthemarinehabitat,and• assessingtheimpactonhumanhealth,analysethecurrentplasticconsumptionbymajorsectoruse,harmonise

theG7monitoringmethods

5) Coastal and shoreline actiontoraisepublicawarenessthroughcampaigns,collectdataandtargetinvestmentstoremovedebrisfromcoastsandshorelines,acceleratetheimplementationofalreadyexistingactionplansandprogrammesasforinstancethe2015G7Leaders’ActionPlantoCombatMarineLitterthroughtheRegionalSeasPrograms[GovernmentofCanada,2018].

Figure 32: G7 Ocean Plastic Charter

8. Annexes


Bynow,21governments,includingKenya,and63businessandorganisations,likeKAM[GovernmentofCanada,2019]joinedtheG7OceanPlasticsCharter.

AdditionallyinJune2019,theG20memberstatesdeclaredduringtheirmeetinginJapan,tocombatmarinelitterandcommittedtodevelopacomprehensiveapproachpreventingandreducingplasticlitterdischargeintothemarinehabitat.Moreover,theyannouncedtosharetheirbestpracticeswithothernations.However,allmeasuresareonavoluntarybasis[Zeit,2019].

Government driven initiatives – Sustainable Development GoalsDescribedbytheUNasa‘blueprinttoachieveabetterandmoresustainablefutureforall’,theSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)are17interconnectedgoalstoaddressglobalchallengesandimprovegloballivingstandardsby2030[UN,n.y.].Toworktowardstheseidentifiedgoals,theconceptofacirculareconomyhasbeenidentifiedasacentralelementinregardstoSDG7onenergy,SDG8oneconomicgrowth,SDG11onsustainablecities,SDG12onsustainableconsumptionandproduction,SDG13onclimatechange,SDG14onoceans,andSDG15onlifeonland.Inparticular,thismeansfortherespectiveSDGs(Figure33):

Figure 33: The 17 SDGs of the UN


Circular Economy and SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy):Thecurrentsystemsofenergyproductiondependonnon-renewableresourcessuchascoal,oilandnaturalgas.In2018,theglobalelectricitydemandroseby4%,whichwasmettoasignificantsharewithenergygeneratedfromcoalandgas-firedpowerplantsincreasedsignificantlywhichinitsturnincreasedCO2emissionsformthesectorby2.5%[IEA,2018].Transformingtoacirculareconomymeans

shiftingthefocusonenhancingandincreasingtheefficiencyofthecurrentrenewablepowerproductionasthemainsourceofenergy,insteadofasubsidiaryoneaswellasdesigningefficientsystemstostoreanddistributeenergytosatisfythedemandwithaslesswasteofenergyaspossible.

Circular Economy and SDG 8 (Economic Growth):Asmentioned,thelineareconomy,whichiscurrentlythedominanteconomicsystem,isbuiltontheprincipleoftake-make-disposewhichgrantsonlylimitedsustainabilitysincetheresourceavailabilityislimitedandmostresourcesarelostafterbecomingwaste.Withinacirculareconomy,this ischangedasreflectedintheprinciplesofreduce,reuse,andrecycle.Thecirculareconomycreatesanewmarketforsecondarymaterialsandend-of-lifeapplications,whichwillcreatejobsandopensthedoorto

morespecialisedfieldsofstudyanddevelopmentaddingtothegrowthoftheeconomyinturn.

Circular Economy and SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities): Industrializedgrowthincreasestheurbanpopulationanddensityaswellastheconsumption.Theresultingeffectsofurbanizationdeeplyinfluencethedevelopmentofcitiesaroundtheworld.AccordingtoUNestimates,theurbanizedpopulationincreasedfrom14%to54%between1900and2015andispredictedtoriseto66%by2050,whichwillputtremendouspressureoncitiesandtheirmanagement.Thesituationalsocallsforbetterwaysonhowtoaddresswastemanagementandminimise

thenegativeeffectsrelatedtoanimproperwastemanagement,thus,highlightingtheneedforashifttoCircularEconomy[WEF,2018].Thisapproachwillchangecitiesbyimprovingthelivingqualitiesandcreatingmorejobs(seepreviousSDG).

Circular Economy and SDG 12 (sustainable consumption and production): Asresourcesarelimited,thecurrenteconomywillfaceaninevitableresourcesscarcitythatthreatenstheindustrialsectorandallrelatedsectors.Circulareconomyprovidesasolutiontotheseissuesbyusingsecondarymaterialsasresourceandlessvirginmaterialthroughtheapproachofrecyclingandreusing.Moreover,acirculareconomyalsofocusesonenhancingresourcemanagementalongthevaluechain,e.g.throughdesignforrecycling,tomaintainresourcesfor

longerperiodsandtoavoidwasteinproduction,supply,use,anddisposal-allofwhichgrantamoresustainableconsumptionandproduction[MinisterialConferencePage,2019].

Circular Economy and SDG 13 (Climate Change):ClimateChangeisaresultoftheincreaseinearth’stemperatureduetothegreenhousegasemissions.62%ofglobalgreenhousegasemissions—excludingthosefromlanduseandforestry—arereleasedduringtheextraction,processingandmanufacturingofgoodstoservesociety’sneeds[UN,2019].Circulareconomythroughitsthreeprinciplesofreduce,reuse,andrecycle,representsacrucialpartofthesolutiontocutdowntheeffectsofclimatechangeandglobalwarmingbyreducinggreenhouse

emissionsthroughdecreasingtheneedtoconstantlyextractandproducevirginmaterials,andeliminatingwasteformthenaturalenvironment.

8. Annexes


Circular Economy and SDG 14 (Life below Water):TheUNestimatesthat40%oftheoceansaresignificantlyimpactedbyhumanactivities,includingpollution,overfishing,andlossofcoastalhabitats.AccordingtotheUNESCO,over220milliontonsofplasticsareproducedeachyear,butinappropriatedisposalofplasticsisoftennotaddressedashugequantitiesofplasticsandmicro-plasticsendupinseasandoceansthreateningthemarineecosystems[UNESCO,n.y.].Circulareconomyisasolutiontothisproblemasleakageswouldbestoppedduringthesteps

ofthevaluechainbutalsoparticularlyleakagesofwastewouldbedramaticallycutdownaswastewouldberecycledandnotlosttotheenvironment.

Circular Economy and SDG 15 (Life on Land):AccordingtoUN,around1.6billionpeopledependonforestsfortheir livelihoods,2.6billionpeopledependdirectlyonagricultureforaliving,[UN,2017]anduntilnow,therearearound7.7billionhumanslivingin2019.Thecurrentlineareconomyandwastedisposalareendangeringlivesofspecieslivingonlandbyaccumulatingwaste(especiallyplasticandmicro-plastic)inlandandsoilasforexample‘chlorinatedplasticcanreleaseharmfulchemicalsintothesurroundingsoil,whichcanthenseepintogroundwater

orothersurroundingwatersources,andalsotheecosystem.Thiscancausearangeofpotentiallyharmfuleffectsonthespeciesthatdrinkthewater’[UNEP,n.y.].Circulareconomyprovidesasolutiontothisbykeepingmoreresourcesandmaterialsforaslongaspossibleinuse.Thiscanbeachievedinanumberofdifferentways,includingincreasedproductdurability,reuseandrecycling.

Private driven initiatives – Ellen MacArthur Foundation (EMF)In2010,theEMFwaslaunchedasacharitywiththemissiontoacceleratethetransitiontoacirculareconomyonaglobalscale.Oneoftheirkeytopicsistheso-called‘TheNewPlasticsEconomy’,whichenvisionsacirculareconomyinwhichplasticsneverbecomeswastebutremainsaresource.Toachieveitsvision,theNewPlasticEconomyframessixkeypointsthroughwhichsuchacirculareconomycouldbecomepossible:1) Eliminationofproblematicorunnecessaryplasticpackagingthroughredesign,innovation,andnewdelivery

modelsisapriority.2) Reusemodelsareappliedwhererelevant,reducingtheneedforsingle-usepackaging.3) Allplasticpackagingis100%reusable,recyclable,orcompostable.4) Allplasticpackagingisreused,recycled,orcompostedinpractice.5) Theuseofplasticisfullydecoupledfromtheconsumptionoffiniteresources.6) Allplasticpackagingisfreeofhazardouschemicals,andthehealth,safety,andrightsofallpeopleinvolved

arerespected[EMF,n.y.].

Thefirstreport‘TheNewPlasticsEconomy–Rethinkingthefutureofplastics’waspublishedinJanuary2016.Inlightofthequestionofhowtoinitiatethesystemeffectivenessoftheglobalplasticseconomywithfocusontheglobalplasticspackagingvaluechainandmaterialflow-Thefirstreportproposestocreateanalternativemind-setbyapproachingplasticsasanintegralpartofaneffectiveglobalmaterialflow,whichisalignedwiththecirculareconomyprinciples.Askeyfindings,thereporthighlightsthat;

i) thepredominantshareof95%ofplasticsisonlyusedonce,whichequalsaresourcelossofUSD80-120billionannually,and

ii) plasticpackaginggeneratessevere,negativeenvironmentalimpacts.Thisimpactiscoinedbythenowfamousforecastthatinabusiness-as-usualscenario‘theremaybemoreplasticthanfishintheocean,byweight,by2050’(EMF,2016,p.29).


Asaconclusion,thereporturgestocreateaneffectiveafter-useeconomy,drasticallyreducetheleakagesintotheenvironmentanddecoupleplasticsfromfossilfuels[EMF,2016].

Followingupinthisreport,‘TheNewPlasticsEconomy:Catalysingaction’waspublishedin2017mappingaglobalactionplantotransitiontowards70%reuseandrecyclingofplasticpackagingcomplementedwitharedesignandinnovationfortheremaining30%.Thereby,thisreportdeliveredaglobaltransitionstrategy,whichiscapturedthroughfivemutuallyreinforcingbuildingblocksfor;

i) crossvaluechaincooperation(‘DialogueMechanism’),ii) crossvaluechaindevelopmentsforadesignshiftenhancingtherecyclingeconomicsandmaterialhealth

(‘GlobalPlasticProtocol’),iii) twoinnovationchallengesfortheproposedfundamentalredesign(‘InnovationMoonshot’),iv) assessingthesocio-economicimpactonthemarinehabitat(‘EvidenceBase’)andv) broadstakeholderexchangetoacceleratethesystemshift(‘StakeholderEngagement’)[EMF,2017b].

In2018,theEMFlaunchedthe‘GlobalCommitment’inwhichmorethan400stakeholdersincludingconsumergoodcompanies,packagingproducersandpackagingdesignerswhichcollectivelyareresponsiblefor20%oftheproducedplasticpackagingworldwidecommittedtochangehowplasticsareproduced,usedandreused.InthelatestupdateinJune2019,thereporthighlightsthecommitmentofconsumergoodcompaniesandretailerstoincreasetherecycledcontentfrom2%(currentglobalaverage)to25%in2025,increasingpilotingrefillandreuseschemein50retailerandbrandsandthepubliclyreportingtheannualvolumesofplasticpackagingproductionanduse,includingmajorconsumerpackagedgoodscompaniesandretailerslikeNestlé,TheCoca-ColaCompany,Unilever,Carrefour,ColgatePalmolive,Danone,L’Oréal,andMars[EMF,2019].

Other private sector driven initiativesInJanuary2019,27companiesfromallstepsoftheplasticsvaluechaininitiatedTheAlliancetoEndPlasticWasteasaprivate-sectorinitiativetopushactionsonreducingtheplasticlitterintheaquaticenvironmentbycombiningtheirexpertise,resourcedandoutreachtocreateaglobalvisionandarespectivestrategy.Inparticular,thealliancetargets;

i) theinfrastructuredevelopmentforwastecollectionandproperwastemanagementtoincreaserecycling,ii) innovationforwasteminimisingtechnology,betterplasticsrecyclingandcreationofpost-useapplications,iii) educationandengagementofallstakeholdersincludinggovernmentsfromall levels,businessesand

communities,andiv) clean-upsofalreadypollutedhabitats.InJuly2019,thenumberofcommittedbusinesshasrisento39[The

AlliancetoendPlasticWaste,2019].

8. Annexes


Moreover,therearealsoseveralprivatesectorinitiativesfoundedinseveralmiddle-incomecountriestofostercirculareconomymeasuresintheirrespectivecountries.Examplesareforinstance:

• PARMS:ThePhilippineAllianceforRecyclingandMaterialSustainability;memberincludeCoca-ColaPhilippines,NestléPhilippines,Pepsi-ColaProductsPhilippines,Procter&GamblePhilippinesandUnileverPhilippines[PARMS,n.y.].

• PRAISE:ThepackagingandRecyclingAllianceforIndonesiaSustainableEnvironment;membersincludeNestléIndonesia,Coca-ColaIndonesia,TetraPakIndonesia,UnileverIndonesia,TitraInvestama,IndofoodSuksesMakmur[1PRAISE,n.y.].

• GRIPE:TheGhanaRecyclingImitativebyprivateEnterprises;membersincludeDowChemicalWestAfrica,NestléGhana,Coca-ColaGhana,UnileverGhana,Voltic,FanMilkGhana,GuinnessGhanaBreweries,PZCussonsGhana[GRIPE,n.y.].

• TIMPSE:ThailandInstituteofPackagingandRecyclingManagementforaSustainableEnvironment;membersincludeNestléThailand,UnileverThailand,Coca-ColaThailand,Pepsi-ColaThailand,TetraPakThailand[TIMPSE,n.y.]

Nevertheless,itneedstobeacknowledgedthatthesuccessesoftheseinitiativesarelimitedasthecompanies,whoareworkingvoluntarilyonthisissue,arecompetingwiththosecompanieswhoarenotparticipatinginsuchaninitiativeintherespectivecountry.


8.7 Annex 7: Questionnaire for online survey

8. Annexes


8.8 Annex 8: Circular Economy and The Big4 AgendaCirculareconomyrepresentsalsoatoolwhichcancontributetoachievingtheBig4Agendagoalofmanufacturingexpansionintheblueeconomy,agro-processing,leatherandtextileindustries:

Circular economy and blue economy:TheBlueEconomyencouragesabetterstewardshipoftheocean’sor‘blue’resources,whichincludesasignificantreductionofenvironmentalrisksforandecologicalscarcitiesofthemarineresources[TheCommonwealth,n.y.].Basedonacirculareconomyapproach,recyclingofplasticwastewouldcontributetoanimprovedblueeconomyasplasticlitterisaseriousthreatforthemarinehabitat.

Circular economy and agro-processing industry:Food-processingisasectoroftheagro-processingindustrythatincludesthemethodsandtechniquesusedtotransformrawingredientsintofoodforhumanconsumption.Therelationshipbetweentheplasticandfoodsectoriscomplicated:Morethan50%offoodwastetakesplaceinhouseholdswhilenearly20%iswastedduringprocessing.Plasticpackagingcontributesinpreservingfoodbypreventingdamageduringtransport,andextendingshelflife,whichhelpreducingfoodwaste.Thatmakesithardtoeliminateplasticfromthefoodindustry.Atthesametime,improperdisposalofplasticpackagingistheleadingsourceforplasticlitterintheenvironment[Dora&Iacovidou,2019].Thus,redesigningplasticpackagingthatitiseasytorecycleandreuse(ifpossible),reusingpackagingwherepossibleandacomprehensivecollectionsystemandfollowingrecycling-orotherenvironmentallysoundtreatmentmethodifpackagingwastecannotberecycled-asenvisionedinacirculareconomy,isimportant.

8.9 Annex 9: Alternatives to plasticsKenyahascurrentlynocomprehensivewastecollectionandtreatmentinfrastructureforwasteingeneralandplasticsinparticular.Inlightoftheprevailingwastemanagementconditions(predominantlylandfill,lowrecyclingstructureforglass,plasticsandpaper,norelevantreusablesystems),theuseofresourcesforinstanceintheformofpackagingshouldbereducedasmuchaspossibleinordertominimizeresourcelossesandunordereddepositswiththeassociatedecologicalconsequences.Fromaresourceconservationpointofviewof,thedevelopmentofanorderlyandcomprehensiverecyclingstructureisthepreferredalternative.AstrategyindealingwithplasticsandplasticwasteisdevelopedintheActionPlan.Thismustbetakenintoaccountinthefollowingalternativestoplastics.

TheresultsforthreedifferentmaterialcomparisonsarebasedontheinsightsoftheKenyanwastemanagementsituation(seechapter0).Thefollowingcomparisonshavebeenmade:i) waterbottles(whichalsoapplyforcookingoilandyoghurtcups,seeTable21),ii) grocerycarrierbags(seeTable22),andiii) constructionpipes(seeTable26).

Plasticsareutilisedinmanyareasinwhichothermaterialsareusedtofulfilthesamepurpose.Firstly,therawmaterialsutilizedinthefurtherprocessingwillbecomparedinregardstotheemissionswhichresultintheirproductionaswellasotherenvironmentalaspects, ifavailable.Therefore,thisTable14identifiestheGlobalWarmingPotential(GWP).TheGWPisasubstance’s/material’spotentialcontributiontotheso-calledgreenhouseeffect.ThiscontributionisportrayedasanequivalentinrelationtotheGWPofcarbondioxide(CO2).ForevaluationthefiguresGWP100areutilised,whichidentifythecontributionofeachparticularsubstanceormaterialaveragedforatimespanofonehundredyears.ThelowerthefigureoftheCO2equivalent,theloweristhepotentialimpactonglobalwarmingandtherelatingenvironmentaleffects.[BMVBS,2013]


Table 14: Global Warming Potential for different raw materials

Category GWP100

[kg CO

2 equi.] per kg

Database

PlasticsABS 3.76 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]ABS 3.10 [PlasticsEurope,2019](Expanded)Polystyrene(EPS) 3.29 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny](Expanded)Polystyrene(EPS) 2.37 [PlasticsEurope,2019]Polystyrene(PS) 2.25 [PlasticsEurope,2019]HDPE 1.93 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]HDPE 1.80 [PlasticsEurope,2014]RecycledHDPE 0.93 [Liebich,2016]LDPE 2.08 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]LDPE 1.87 [PlasticsEurope-A,2014]RecycledLDPE 1.41 [Liebich,2016]Polypropylene 1.63 [PlasticsEurope,2019]PP,InjectionMoulding 4.49 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]PP,OrientatedFilm 3.43 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]PP 1.63 [PlasticsEurope-B,2014]RecycledPP 0.95 [Liebich,2016]Polycarbonate 7.62 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]PVC 3.10 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]PET 5.56 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]

GlassPrimaryGlass 0.91 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]SecondaryGlass 0.59 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]

AluminiumAluminiumCastproducts(primary) 13.10 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]AluminiumCastproducts(secondary) 1.45 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]AluminiumCastproducts(typical) 9.22 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]AluminiumExtruded(primary) 12.50 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]AluminiumExtruded(secondary) 2.12 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]AluminiumExtruded(typical) 9.08 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]AluminiumRolled(primary) 12.80 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]AluminiumRolled(secondary) 1.79 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]AluminiumRolled(typical) 9.18 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]

SteelSteelBar&rod-Primary(100%hypotheticalvirgin)

2.77 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]

SteelBar&rod-Secondary 0.45 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]SteelGeneralSteel-WorldTypical-World39%Recy.


SteelCoil–Galvanised(100%hypotheticalvirgin)


SteelCoil–Galvanised(typical35.5%Recy.) 2.12 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]

PaperPaper(primary) 0.96 [Raschke,2016]Paper(primary) 1.28 [Ifeu,2018]RecycledPaper 0.68 [Raschke,2016]RecycledPaper 1.14 [Ifeu,2018]

ConcreteGeneralConcrete 0.11 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]Concrete–dependingoncomposition from0.10till0.15 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,ny]Concrete(PrecastMix1) 0.214 [Marceauetal.,2007]ReinforcedConcrete 0.204 [Struble,Godfrey,2004]

8. Annexes


Information:ThesefiguresservethepurposeoforientationandclassificationofeachparticularmaterialandresultfromsurveyswhichdonotexplicitlyconsidertheKenyanframeconditions.Amongotherthings,thisappliestothebasicprocessingtechnique,utilisedelectricitymix.However,thesebasefiguresinrelationtoeachotherportraythecontributiontothegreenhouseeffect,suchasaluminiumwhichhasarelativelyhighcontributioncomparedtoplasticsorpaper.

Table14clarifies,thattheGWPof;

• Glassrangeswithinthescopeofapproximately1kgCO2-equiv.perkg,• Paperrangesbetweenapproximately1to1.3kgCO2-equiv.perkg,• Plasticsrangefromapproximately1.7to3.4kgCO2-equiv.perkg(dependingonthetypeofplastic),• Steelrangesfromapproximately2kgCO2-equiv.perkg(dependingontheportionofrecycledmaterial)to

approximately2.7kgCO2-equiv.perkg(forprimarymaterial),• Aluminiumrangesofthescopeofabout9(dependingontheportionofrecycledmaterial)to>12kgCO2-

equiv.perkg(forprimarymaterial).

ItalsobecomesevidentthattheusageofrecycledorsecondarymaterialsrelatestoarelativelylowGWPinregardstoeachparticulartypeofmaterial.Furthermore,throughacomparisonontheitem-base(e.g.bottles,pipes)onemanytakeintoconsiderationthattheGWPislargelyrelatedtothespecificweightofthematerials,theusageofmaterials(e.g.plasticsvs.glass),aswellastheuserbehaviour(single-usevs.multipleuse)andthealignedwastemanagementorrecyclingopportunities.

Bottles (for water): PET-bottles substituted by glass, aluminium can or liquid packaging boardBeverageslikewateraregenerallysoldindifferenttypesofpackaging,amongstthemPETbottles,glassbottles,aluminiumcansanddrinkcartons.Especiallyusage,aswellasthetransport issignificantwhenmakinganenvironmentalperformanceevaluation.

Themanufactureofglassbottlesandaluminiumcansisenergy-intensive,whichmeansthattheenvironmentalperformanceevaluationonlyresultspositively,iftheseproductsareusedmultipletimes(e.g.withintheframeofacircularsystem)andarenottransportedoverlongdistances.Thisandotherframeconditionsneedtobeconsideredwhenmakinganenvironmentalperformanceevaluationonitemlevel.

Information:Duetothegreatlydifferingframeconditions,inwhichthefollowingdataandresultswereinvestigated,itisimportanttoillustratethefunctionalmechanismswhichoccurintheproductionandusage,aswellasinthedisposal,astheydonotexistinKenyainsuchanadequateform.Thus,thementionedexaminationswillprovideinsightswhichmayapplytoKenyainasimilarmanner,sothatresultingadvantagesanddisadvantagescouldbedistinguished.

This kind of comparison was intensely examined in Germany conducting the research ‘Ökobilanz fürGetränkeverpackungenII/Phase2’[Schonertetal.,2002].Detzeletal,[2016]validatedandupdatedtheseresults.Duringthisexaminationdifferentscenarioswerecreated,accordingtotheISO14040environmentalperformanceevaluations.Thesealsoincludeanalysisinrelationtotransportationandexistingwasteinfrastructure.Specifically,PETbottles(singleuseincl.recycling)andglassbottles(single-useandmultipleuseincl.recycling)withafillingvolumeof1lwerecompared.ThefollowingTable15portraystheresultsinasimplifiedwaypercategoryqualitativelynexttoeachother,acc.towhichreusablewaterbottlesarepreferredincomparisonwithone-wayPETbottlesandone-wayglassbottles.


Table 15: Ranking of different water bottles related to selected environmental criteria [Schonert et al., 2002]

Criteria Glass multiple use Glass single-use PET single-use

Aquaticeutrophication 1 3 2

Terrestrialeutrophication 1 3 2

Depletionofresources 1 3 2

GWPkgCO2per1l 1 3 2

Acidification 1 3 2

AfurtherexaminationcomparedPETsingle-usesystemstoPETmultipleusesystems.AccordingtoSchonertetal.[2002]theenvironmentalimpactsasshownabovefromsingle-usewerehalvedthroughadjustmenttoamultipleusesystem,however,slightlyexceedstheimpactsofreusableglassbottles.

Glassmultipleusebottlesprovideabetterenvironmentalperformancecomparedtoaluminiumcansandsteelcansforafillingvolumeof0.5l(seeTable16)meantforimmediateconsumption.

Table 16: Ranking of different beverage packaging for immediate consumption related to selected environmental criteria [Schonert et al., 2002]

Criteria Glass multiple useAluminium can

single-useSteel can

Aquaticeutrophication 1 2 3

Terrestrialeutrophication 2 1 3

Depletionofresources 1 2 3

GWPkgCO2per1l 1 2 3

Acidification 1 2 3

SimilarexaminationshavebeendoneinAustriawiththeresearch‘ÖkobilanzvonGetränkeverpackungeninÖsterreichSachstand2010’[Kauertzetal.,2011].Acomparisonispossibleonamanufacturingbasisofthedifferentarrangementswithouttheinfluencesofthefollowingchainmechanisms,becausetheproportionsofthedifferentfunctionalmechanismswereclassifiedincategories(suchashollow-glassproduction,PETproduction).Thus,theGWPoftheproductionofa1lglassbottle(water,multipleuse),includinglabelsandcapsisapproximately22kgCO2-equivper1landtheGWPofa1.5lPETbottle(water,multipleuse),includinglabelsandcapsisapproximately39kgCO2-equivper1l.

AcidificationandfossilresourcesdepletionresultingoftheglassbottleproductionarehalfasmuchastheyareforthePETbottleproduction.Ifthedistributionafterwardsistakenintoconsideration,theeffectsalign.ThefollowingTable17identifieswhichcategorieshavenegativeeffects.

8. Annexes


Table 17: Phase depending negative effects for different beverage packaging relating to selected environmental criteria [Kauertz et al., 2011]

Criteria Glass multiple use PET single-use

GlobalWarmingPotential(GWP)

Distribution

Filling

Hollow-glassproduction

PETproduction

Distribution

Disposal

Fossilresourcesdepletion

Distribution

Productionoflabelsandcaps

Filling

PETproduction

Distribution

Productionofpackagingforsaleandtransport

Acidification DistributionPETproduction

Distribution

Oncloserexamination,thesetwosectorsofthefunctionalmechanismsresponsibleformorethan50%ofthesystemload.ThebiggestinfluentialfactorfortheresultsofthePETsingle-usesystemsarethecontributionsfromthesectorPETproduction.

Thesestudiesarewidelyconfirmedbythestudy‘StudieLifeCycleAssessmentofPET(PolyethyleneTerephthalate)bottlesandotherpackagingalternatives’[Schmidtetal.,2000].Duringthecomparisonoftheglobalwarmingpotentials,inwhichcreditsfromthefollowingchainmechanismsfortherecyclingetc.areneglected,itisstatedthatsingle-usePETbottles1lwith123to160kgCO2-equivper1,000lbeveragesprovidearelativelyhigherGWPthanreturnablelightglassbottles(70.1kgCO2-equiv),orreturnablePETbottles(59.5kgCO2-equiv).Sofarthecreditsforthesecondarymaterialsaretakenintoaccountasa‘netcalculation,thecontributionsreduceforallexaminedmaterials,especiallyforPETbottles,whichcontinuetoprovidethecomparativelylargestcontribution(98.2to120kgCO2-equivper1,000l).

Thegoalofthisexamination‘TheGlobalWarmingPotentialanalysisofbeverage:Whichisthebestoption?’Paqualinoetal.,[n.y.]wastoevaluatethecontributionofpackagingtotheenvironmentalprofileofaproduct’slifecycle(beverageproduction,transport,packagingproductionandfinaldisposal).Thedisposalmethodsconsideredarelandfilling,incinerationandrecycling,andthepackagingtypesareasepticcarton,glass,HDPE,aluminiumcanandPET,andtheirsizesarefrom200mlto8l.Recyclingwasfoundtobethemostenvironmentallyfriendlydisposaloptionforallthepackagingalternativescompared,andlandfillingwasconsideredthesecondbestoption.Thepackagingoptionswiththelowestenvironmentalimpactswereasepticcartonandplasticpackaging(forsizesgreaterthan1l).Theinfluenceofbeverageproductiononthelifecyclevariesaccordingtothetypeofbeverage.GlobalWarmingPotentialhasbeenconsideredastheenvironmentalindicatorinthisstudy(incl.Capsandlids).Thefollowingarrangementswereexamined,whichparallelafillingvolumeof1l.

• Liquidpackagingboard(asepticcarton),size0.2l(50g/l)till1.5l(35.2g/l)• Aluminiumcan,size0.33l(67.9g/l)till0.5l(34.7g/l)• Glassbrown,size0.33l(722.7g/l)till1.0l(468.8g/l)• Glasswhite,size0.33l(722.7g/l)till1.0l(492.2g/l)• HDPE,size0.2l(91.1g/l)till1.5l(32.7g/l)• PET,size0.33l(42.4g/l)over1.5(19.3g/l)till8.0l(17.5g/l)


Alsoaccordingtootherstudies(i.a.[Schmidtetal.2000],thespecificweightper1lfillingvolumeiscorrespondingtothefollowinglist(Table18).

Table 18: Masses of different packaging types

Packaging type Mass per 1 l

PET(oneway) Approx.33to46g

Beveragecarton Approx.35g(highlydependingonsize)

Alumniumcan Approx.35to68g(dependingonsize)

PET(returnable) Approx.71g

Glass(light) Approx.470to490g

Glass(heavy) >700g

Contrarytothementionedstudies,thisanalysisfocusesontheeffectsofthesubsequentdisposalmethods(landfill,incinerationandrecycling):

• Landfill:includesthedumpinfrastructure,theuseofland,theeffectoflandfilledwaste,andtheemissionstothesoil,airandgroundwaterreleasedbywastedisposedofinlandfills.

• Incineration:coverstheincinerationplantinfrastructure,theincinerationprocess,theelectricitygeneratedandthedisposalofresidualashes(tolandfill).Electricalenergyrecoverywasconsideredasanavoidedenvironmentalload.

• Recycling:takesintoaccounttherecyclingplantinfrastructure,thesortingandrecyclingprocesses,theproductsobtainedandthewastesgenerated.Theproductsobtainedfromtherecyclingprocessareconsideredtodisplacevirginrawmaterialsandarethusanavoidedload.

Thefirstresultisthatlargerpackagesalwayshavealowerenvironmentalimpactthansmallerpackages,andoptimalpackagingsizesguaranteeminimumproductlossesandmaximumeaseofuseforconsumers.AsshowninTable19,beveragecartonsandplasticpackaging(forsizesgreaterthan1l)presentthelowestGWPforthethreedisposalmethods.Exceptforglass,theGWPfiguresofanexistingrecyclingarewithinacomparablerange.However,theGWPofdisposalofaluminiuminalandfillwassignificantlylower[Paqualinoetal.,ny].

Table 19: GWP of different packaging types relating to different disposal scenarios [Paqualino et al., ny]

Type beverage Landfill Incineration Recycling

Beveragecarton(1.5lto200ml) Juice 0.057to0.091 0.069to0.113 0.048to0.074

Glasswhite(1lto330ml) Juice/water 0.557to0.727 0.729to0.975 0.352to0.513

PET(8lto330ml) Water 0.079to0.224 0.130to0.311 0.036to0.101

Aluminiumcan(500mlto330ml)Beer,alsoapplicableforwater

0.439to0.859 0.458to0.895 0.039to0.077

8. Annexes


ForIndia,acomparableLCAforglassandPETbottleswasconducted[Stichling,Singh,2012].Basedonthechosenreferencescenariosforglassbottles(focuson100%),followingfunctionalmechanismcategorieswerecompared(Table20).

Table20:ComparisonofPET-bottleswithglass-bottlesaccordingto[Stichling,Singh,2012]

Criteria PET-bottle compared with glass-bottle (same functional unit)

AcidificationPotential[kgSO2-equiv.] Lower(60%)

EutrophicationPotential[kgPO4-equiv.] Lower(69%)

GWP100[kgCO2-equiv.] Lower(57%)

HumanToxicity[kgDCP-equiv.] Higher(123%)

Photochem.OzoneCreationPotential[kgEthene-equiv.] Higher(136%)

TerresticEcotoxicityPotential[kgDCB-equiv.] Higher(246%)

Primaryenergydemandfromren.Andnonrenresources[MJ] Lower(74%)

Thestudy‘ComparativeLifeCycleAssessmentofTetraPak®cartonpackagesandalternativepackagingsystemsforliquidfoodontheNordicmarket’comissionedbyTetraPakInternationalSAliquidpackagingboardwascomapredwithcompetitiveliquidfoodpackagingmadeofPETandHDPEfortheSwedish,Finnish,Danish,andNorwegianmarket.Aconsiderableroleforthesegenerallylowenvironmentalimpactsofbeveragecartonsplaystherenewabilityoftheirpaperboardcomponentsandahighuseofrenewableenergies.Theybenefitfromtheuseofrenewablematerialsandenergiesintheproductionprocesses.Especiallytheuseofpaperboardasthemaincomponentleadstolowimpactscomparedtotheuseofplasticsorglassforbottles[Markwardtetal.,2017].

Ingeneraltheexaminedbeveragecartonsystemsanalysedforthesemarketsshowlowerburdensinalloftheimpactcategoriesthantheircompetingsystems.Theseimpactcategoriesare

• Climatechange,• Acidification,• Photo-OxidantFormation,• OzoneDepletionPotential,• TerrestrialEutrophication,• AquaticEutrophication,• ParticulateMatter,• TotalPrimaryEnergy,• Non-renewablePrimaryEnergy,• UseofNature,• Wateruse(relatedtowaterinput).

Anexceptiontothisoccursinsomecategoriesifthecartoncontainsahighshareofbio-basedPE.Theuseofbio-basedpolyethylene,thoughdoesnotdeliversuchanunambiguousbenefit.Whiletheutilisationofbio-basedPEinsteadoffossil-basedmaterialleadstolowerresultsin‘ClimateChange’theemissionsfromtheproductionofthisbio-polyethylene,includingitsagriculturalbackgroundsystem,increasetheenvironmentalimpactsinalltheotherimpactcategoriesregarded.

AcomparsionofthedifferentmaterialsolutionsisshowninTable21.


Table 21: Comparison of different materials for bottles for water

Comparison: Bottles for water

Criteria PET-bottle Glass Aluminium can Liquid packaging board

GWP +RelativelylowGWP,ifreturnable,relativelyhigherthanglassbottles

0LightglassbottleshavesmallerGWPthansin-gle-usePET,butlargerthanreusablePET

-HighestGWP,comparedtoPET,glassandtetrapack

0RelativelylowGWP,nearlyonparwithlightglassbottles,depend-ingonwhethertheyarereusable

Waterfootprint

+smallestwaterfootprint,asPETismadefromfossilresources

-Alotofwaterisneededinthemanufactureofglass,morethanformanufactureofPET

-Alotofwaterisneededinthemanufactureofaluminium,morethanforPET

--Alotofwaterisneededtoproducethecardboard,whichisthencoatedtoholdliquids

Useofrenewableresources

-TheresourceforPETisfos-silbased;afiniteresource,canpossiblychangedintobiobasedplasticssuchascornstarch,mayresultincompetitionovercultiva-blelandandhigherwaterdemand

+Inlargeportions,glassismadeofsand;whichisavailableinabundance

+OneofthemostabundantlyavailableelementsonEarth;however,mayalsobefoundinmanyotherminerals;yetitstillisafinitesource

0Inlargeportionsmadefromcardboardandthuspaperfibres,whicharemanufac-turesfromcuttingdowntrees

Useofsecondarymaterial

0AlthoughPETbottlesarerecyclable,thePETbottlesoftentimesarenotbeingturnedintonewPETbottles,buttheplasticfibresareprocessedforadifferentpurpose

+Today,glassmanufac-tureusesalotofwasteglasstomixwithduringthemanufactureofnewglassitems;itisamixedofoldandnewglass

0Ifthealuminiumcanismadeupofdifferentmaterials,suchascom-pounds,thealuminiumwastemayberecycledforadifferentpurpose(downcycling)

0Itisdifficulttotellhowmuchrecycledmateri-alisusedfornewliquidpackagingboards,astheyarenolabelsyetindicatingit

Healthaspects

0Maybeusedmultipletimes,butneedstobewashedbe-forereuse,asbacteriacaninfestthebottle

+Easiertocleanforreuse,nohealthhazardsknown

0Thetopshouldbewipedbeforecleaning,toavoidgermsleachingintothewaterwhenpouringout

+Manufacturedandfilledathightempera-ture,noinformationongerminfestation

Safetyaspects:handling,usage

+Donotbreakeasily,lightweight

-Breakable,alsodrinkingstraightfromthebottlemaycauseharmiftopisdamagedorifglassknocksagainstteeth;heavyweightmaybedifficultfordisabledorelderlypeopletohandle

+Doesnotbreakeasily,maycreatedents,lightweight,needssmallstoragespace

+Doesnotbreakeasily,lighterweight,com-paredtoglass

8. Annexes


Economics(world-wide)

0Productionrequiresleastamountofresources,ismadefromfossilresources

--Productionprocessislonger,requiresmoreresources,alsotrans-portationismoreenergyintensiveastheyareheav-iestincomparisonwithPET,aluminiumandliquidpackagingboards,thisalsocountsforcollection

-Productionprocessislonger,requiresmoreresources,alsotransportationismoreenergyintensiveastheyareheavier,thisalsocountsforcollection

-Productionprocessislonger,requiresmoreresources,alsotransportationismoreenergyintensiveastheyareheavier,alsocountsforcollection

Economics(price)

+Usuallycheaperthanglass,aluminiumcansandtetrapacks,especiallyconsider-ingfillingvolume,PEThasbiggestfillingvolume

-Mostexpensive,butfillingvolumeacrossmanyranges

0Lessexpensivethanglass,moreexpensivethantetrapacksandPET,consideringthefillingvolume

0MoreexpensivethanPETandcans,butlessthanglass

Consumeraspects

0Lightweight,thuseasytotransportandcarryaround,moredifficulttoclean

+Heavyweight,thusmaybemoredifficulttotransport,maylookaestheticallypleasing,easiertoclean

0Single-use,refillingdoesnotwork,smallunits,smallfillingvolume,maybeanalternativefortrav-ellingastheydonotneedmuchspace

+Canbedisposedofintheplasticwaste;recyclable,single-use,heavierweightthanPET,butlighterthanglass

Wastemanage-ment

0ReturnablePETbottlesystemnotavailableevery-whereyet,adequatewastemanagementinfrastructureneedstobeestablished

0Returnableglassbottlesystemnotavailableeverywhereyet;ade-quatewastemanagementinfrastructureneedstobeestablished

0Returnablealumin-iumcansystemnotavailableeverywhereyet;adequatewastemanagementinfra-structureneedstobeestablished

--Tetrapacktechni-callyrecyclable,butonlyinspecificpapermillswhicharenotavailableeverywhere,thereforedisposalinwaste-papershouldbeavoidedasregularpapermillscannotprocessliquidpackag-ingboards;adequatewastemanagementinfrastructureneedstobeestablished

Thesameprinciplesapplytothecomparisonforcookingoil(HDPEvs.metalandglass)andyoghurtcups(PPvs.liquidpackagingboardandglass).

Carrier bags: LDPE vs. paper, cotton and non-woven PPAsmentioned(seechapter3),theKenyangovernmentpassedabanprohibitingontheuse,manufactureandimportationofallplasticbagsforcommercialandhouseholdpackaging,whichincludesPEcarrierbagsandPEflatbags,toreducetheamountoflitteredplasticbagsaswellastheassociatednegativeexternalitiesoflitteredplasticsintheenvironment.However,manyconcernshavebeenvoicedafterthatquestioningifthealternativesprovideareindeedbetterfromanenvironmentalperspective.


TheDanishMinistryofEnvironmentandFoodpublishedthe‘LifeCycleAssessmentofgrocerycarrierbags’in2018[Bisinella,2018]researchingthelifecyclesandenvironmentalimpactsofdifferenttypesofcarrierbags,aswellashowmanytimestheyneededtobereusedtobreakevenwiththeenvironmentalimpactofanaverageLDPEplasticsgroceryshoppingbag.

ThestudyexaminedthefollowingtypesofcarrierbagsavailableinstoresinDenmark:

• LDPE,fourtypes:average,softhandle,rigidhandle,recycled• PP,twotypes:non-woven,woven• RecycledPET• Polyester(ofvirginPETpolymers)• Starch-complexedbiopolymer• Paper,twotypes:unbleached,bleached• Cotton,twotypes:organic,conventional• Composite(jute,PP,cotton)

ALifeCycleAssessment(LCA)takesintoaccountthepotentialenvironmentalimpactsrelatedtotheresourceswhicharenecessarytoproduce,useanddisposeoftheproduct.TheLCAalsoexaminesthepotentialemissionsthatmayoccurduringthedisposal.Toassessthecarrierbagsandtheirenvironmentalimpact,thedifferentmaterialsasshownabovewerecomparedtothecharacteristicsofanaverageLDPEcarrierbagwhichisavailableinDanishsupermarkets.

End-of-Life scenarios for carrier bagsThestudyexaminesthreemainend-of-life(EOL)scenariosforthedifferenttypesofcarrierbags.EOL1wouldbeincinerationofthecarrierbag.Afterservingitsprimaryfunction(carryinggroceriesfromsupermarketstoanotherdestination)thebagisdisposedof,collectedandincinerated.Theelectricityandheatproducedduringincinerationallowsforavoidingtheproductionofelectricityandheatfromanothersource.

ThesecondEOLisrecyclingofthematerial.Afterdisposalwithseparatelycollectedmaterialofthesametype,thecollectedwasteissenttomaterialrecycling.Therecycledsecondarymaterialallowsforavoidingproductionofthesameamountofmaterialfromprimarysources.Theresiduesoftherecyclingprocessareincineratedwhichresultsintheproductionofelectricityandheat,whichallowsforavoidingtheproductionofheatandelectricityfromotherresources.

ThethirdEOListhereuseaswastebinbag.Afterservingitsprimaryfunction,thecarrierbagisreusedforanotherfunction,whichiscollectingresidualwaste.Thispracticeallowsavoidingtheproductionanddisposalofatraditionalwastebinbag.Theelectricityandheatproducedduringincinerationprocessallowsforavoidingproductionofthesameamountofelectricityandheatfromotherresources.

Factors not included in the studyThisLifeCycleAssessmentdoesnotconsiderbehaviouralchangesorconsequencesofintroducingfurthereconomicmeasures.Alsoeconomicconsequencesforretailersandcarrierproductsarenottakenintoconsideration.Moreover,thisreportdoesnotincludetheeffectsofenvironmentallittering.Neitherdoesitincludeconstructionanddecommissioningofcapitalgoodssuchasinfrastructureandmachinery,nordoesitanalysetheexistingcapacitiesornewcapacitiesrequirements.

8. Annexes


Environmental indicators examined in this studyIndeterminingthecarrierbagwiththesmallestenvironmentalimpact,thestudyexaminedthelifecycleofthedifferenttypesinrelationtorecommendedenvironmentalindicatorsasstatedbytheEuropeanCommission.Theseindicatorswere:

• Climatechange• Ozonedepletion• Humantoxicity,cancereffects• Humantoxicity,non-cancereffects• Photochemicalozoneformation• Ionizingradiation• Particulatematter• Terrestrialacidification• Terrestrialeutrophication• Freshwatereutrophication• Marineeutrophication• Ecosystemtoxicity• Resourcedepletion,fossil• Resourcedepletion,abiotic• Waterresourcedepletion

Inthestudy,thedifferenttypesofcarrierbagswereexaminedinrelationtotheenvironmentalindicatorsasshownbefore.Theindicatorclimatechangewasalsoviewedseparatelyforthedifferenttypesofcarrierbags.ThisindicatorincludesfactorssuchasglobalairtemperaturechangeorconcentrationsofCO2intheatmosphere.

Results of Life Cycle Impact AssessmentInalmostallcategories,grocerybagsmadeofLDPEprovidedthelowestenvironmentalimpactoutofthematerialsexamined.Overall,lightcarrierbagssuchasLDPE,paperandbiopolymerwerethecarrierbagalternativeswhichprovidedthelowestenvironmentalimpact.Heavermultiple-usecarrierbagssuchascompositeandcottonbagsobtainthehighestenvironmentalimpactsacrossallimpactcategories.Therefore,itisusefultodeterminehowmanytimesatypeofbagneedstobereusedtolowertheenvironmentalimpactsrelatedtotheirproductiontovaluescomparabletolightercarrierbags.Thus,thestudyalsocalculatedhowmanytimesdifferenttypesofcarrierbagswouldhavetobereusedtoprovidethesameenvironmentalperformanceastheLDPEcarrierbag:

• Allenvironmentalindicatorsconsidered,arecycledLDPEbagwouldhavetobereusedtwice,beforebeingusedasawastebinbagandthendisposedof.

• Non-wovenPPbagsshouldbereused52times,beforebeingrecycled.• WovenPPbagsneedtobereused45times,andthenrecycled,tobreakevenwithLDPEbags.• BagsmadefromrecycledPETwouldneedtobereused84timestohavethesameenvironmentalimpactas

LDPEbags,beforetheyarebeingrecycled.• PolyesterPETneedstobereused35timesandthenrecycled.• Consideringallindicators,bagsmadefrombiopolymersneedtobereused42times,beforetheyareeither

usedasawastebinbagorincinerated.• Unbleachedpaperbagsshouldbereused43timesbeforetheyareeitherusedaswastebinbagsorare

incinerated.• Bleachedpaperalsoneedstobereused43times,untilitiseitherusedasawastebinbagorincinerated.• Organiccottonshouldbereused20,000timesbeforeitiseitherusedasawastebinbagorincineratedto

breakevenwithLDPEbags.• Conventionalcottonneedstobereused7,100times,beforeitisusedasawastebinbagorincinerated.• Compositebagsshouldbereused870timesbeforetheyareusedaswastebinbagsorareincinerated.


Thecomparablestudy‘Lifecycleassessmentofsupermarketcarrierbags:areviewofthebagsavailablein2006’commissionedbytheUKEnvironmentAgencyandpublishedin2006[Edwards,Frey,2011],comestooverallsimilarconclusionsasthe2018Danishreport.

IntheLifeCycleAssessment,grocerycarrierbagsavailableinUKsupermarketswereexamined.However,contrarytothe2018study,theUKEnvironmentAgencythenusedconventionalHDPEbagsasreference,astheyweretheaveragebagsbeinghandedoutforfreeingrocerystoresatthetime.Oneofthegoalsofthisstudywastodeterminealifecycleinventoryofenvironmentalimpactsassociatedwiththeproduction,usageanddisposaloflightweightcarrierbags.Anothergoalwastocomparetheenvironmentalimpactsarisingfromlightweightplasticcarrierstothosecausedbyalternatives. Inthisstudy,however,severalfactorswerenottakenintoconsideration.Theseincludetheconsequencesofcarrierbagtaxes,theeffectsoflittering,theabilitytoandwillingnessofconsumerstochangetheirbehaviour,anyadverseimpactsofdegradablepolymersintherecyclingstreamandpotentialeconomicimpactsontheUKindustry.

Environmental impact indicators as used in the researchTodeterminetheenvironmentalimpactofthedifferenttypesofcarrierbags,thestudyformulatedatotalofnineenvironmentalindicators:

• Globalwarmingpotential• Abioticdepletion• Acidification• Eutrophication• Humantoxicity• Freshwaterandaquaticecotoxicity• Marineaquaticecotoxicity• Terrestrialecotoxicity• Photochemicaloxidation

TheindicatorsasshownabovearelargelycomparabletothesetofenvironmentalindicatorswhichtheDanishstudyusedintheir2018lifecycleassessmentreport.

Results of life cycle assessmentThestudyconcludedthatconventionalHDPEbagsprovidedthelowestenvironmentalimpactoflightweightbagsineightoutofnineenvironmentalimpactcategories.

• LDPEbagsneedtobereusedfivetimesinordertoreducetheirenvironmentalimpactbelowthatoftheconventionalHDPEbag.

• ApaperbagwouldneedtobereusedfourtimestoreduceitsglobalwarmingpotentialtobelowthatofaconventionalHDPEbag.However,manyreusesareunlikelyduetoitslowdurability.

• CottonbagsprovidedagreaterenvironmentalimpactthanconventionalHDPEbagsinsevenoutofnincecategories.173reusesarerequiredtoreducetheenvironmentalimpactbelowofthatofaconventionalHDPEbagwithaveragesecondaryreuseimpact.

8. Annexes


Overall,whencomparedtoaconventionalHDPEbagwhichisdisposedofandisnotusedtoserveasecondaryuseas,e.g.awastebinliner,thenapaperbagneedstobereused3times,anLDPEbagshouldbereusedfourtimes,anon-wovenPPbagshouldbereused11timesandacottonbagneedstobereused131times,toreducetheirenvironmentalimpacttothatofaconventionalHDPEbag.

BothstudiesthatwereusedasareferenceconcludedthatgroceryshoppingbagsoutofLDPEandHDPErespectivelyprovidedoveralllowerenvironmentalimpactsthanpaper,cottonundnon-wovenPPbags.Thatbeingsaiditisimportanttoconsiderthatfactorssuchasenvironmentallitteringwerenottakenintoconsiderationduringbothlifecycleassessmentsasbothstudiesanalysedthedifferentmaterialsforcarrierbagsfromasuperordinateangle.AcomparsionofthedifferentmaterialsolutionsisshowninTable22.


Table 22: Comparison of different materials for carrier bags

Comparison: Grocery carrier bagsCriteria LDPE Paper Cotton Non-Woven PP

GWP

+Overallbestclimatechangeperformance

-MoreimpactthanLDPEandnon-wovenPP,duetotreesbeingcutdown,heavierweight

-MoreimpactthanLDPE,paperandnon-wovenPPduetolongerproductionprocessofcottonfibres,heavierweight

0MoreimpactthanLDPEbutbetterthancottonandpaper

Waterfootprint

+Overallsmallestwaterfootprint,resourceforconventionalplasticisfossil-based

-BiggerwaterfootprintthanLDPE,muchwaterisneededinproductionofpaperfibres

--BiggerwaterfootprintthanLDPEandpaper,muchwaterisneededtoproducecottonyarnandfertilizerproduction

0MorewaterisusedthanforLPDEbags,butlessthanforpaperandcottonbags

Useof

renewable

resources

-Resourceforconvention-alplasticisfossil-based,afiniteresource,canpossiblychangedintobiobasedPlasticssuchascornstarch,mayresultincompetitionovercultiva-blelandandhigherwaterdemand

0Madeoutofrenewableresourcesbuttreesneedtobecutdowntogainpaperfibres,resultsindeforestation;usageoffertilizersresultinterrestrialandfreshwa-tereutrophication,highwaterdemand

0Madeofrenewablere-sourcesbutdeforest-ationduetogrowingdemandforcottonfibresandthereforecottonplants;usageoffertilizersresultsinterrestrialandfreshwatereutrophi-cation,plantsneedalargeamountofwatertogrow

-Resourceforcon-ventionalplasticisfossil-based,afiniteresource,canpossi-blychangedintobiobasedPlasticssuchascornstarch,mayresultincompeti-tionovercultivablelandandhigherwaterdemand

Useof

secondary

material

+Highlyeligibleforuseofsecondarymaterial,al-readydoneinmanycases

+Highlyeligibleforuseofsecondarymaterial,alreadydoneinmanycases

-Normallynouseofsecondarymaterial

+Highlyeligibleforuseofsecondarymaterial,alreadydoneinmanycases

Healthaspects

-LDPEhasslightlymorehumantoxicity

0Onparwithnon-wovenPP,providedtheleasthumantoxicity

--Cottonprovidedthemosthumantoxicity;maybecomehabitatforbacteria,fungiandmould

0Onparwithpaper,providedtheleasthumantoxicity


--LDPEbagsflyawayeas-ily,littering,potentiallydangerouswheningested(wildlife),breedingspotformosquitoes

0Paperbagsteareasily,especiallywhenwet,dif-ficulttoclean,takesupmorespacethanplastic

+Notsanitaryforhandlingedibles,butgenerallymeantformultipleuse,wash-able

+Generallymeantformultipleuse,sturdy,durable

8. Annexes


Economics

(worldwide)-to0

Bagsusedworld-wide,bannedinsomeplaces,customerincentiveinfavourofmulti-ple-use

0Generallyavail-ableforfee,notcommonlyusedinsupermarkets,yetsomeretailers(tex-tile)givethemoutforfree

-Usuallyavailableforpurchase,butproduc-tionrequiresalotofresourcesrelatedtomanufactureofcottonfibres

0Inplaceswithbansagainstsingle-useplasticbags,theyarecommonlyused,usuallyavailableforpurchase

Economics

(price)++

PriceforLDPEischeapest,retailersmakeprofitwhentheysellbagsfore.g.20ct

0MoreexpensivethanLDPEbagbutcheaperthancot-ton,lessdurable

-MostexpensivebagcomparedtoLDPE,non-wovenPPandpaperbag

+Generallylessexpensivethancottonbag,butmoreexpensivethanLDPEandpaperbags

Consumer

aspects-to0

Meantforsingletomultipleuse,flexi-ble,lightweight

-Multiple-useisdiffi-cultbecausepaperhaslowdurability,especiallywhenwet,recyclingoftentimeseasier

0Meantformultipleuse,doesn‘tteareasily,repairable,washable,notsanitaryforedibles,(attractivedesign)

0Meantformultipleuse,sturdy,usuallylargecapacity,somestoresgivediscountwhenoneshopswithsuchabag

Waste

management-

Collectionwithoth-erPE,plasticsbuthardtocollect,fliesaway,dangeroflittering,pollution,recyclable

+Canbecollectedwithotherpapers,degradableinenvi-ronment,recyclable

-Canbecollectedwithwastetextilesifexist-ent,noproperrecycling

N/A


Construction Pipes: Plastics vs. (galvanised) steel and concreteConstructionpipesareusedinareassuchassewerageanddrainageorwatersupplyandwastewaterdisposal.Forthefollowingexaminationitisassumedthatthepipes,whicharemadeofdifferentkindsofmaterials,areequallysuitablefortherequiredutilisation,astheyaresubjecttostandardsuchastechnicalnorms.

ThetableidentifiestheGWP100ofthedifferenttypesofpipesinTable23.AccordingtothisthedifferentmaterialsliewithinacomparablerangeataGWPvalueof1.94(steel)to3.23(PVC)perkilogram.

Category GWP100

[kg CO

2 equi.] per kg

Database

HDPEPipe 2.52 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,n.y.]

PVCPipe 3.23 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,n.y.]SteelPipe-WorldTypical-World39%Recy.

1.94 BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,n.y.]

SteelPipe-Galvanised(typical35.5%Recy.)

>2.12BathUnivia[CarbonFootprintLtd,n.y.],dataforsteelcoilpluscontributionforpipeconstruction

Table 23: Selected GWP100 for construction pipes

Differentsurveysexaminedtheenvironmentalperformanceevaluationofdifferentkindsofpipes.Duetothemultitudeofpossibletypesofpipingsystem,usuallycomparableapplicationsarebalanced.Theseareportrayedasfollow:Thesurvey‘PolypropyleneMaterialsforSewerage&DrainagePipeswithReducedEnergyandCarbonFootprints’Wassenaar[2016]comparestheenvironmentealimpactintermsofGWPandnonrenewableenergydemand(NRED)ofinnovativelyproducedPPpipes(basedonhighmoduluspropyleneblockcopolymers[HM]andmineralmodifiedpropylene[MD])withstandardblockcopolymer[B]PPpipes,aswellasconcretematerials.ThestudyhasbeenconductedaccordingtotheinternationalISO14020and14021standardsgoverningenvironmentalclaims,particularlytheiraccuracy.ThecomplianceoftheLCAwiththesestandardshasbeenverifiedbyanexternalindependentauditor.

Thefunctionalunitis1mofinstalledplainwallpipewitharingstiffnessof>8kN/m².ThebasecaseconsidersaDNof250mmforplasticpipesandtheclosestequivalentconcretepipesize(DN225mm).Theweightwhichresultsfromthefunctionalunitispivotalforfurtherexamination:

• PP-MD(DN250mm): 8.0kgperm• PP-HM(DN250mm): 5.9kgperm• PP-B((DN250mm): 6.6kgperm• Concrete(DN225mm): 97.6kgperm

ItisevidentthatthespecificweightofconcretecomparedtoPP(orplasticsingeneral)forthesameapplicationismanytimeshigher(12to16times).Ifthediameterisbigger,thisproportiondecreases.Foradiameterof800mmforplasticpipesand750mmforconcretepipes,theproportionrangesatseventoninetimes[Wassenar2016].

8. Annexes


Incomparision,thefollowingresultsappear:ConcretepipeshaveahigherGWPduetotheproductionofrawmaterials(nearlytwice,seeFigure34).Generally,therawmaterialsproductionaccountsforthat,whichiscomparabletotherawmaterialproductionofPP,aswellastherelatedtransformation.Iftransportationistakenintoconsideration,theGWPresultsinahigherfigureforconcretepipes,predominantlyduetotheheavierspecificweight.

Contrarytothat,plasticpipesgenerallyprovideahigherNREDduetothefactthatforplasticpipesthelargestcontributortoNREDisassociatedwiththeinternalenergycomponentoftherawmaterial(seeFigure35).

Figure 34: GWP for 1 m of installed plain wall sewerage and drainage pipe [Wassenaar, 2016]

Figure 35: NRED for 1 m of installed plain wall sewerage and drainage pipe [Wassenaar, 2016]


Thesurvey‘LifeCycleAnalysisforWaterandWastewaterPipeMaterials’[Duetal.,2013]examinestheLCAdamagesofsixcommonlyusedpipematerials(PVC,ductileiron,castiron,HDPE,concreteandinforcedconcrete).Thefunctionunitisa12-inchpipe(30.5cm)perkm.Table24identifiestheresultsoftheGWPaccordingtodifferentphases.Theinstallationphaseforironishighestduetothejoiningtechnology,whilethetransportationphaseishighestforconcrete,duetoitsweight.BothofthesephasesarenearlyirrelevantforthetotalGWP,becausethehighestGWPcontributionsresultfromtheproduction.

Table 24: Phase-Dependent and Total GWP per km of 30.5 cm (12 in.) diameter pipes for different Materials [Du et al., 2013]

Pipe materials (12-in. pipe)

Total GWP (10³ kg CO

2/km)

Production phase (10³ kgCO

2/km)

Installation phase (10³ kgCO

2/km)

Transportation phase (10³ kg CO

2/km)

PVC 318 315 2.81 0.26

Ductileiron 472 468 3.28 0.88

Concrete 68.3 63.1 2.91 2.26

HDPE 218 215 2.81 0.17

Reinforcedconcrete 152 146 2.91 2.47

Castiron 353 349 3.28 0.84

Forthe12-inchdiameterexample,ironpipescontributedthegreatestincrementtoGWPamongthesixkindsofpipematerialscompared.ConcretepipehadthelowestGWP,despitetheenergydemandassociatedwithcementproduction.ThisiscontrarytosurveyofWassenaar[2016],asmentionedabove,althoughnearlysimilarbasicdatawasusedfortheexaminationofconcretepipes(mainreferenceMarceauetal.[2007]).Further,Duetal.[2013]identifesthatPVCyieldsthegreatestGWPperunitpipelegnthatdiameters≥76.2cm(30inch).Thisseeminganomalyarisesfromthematerial-dependentscheduleofpipethicknesses,whichincreasedramaticallyforplasticwaterpipesofdiametergreaterthan61.0cm(24in.).

AppropriatetoEPA[2000]thedifferenttypesofpipesystemsprovideadvantagesanddisadvantages(Table25).

8. Annexes


Table 26: Comparison of different materials for construction pipes

Comparison: construction pipesCriteria Plastics Concrete Steel / ironGWP +

ProvidesmallestGWPimpact

-Providehighestimpactcom-paredtoplasticsandsteel,also,butnotonlybecauseoflargerspecificweight

0Providehigherimpactthanplastics,butlowerthancon-crete

Waterfootprint +Smallestwaterfootprintcom-paredtoconcreteandsteel

-LargestWaterfootprintasitisusedtomanufactureconcrete

0Largerwaterfootprintthanplastic,butnotaslargeasconcrete

Table 25: General advantages and disadvantages of plastic, concrete and steel/iron pipes [EPA, 2000]

Category Plastics Concrete Steel / iron

Advantages •Verylightweight

•Easytoinstall

•Economical

•Goodcorrosionresistance

•Smoothsurfacereducesfrictionlosses

•Longpipesectionsreduceinfiltrationpotential

•Flexible

•Goodcorrosionresistance

•Widespreadavailability

•Highstrength

•Goodloadsupportingcapacity

• Goodcorrosionresistancewhencoated

• Highstrength

Disadvantages •Susceptibletochemicalattack,particularlybysolvents

•StrengthaffectedbysunlightunlessUVprotected

•Requiresspecialbedding

•Requirescarefulinstallationtoavoidcracking

•Heavy

•SusceptibletoattackbyH2Sand

acidswhenpipesarenotcoated

• Heavy

Acostcomparisonidentifiesthatconcretepipespermeteraregenerallythecheapest,howevertheyareonlyofferedwithlargerdiameters.Plasticpipesareusuallycheaperthancomparablestell/ironpipes[EPA,2000;Rafferty,1998].2

AcomparsionofthedifferentmaterialsolutionsisshowninTable26.


Useofrenewableresources

-Resourceforconventionalplasticisfossil-based(afiniteresource),canpossiblychangedintobiobasedplasticssuchascornstarch,mayresultincom-petitionovercultivablelandandhigherwaterdemand

-Manufacturerequiresalotofenergy,sandasresourceisnotabundantlyavailable

-Manufacturerequiresalotofenergy;onebasesofsteelisironore,whichisafiniteresource

Useofsecondarymaterial

0Ifmadefrommono-material:technicallypossibletorecyclethem,otherwisedowncyclingispossible

0Generallyrecyclableifitisfreeofcontaminants;concretecanbeusedinthemanufactureofnewconcrete

++Generallyhighrecyclingrates,secondarysteeliscommonlyusedintoday’ssteelmanufac-ture

Healthaspects

0Donotrust;drinkingwaterfromplasticpipesolderthan1970scouldpotentiallybeharmful;solventsmayattackpipe

0Donotrust;acidsandH2Smaydamagepipesifnotcoated

0Ifgalvanized,itdoesnotrust;acidicandalkalinewaterdam-agesthem


+Lightweight,corrosionresist-ance;goodresistanceagainstelectriccurrent;relativelyeasytorepair/replace;longpipesec-tionreducesinfiltrationpoten-tial,strengthaffectedbysunlightunlessUVprotected,requiresspecialbedding

0Heavy,weightcorrosionresistance;highstrengthandlongdurability,heatresistance;supposedlylast35to50years,difficulttorepair

-Heavyweight;corrosionresistancewhencoated;highstrength,supposedlylastaroundtenyears;canbejoinedeasily,cutting,bendingandthreadingiseasy;higherriskforpotentialdamageatjointsatlargerdiameter

Economics(world-wide)

+Easytoinstall;smoothsurfacereducesfrictionlosses;flexible

+Widespreadavailability;goodloadsupportingca-pacity

+Relativelyeasytoinstall,notasheavyasconcrete

Economics(price)+

Generallycheapestcomparedtosteelandconcrete

-Pipesgenerallyofferedatlargerdiameter

0Cheaperthanconcrete,moreexpensivethanplasticpipe

Consumeraspects

+Economical,easiertotransportandinstall

-Transportationismoredif-ficultcomparedtosteelandplasticsbecauseoflargerweight

-Longevitymaybeneededtoconsider,astheymaybethreatenedbycorrosion

Wastemanage-ment

0Industrialwasteoftentimesprovidesmoremono-materialsashouseholdwaste,thereforerecyclingistheoreticallypossibleatlargerscale,butadequatewastemanagementinfrastruc-tureneedstobeestablished

0Iffreeofcontaminantssuchaswoodorpaper,concretemayberecycledtobeusedinthemanufactureofnewconcrete;adequatewastemanagementinfrastructureneedstobeestablishedfirst

+Steelcantechnicallyberecy-cledwithoutanyformsofma-terialloss;however,adequatewastemanagementinfrastruc-tureneedstobeestablished

8. Annexes


8.10 Annex 10: Global examples of education and awareness programmesInCalifornia,theCaliforniaEducationandtheEnvironmentInitiativeexists.TheinitiativeisoneofCalRecycle’s(California’sDepartmentofResourcesRecyclingandRecovery)OfficeofEducationandtheEnvironment(OEE)programsthataimencourageenvironmentalliteracyamongallCaliforniastudentsfromKindergartento12thgrade.Theinitiativeprovidescurriculathatcombinetheenvironmentwiththeteachingoftraditionalacademicsubjectssuchasscience,history,Englishlanguage,andarts.Someofthetopicsdiscussedinthecurriculaareaboutearthanditsresources,thehistoryoftheimpactthehumanbehaviourhadontheenvironment,andthecriticalenvironmentalissuesthemodernworldfaces[CaliforniaEducationandtheEnvironmentInitiative,n.y.].

Onemoreexampleisthe2012cooperationbetweenthePaperRecyclingAssociationofSouthAfrica(RecyclePaperZA)andtheDepartmentofEducationtoincorporaterecyclinginthemathscurriculum.ThetopicofrecyclingwasintegratedinthesyllabusofgradesRthroughseven.InpartnershipwithE-CLASSROOM,awebsitethatprovidescurriculum-basededucationalresources,therecycling-focusedlessonsarefoundingradethree,LifeSkillscontentonthewebsite.MorecontenthasalsobeendevelopedtointegraterecyclinginMathematics(datahandling)andEnglishforGradeonetosix,usingpaperproductsasexamples.Recyclingasacurriculumtopicensuresthatlearnersgrowupwithanawarenessofwasteandtheimportanceofrecyclability[RecyclePaperZA,n.y].

Fostplus,Belgium(theBelgianPRO)launchedmultiplecampaignsthattargetlitterprobleminBelgium.In2016withthesupportoftheFeviaandComeossectororganisations,FostplussignedanagreementwiththeFlemish,WalloonandBrusselsauthoritiestotackletheproblemthroughcampaignsandevents.OneexampleistheGrandNettoyagedePrintemps(GreatSpringClean)campaigninWalloniainApril2016,where40,000participantsclearedplotsofland,streetsandparksoflitter.AnothercampaignwastheRetailClean-UpDays,November2016.1,100shopsinFlandersandWalloniaparticipatedintheRetailClean-UpDays.Eachshopagreedtocleanuptheareawithina25mradiusofitspremises.Asurfaceareaof5.7millionm2wascleanedupintotal,theequivalentofmorethan1,150footballfields.ThereareothercampaignslaunchedbyFostplusthataimtoraiseawarenessincommunitiesaboutthecorrectwayofsortingwaste,andtostresstheimportanceofsortinganditspositiveimpactontheenvironmentandfuture[Fostplus,n.y.].

AnotherexampleofistheOrangeBinCampaigninIsrael:RecyclingcorporationscollectingpackagingwastefromallofIsraellaunchedtheonlinecampaigntoraisepublicawarenessaboutrecyclingandproperwastedisposal.ThecampaignusedYouTubeasaplatformtospreaditsmessagebycreatingavideothatfeaturesyoungIsraeliscombiningextremesportwithgarbagecollectiontoeliminatethenegativeideaaboutwasteandrecycling.Thevideowentviralgainingaround900,000views.Andaccordingtoastatisticreleasedin2014bytheIsraelUnionforEnvironmentalDefenseandMigal,aGalileeresearchinstitute,over300,000Israelihouseholdsseparatedryandwetwaste,representinga400%increaseintwoyears(Weißenbacher,2016).


8.11 Annex 11: Flow chart for determining the recyclability

8. Annexes


Notes


Sustainable Development Goals

Innerbackcover


November 2019

Accelerating a Circular Economy in Kenya

Kenya Plastic Action Plan

Kenya Association of Manufacturers15 Mwanzi Road opp West Gate Mall, Westlands

P.O. Box 30225 – 00100 Nairobi, Kenya

E: [email protected]: +254 (0) 722201368, 734646004/5

T: +254 (020) 2324817Twitter: @KAM_Kenya

Facebook: KenyaAssociationOfManufacturers

www.kam.co.ke

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