K’EQCHÎ GRAMMAR - An Introduction - Aug 2014

8/20/2019 K’EQCHÎ GRAMMAR - An Introduction - Aug 2014

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George Max

ISH TZ’IƁANKIL RU K’EQC

An Introduction


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2 | K ’E Q C H Î G R A M M A R – A n I n t r o d u c t i o n G e o r g e M a x

ISH TZ’IƁANKIL RU K’EQCHÎ – URL: http://www.keqchi.org/ EMAIL: [email protected]

http://www.keqchi.org/http://www.keqchi.org/http://www.keqchi.org/mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]://www.keqchi.org/


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K ’E Q C H I G R A M M A R – A n I n t r o d u c t i o n | 3G e o r g e M a x

SUPPORT THE AUTHOR – URL: http://www.deensp.com/ EMAIL: [email protected]

K’EQCHÎ GRAMMAR An Introduction

Ish Tz’iɓankil ru K’eqchî

George Max

http://www.deensp.com/http://www.deensp.com/http://www.deensp.com/mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]://www.deensp.com/


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Book design: George Max

Cover design: George Max

K’eqchî title: Ish Tz’iɓankil ru K’eqchîEnglish title: K‘EQCHÎ GRAMMAR – An Introduction

COPYRIGHT © 2013 BY GEORGE MAX. GUATEMALA, MIDDLE AMERICA

http://www.keqchi.org/ [email protected]

@keqchiorg keqchi

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by

any means, without permission in writing from the author.

NO PRINTED VERSION YET.

I NHOUSE PRODUCTIONS, 2014 | GUATEMALA, MIDDLE AMERICA

WARNING: This grammar book is provided as is for free use and without any warranty as

to the completeness of its current contents since the grammar of KC is still in the process

of compilation, research and development for use in written form. Thus any documenta-

tion presented at KEQCHI.ORG or other places on the Web is regularly updated without

prior notice. Nonetheless, it is within the author’s best of knowledge and belief as aK’eqchî speaker that the data contained here is true and legitimate.

Please make a donation to support the ongoing development and research of the K’eqchîLanguage in written form. You will aslo support KEQCHI.ORG which is an independent

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CONTENTS

CONTENTS .................................................................................................................................................... 5

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................................ 7

PREFACE ......................................................................................................................................................... 8 SUBJECT PRONOUNS ................................................................................................................................. 9

VERBS ............................................................................................................................................................. 9

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE ...................................................................................................................... 9

A CTIVE AND A NTIPASSIVE ............................................................................................................................. 9

Active Verb Form ............................................................................................................................... 10

Antipassive Verb Forms .................................................................................................................... 10

TENSES ......................................................................................................................................................... 10

TENSE M ARKERS ......................................................................................................................................... 10

PRESENT TENSE .......................................................................................................................................... 11 P AST TENSE ................................................................................................................................................ 12

PRETERITE ................................................................................................................................................... 12

FUTURE TENSE ............................................................................................................................................ 13

CONTINUOUS AND PROGRESSIVE ....................................................................................................... 14

PSEUDO-PERFECT ...................................................................................................................................... 15

PASSIVE VOICE ........................................................................................................................................... 16

MODALS ...................................................................................................................................................... 17

IMPERATIVE MOOD ................................................................................................................................... 18

PRONOUNS ................................................................................................................................................ 18

SUBJECT ..................................................................................................................................................... 19

OBJECT ...................................................................................................................................................... 19

POSSESSIVE A DJECTIVES ( WITH A NOUN) .................................................................................................... 19

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS ( WITHOUT A NOUN) ............................................................................................ 19

R EFLEXIVE PRONOUNS ................................................................................................................................ 20

NOUNS ........................................................................................................................................................ 20

PLURAL NOUNS .......................................................................................................................................... 20

COUNT AND NON COUNT NOUNS .......................................................................................................... 20

NOUN SUBSTITUTES ................................................................................................................................... 21

ARTICLES ...................................................................................................................................................... 21

ADJECTIVES ................................................................................................................................................. 22

COMPARISONS ........................................................................................................................................... 22

SUPERLATIVES ............................................................................................................................................. 23

A NY/SOME ................................................................................................................................................ 23



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M ANY/A LOT OF ....................................................................................................................................... 23

A LITTLE/A FEW ......................................................................................................................................... 23

PREPOSITIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 23

ADVERBS ..................................................................................................................................................... 24

A DVERBS OF FREQUENCY .......................................................................................................................... 24 V ERY/TOO................................................................................................................................................. 24

A LREADY/YET/NOT YET ............................................................................................................................. 25

SINCE/FOR ................................................................................................................................................ 25

DEMONSTRATIVES .................................................................................................................................... 25

BE, HAVE, THERE IS/THERE ARE ............................................................................................................. 26

USEFUL TIME EXPRESSIONS .................................................................................................................... 27

QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................................... 27

YES/NO QUESTIONS ................................................................................................................................ 27

INFORMATION QUESTIONS ....................................................................................................................... 28

T AG QUESTIONS ....................................................................................................................................... 28

NON-V ERB QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................ 29

SPELLING .................................................................................................................................................... 29

A CTIVE AND A NTIPASSIVE V ERB FORMS ..................................................................................................... 29

Active Verb Form .............................................................................................................................. 29

Antipassive Verb Form ..................................................................................................................... 30

PRESENT P ARTICIPLE ................................................................................................................................... 30

P AST P ARTICIPLE ........................................................................................................................................ 30

Present, Past and Preterite .............................................................................................................. 31

Future .................................................................................................................................................. 31

Continuous ........................................................................................................................................ 31

IMPERATIVE ................................................................................................................................................ 32

CAPITAL LETTERS ....................................................................................................................................... 32

TITLES ........................................................................................................................................................ 32

COMBINING SENTENCES ....................................................................................................................... 32

WRITING GOOD SENTENCES ................................................................................................................ 34

WRITING GOOD COMPOSITIONS ....................................................................................................... 35

ESTEBAN AJ TZOLONEL .............................................................................................................................. 35

APPENDIX 1 ................................................................................................................................................ 36

K’EQCHÎ TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS............................................................................... 36

A LPHABETICAL LIST OF TRANSITIVE VERBS ................................................................................................... 36

A LPHABETICAL LIST OF INTRANSITIVE VERBS ................................................................................................ 42



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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ADJ = adjective ADV = adverb AFF = affirmative AUX = auxiliary word

COMP = complementCONT = continuous aspectDO = direct objectFUT = future tenseIMP = Imperative MoodKC = K’eqchîMOD = modalNEG = negative wordOBJ = ObjectOPT = optional

PA = Possessive AdjectivePART = ParticiplePPERF = Pseudo-PerfectPP = Possessive Pronoun

PRES or PRS = Present TensePRET = PreteritePROG = progressive aspectPAST or PST = Past TenseQA = question auxiliary wordQI = question interrogative wordQW = auxiliary / interrogative wordSPK = spokenTAM = Tense, Aspect, Modal



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PREFACE

‘ EQCHÎ GRAMMAR – An Introduction aims to put together a simpleyet concise and precise grammar for the K ’eqchî Mayan Language ofGuatemala (hereinafter KC.) It formally introduces the grammatical

rules of a language that had remained only spoken for a yet undeter-mined period of time. Hence, the main emphasis of this book is on writing cor-

rect KC phrases and sentences.

Firstly, it begins with a brief presentation of subject pronouns and an intro-

duction to the main verb forms. This is followed by sections presenting the main

tenses and other that characterize this natural language. Then, a good portion of

the book covers the organization of the parts of speech inherent to KC. Lastly,

sections on building questions, spelling, and combining and writing sentences

can be found at the end.

Overview of KC’s grammar :

The main grammatical tenses are the Present, Past, Preterite and Future.

These are followed by the Continuous and Progressive aspects and then

the Pseudo-Perfect, Modals and Imperatives.

The Passive Voice constitutes the third grammatical construction in KC

after the active and antipassive voices.

The main parts of speech include Pronouns, Nouns, Articles, Preposi-

tions, and Adjectives.

Two main types of questions are defined in KC: Yes/No and Information

questions.

The main rules to derive the different verb forms used in the three

grammatical constructions of KC; namely, the active, passive and anti-

pasive voices, are defined under Spelling.

Combining Sentences and Writing Good Sentences provide guidelines to

build phrases and sentences following the proper KC syntax.

The organization of this grammar guide allows an overall study of the struc-

ture of the K ’eqchî Mayan Language. Only basic information is provided in eachsection in order to keep the introductory character of this book. Nevertheless,

there are conjugation sets, classification tables, sentence structures and plenty of

examples that successively illustrate different aspects of the language as much as possible. The definition of the spelling framework and the provision of methods

on combining sentences are also important parts in the constitution of this gram-

mar book. Lastly, an Appendix contains a selected list of transitive and intransi-

tive verbs along with other derived verb forms as a reference for the study of KC

grammar.

K



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SUBJECT PRONOUNS

A subject pronoun in KC is used as the subject of a verb. Both singular and plural subject

pronouns are presented in the table below. Refer also to PRONOUNS for a complete classification of

KC pronouns.

K’EQCHÎ SUBJECT PRONOUNS

SINGULAR Lain I laat you Aan he/she aan it

PLURAL lao we laesh you aanheɓ they

REMARKS: The capitalization of the first and third singular persons Lain and Aan is here first introduced. For the for-mer, to make it relevant within a sentence and for the latter to differentiate it from aan ( it ) which refers to inanimate ob-

jects, animals or things in general.

VERBS

KC verbs exist in infinitive form proper of which only a few are irregular. All other verb

forms are derived from the Infinitive including mainly those for the active, passive and antipas-

sive voices. Refer to APPENDIX 1 for a selected list of Infinitive verbs.

Transitive and Intransitive

W. Sedat (1955) first set apart these verb types in KC. However, not all verbs have yet been

documented, let alone be distinguished into transitives and instransitives. Nevertheless, it appears

that transitive verbs make up the majority of verbs in KC. Refer to APPENDIX 1 for a selected list of

transitive and instransitive verbs.

Active and Antipassive

These verb forms take part in the grammatical construction of the antipassive and active

voices of KC. While the active verb form is a completely derived form, the antipassive verb form

can be a derived form or the same form as the Infinitive. Refer to APPENDIX 1 for a list of these

verb forms.

The active and antipassive verb forms are integral parts in the construction of the active and

antipassive voices in KC. However, they only work in conjunction with the tense marker sets

(see TENSE M ARKERS below) defined for them. These verb forms cannot be exchanged from one

voice to another.

REMARKS:Generally, infinitive verbs that end in k, preceeded by a vowel (e.g., ɓonok, cutuk ), do not undergo any change and areused in their basic form for the antipassive voice and those that end in -nk, preceeded by a vowel (e.g., iqaank, tyaɓasīnk )are changed. For the active voice, the basic verb form is changed according to the spelling rules outlined in this bookunder SPELLING.



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Active Verb Form

This is a derived verb for building the active voice in KC. According to the spelling rules de-

vised here, most of these verbs have a double vowel end (long sound representation) that helps

define and identify them for the active voice. Other verbs in particular may have a -v + ɓ ending

(v = vowel, ɓ = b’). See the following 3rd

and 4

th

examples.

Aanheɓ enkesh mesuu li Nâjej. PRES They are sweeping the place. Ish Petra ish cuartesii lish C’uulal. PST Petra put her baby to sleep.

Aj Alberto nash ch’ utuɓ li Sî. PRES Alberto is gathering the wood.

Laat sha ach’ aɓ li Ac’ach. PST You set the turkey free.

Antipassive Verb Forms

These verbs are comprised by a derived form and a base form. Most frequently, however, on-

ly the base form (Infinitive) is used in all tenses (except for in the future tense) in either spoken orwritten KC. This particularity can with certainty identify the antipassive voice in sentences such

as the following.

Li Cuiinq na jorrok Sî. PRES The man chops wood.

Aanheɓ sheheɓ elk ’ aank re li Hal. PST They are the ones that stole the corn.

Laat inkat lak ’ aɓānk reheb sâ Ch’aat. PRES You are the one that puts them together in the bed. Li ishq ish puch’uk sâ li Nimhâ. PST The woman washed (clothes) in the river.

The derived verb form for the antipassive voice is less known in either spoken or written KC

and it is thus first formally introduced here. Mostly these verbs have a -v + n ending (v = vowel).

Aanheɓ enkheɓ c ’ atyin Pish sâ C’atyil. They sell tomatoes in the market. Lao inko shaqaɓan Ochoch re li Neɓâ. We erect houses for the poor.

Lain in ɓatz’un ric’in lin Cuitz’in. I play with my little brother.

TENSES

Tense Markers

A tense marker in KC is an auxiliary word that indicates tense and person for any conjugated

verb. Importantly, a tense marker is unique for each person and tense set. Syntactically, all tense

markers go before the verb in any tense. Furthermore, tense markers are divided into active andantipassive as presented in the following tables.

CLASIFICATION OF ACTIVE TENSE MARKERSPRESENT PAST PRETERIT FUTURE

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural

Lain in lao inqa Lain shin lao i shqa Lain kin lao k iqa Lain tin lao taqa

laat inka laesh enke laat sha laesh she laat ka laesh ke laat ta laesh te

Aan nash aanheɓ enkesh Aan ish aanheɓ shesh Aan kish aanheɓ kesh Aan t ish aanheɓ tesh



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CLASSIFICATION OF ANTIPASSIVE TENSE MARKERS

PRESENT PAST PRETERIT FUTURE

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural

Lain in lao inko Lain shin lao sh o Lain kin lao ko Lain tin lao to

laat inkat laesh enkesh laat shat laesh shesh laat kat laesh kesh laat ta t laesh tesh

Aan na aanheɓ enkhe ɓ Aan ish aanheɓ shehe ɓ Aan k i aanheɓ keheb Aan ta aanheɓ tehe ɓ

Note that the tense marker of the first person singular is the same for both voices in all tenses.

The one for the third person singular is also the same but only in the past tense.

NOTE: Tense markers of the future tense set behave much more like the auxiliary verb will in English. Those of the pre-sent, past and preterit, however, have other connotations to be explained and categorized under this grammar introduc-tion.

Present Tense

The present tense in KC describes habitual or repeated actions. We can also use it to give

general information. A sentence in the present tense can use an active or antipassive verb form.Refer to APPENDIX 1 for a selected list of ready-to-use verb forms. Study the following conjugation

set.

Verb: jalok – to change; Conjugated verb form: infinitive antipassive

SINGULAR Lain in jalok laat inkat jalok Aan na jalok aan na jalok

I change you change he/she changes it changes

PLURAL lao inko jalok laesh enkesh jalok aanheɓ enkheɓ jalok

we change you change they change

Affirmative Sentence Structure: SUBJECT + AUX + VERB + COMPLEMENT

Lain in atinak K’eqchî. I can speak K ’ eqchî. Aan na ɓatz ’ un Ɓolotz-oq sâ Ɓee. He/she plays soccer on the street.

Li Tz’ î na kwo ɓak Chik’eq. The dog barks at night. Aj Diego na tzolok chi tz’iɓak. Diego learns how to write.

Negative Sentence Structure: SUBJECT + NEG + AUX + VERB + COMPLEMENT

The negative is formed by putting inc’â (literally not ) before the verb in a sentence.

Laat inc’â inka naw ilok ru Hu. You don’ t know how to read.

Aj Manuel inc’â na wulak chi C’anjelak. Manuel does not go to work.

Questions Sentence Structure: QW + AUX + VERB + COMPLEMENT + [SUBJECT]?

To create a Yes/No question in the present tense, we use the auxiliary particle ma at the be-

ginning of the sentence (similar to using do in English). Other questions asking for informationuse interrogative words as shown in the following 3

rd and 4

th sentences (See also QUESTIONS).

Aj Felipe na shik chi tzolok Chik’eq. Felipe goes to study at night.

Ma na shik chi tzolok Chik’eq aj Felipe? Ehê. Does Felipe go to study at night? Yes. Ani na shik chi tzolok Chik’eq? Aj Felipe. Who goes to study at night? Felipe.



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Ɓar na shik chi tzolok Chik’eq aj Felipe? Where does Felipe go to study at night?

Past Tense

The past tense in KC describes a completed action. A sentence in the past tense can use an

active or an antipassive verb form. Refer to APPENDIX 1 for a selected list of ready-to-use verbforms. Study the following conjugation set.

Verb: ɓonok – to paint ; Conjugated verb form: infinitive antipassive

SINGULAR Lain shin ɓonok laat shat ɓonok Aan ish ɓonok aan ish ɓonok

I painted you painted he/she painted it painted

PLURAL lao sho ɓonok laesh shesh ɓonok aanheɓ sheheɓ ɓonok

we painted you painted they painted


Lain shin wulak chi ɓeek ecuer. I went out/for a walk yesterday.

Aanheɓ shehe ɓ shajok ecuer Chik’eq. They danced last night.

Laesh she ɓon li Ochoch. You painted the house. [P L ] Ish Carmela ish lok ’ jun ish Ac’ach. Carmela bought a turkey [for herself].


The negative is formed by putting inc’â (literally not ) before the conjugated verb in a sen-tence.

Ish Angelia inc’â ish c ’ ul lish Tojbal. Angelia did not receive her payment.

Lao inc’â sho wulak sâ Tzoleɓāl ecuer. We did not go to school yesterday.


To create a Yes/No question in the past tense, we use the auxiliary ma at the beginning of thesentence (similar to using did in English). Other questions asking for information use interroga-tive words as shown in the following 3rd and 4th sentences (See also QUESTIONS).

Aan ish wulak chi ɓeek ecuer. He/she went for a walk yesterday.

Ma ish wulak chi ɓeek ecuer [Aan]? Ehê. Did he go for a walk yesterday? Yes. Anii ish wulak chi ɓeek ecuer? Aan. Who went for a walk yesterday? He did.

Jok‘ee ish wulak chi ɓeek [Aan]? Ecuer . When did he go for a walk? Yesterday.

Preterite

The preterite in KC can indicate and express actions and events that took place or were completed in the past. Thus, it is mostly used for story telling (narrative). It can also be used to tell

the probability of an action and event that must , should , would or could have happened in the past but it didn’t. We do this with the inclusion of the particle raj.

Verb: awok – to sow ; Conjugated verb form: infinitive antipassive

SINGULAR Lain kin awok laat kat awok Aan ki awok aan ki awok

I sowed you sowed he/she sowed it sowed



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PLURAL lao ko awok laesh kesh awok aanheɓ keheɓ awok

we sowed you sowed they sowed

Affirmative Sentence Structure: SUBJECT + AUX + VERB + [RAJ] + COMPLEMENT

Lain kin c ’ u l in Ɓan re li Rashkehoɓ. I received a vaccine against malaria.

Aanheɓ kehe ɓ shucuak ɓan li Caaq. They were frightened by the lightning.

Arran ki cuan jun nim Ochoch. There used to be a large house there.

Ish Elena kish tzol kemok sâ Tzoleɓāl. Elena learned how to weave at school.

We can express probability, possibility and advice in the past by the use of the particle raj in

the Preterite.

Li Tz’ î ki cam raj ɓan Tyajel. PROBABILITY The dog could have died of a disease.

Laat kat ok ra j sâ Tzoleɓāl. ADVICE You should have entered school.

Negative Sentence Structure: SUBJECT + NEG + AUX + VERB + [RAJ] + COMPLEMENT

The negative is formed by putting inc’â (literally not ) before the conjugated verb in a sen-

tence.

Ish Paulina in c ’ â ki sh tzo l ilok ru Hu. Paulina did not learn how to read.

Lao in c ’ â ko elel ik ɓan li Rahshiic’. We did not flee by the violence.


To create a Yes/No question in the Preterite, we use the auxiliary ma at the beginning of the

sentence (similar to using did in English). Other questions asking for information use interroga-tive words as shown in the following 3

rd and 4

th sentences (See also QUESTIONS).

Li cheekel Ishq ki cam. The old woman died.

Ma ki cam li cheekel Ishq? Ehê. Did the old woman die? Yes. Ɓar ki cam li cheekel Ishq? Where did the old woman die? Jok’ee ki cam li cheekel Ishq? When did the old woman die?

Future Tense

The future tense in KC describes an action yet to come, expected. As noted earlier, auxiliary

words for this tense behave very much like the auxiliary verb will in English. A sentence in thefuture tense can use an active or an antipassive verb form. Refer to APPENDIX 1 for a selected listof ready-to-use verb forms. Study the following conjugation set.

Verb: atinak – to talk, speak ; Conjugated verb form: inflected

SINGULAR Lain tin atinaq laat tat atinaq Aan ta atinaq aan ta atinaq

I will talk you will talk he/she will talk it will talk

PLURAL lao to atinaq laesh tesh atinaq aanheɓ teheɓ atinaq

we will talk you will talk they will talk


Lao to shik sâ C’atyil. We will go to the market.

Ish Josefina t ish ty i i ɓ li Cuaa. Josefina will make the tortillas.



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Aj Juan ta c ’ atyi inq Keenk’. Juan will sell beans.

Aanheɓ tehe ɓ ɓatzuunq sâ cuiɓ Cutan. They will play in two days. [SPORT ]


The negative is formed by putting inc’â (literally not ) before the verb in a sentence.

Laesh inc’â tesh shik sâ C’atyil. You will not go to the market.

Ish Marta inc’â tish lok ’ li Cashlan. Marta will not buy the chicken.


To create a Yes/No question in the future tense, we use the auxiliary ma at the beginning of

the sentence (similar to using will in English). Other questions asking for information use inter-rogative words as shown in the following 3rd and 4th sentences (See also QUESTIONS).

Laat tat pisc ’ oq sâ ishɓen li Pim. You will jump over the bush.

Ma tat pisc ’ oq sâ ishɓen li Pim? Will you jump over the bush? Anii ta pisc ’ oq sâ ishɓen li Pim? Aan. Who will jump over the bush? He will.

Ɓar ta pisc ’ oq Aan? Sâ ishɓen li Pim. Where will he/she jump? Over the bush.

CONTINUOUS AND PROGRESSIVE

KC has both grammatical aspects, the continuous and the progressive. They are built by us-

ing an auxiliary word that implies "to be doing sth." Then we use chi/ish (continu-ous/progressive) to connect the verb. Study the following conjugation set.

SINGULAR Lain tyokin laat tyokat Aan tyoo aan tyoo

PLURAL lao tyokoo laesh tyokesh aanheɓ tyokheɓ

To create the past continuous/progressive, we insert the particle raj to indicate that the action

was happening in the past as shown in the following conjugation set. Then chi/ish follows.

SINGULAR Lain tyokin raj laat tyokat raj Aan tyoo raj aan tyoo raj

PLURAL lao tyokoo raj laesh tyokesh raj aanheɓ tyokheɓ raj

Affirmative Sentence Structure: SUBJECT + AUX + [RAJ] + CHI/ISH + VERBINF/PART + COMPLEMENT

Lain tyokin chi ilok ru Hu. PRES CONT I am reading.o Lain tyokin raj chi ilok ru Hu. P AST CONT I was reading.

Aj Leo tyoo ish ɓonɓal li Ochoch. PRES PROG Leo is painting the house.

o Aj Leo tyoo raj ish ɓonɓal li Ochoch. P AST PROG Leo was painting the house.

Negative Sentence Structure: SUBJECT + NEG + AUX + [RAJ] + CHI/ISH + VERBINF/PART + COMPLEMENT

The negative in the continuous/progressive is formed by adding inc’â (literally not ) beforethe auxiliary word.

In Nâchin inc’â tyoo chi cuaark. PRES CONT My grandmother is not sleeping. Eɓ li Mess inc’â tyokheɓ ish jochɓal li Ch’ aat . PRES PROG The cats are not scratching the bed.



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Questions Sentence Structure: QW + AUX + [RAJ] + CHI/ISH + VERBINF/PART + COMPLEMENT + [SUBJECT]?

To create a Yes/No question in the continuous/progressive, we use the auxiliary ma at the

beginning of the sentence (similar to using be in English). Other questions asking for informationuse interrogative words as shown in the following 3rd and 4th sentences (See also QUESTIONS).

Laesh tyokesh chi tz’iɓak sâ Hu. CONT You are writing on paper.

Ma tyokesh chi tz’iɓak sâ Hu? CONT Are you writing on paper?

C’arruu tyokesh ish tz’iɓankil sâ Hu? PROG What are you writing on paper? Anii tyokheɓ chi tz’ibak sâ Hu? CONT Who are writing on paper?

PSEUDO-PERFECT

The here termed pseudo-perfect in KC uses the auxiliary particle ac before the verb in past

tense, not past participle. In this respect, it differs syntactically from certain modern languages

(e.g., German, English or Spanish) that use have to form the Perfect. Still, in KC it gives the

same sense and direction and shows that an action or task has been completed for the moment.

Affirmative Sentence Structure: SUBJECT + AC + AUX + VERB + COMPLEMENT

Verb: cuâak – to eat ; Conjugated verb form: infinitive past

SINGULAR Lain ac shin cuâak laat ac shat cuâak Aan ac ish cuâak aan ac ish cuâak

I have eaten you have eaten he/she has eaten it has eaten

PLURAL lao ac sho cuâak laesh ac shesh cuâak aanheɓ ac sheheɓ cuâak

we have eaten you have eaten they have eaten

Aj Mario ac i sh choy lish C’anjel chican. Mario has finished his job already. Lao ac sho c ’ alen junsut. We have grazed once.

Ish Lola ac i sh lok ’ cuiɓ ish Cashlan. Lola has bought two chicks. Li Tz’ î ac ish cuâak chican. The dog has already eaten.


The negative is formed by putting majî (literally not yet ) before the conjugated verb in a sen-tence.

Ish Josefa ac ish tzol chi tz’iɓak. Josefa has learned how to write. o Ish Josefa majî nash tzol chi tz’iɓak. Josefa has not yet learned how to write.

Aanheɓ ac shesh tzol chi ajlaank. They have learnd how to count. o Aanheɓ majî enkesh tzol chi ajlaank. They haven’t learnd how to count.

IMPORTANT: the pseudo-perfect negative uses a verb in the present tense (underlined).

Questions Sentence Structure: QW + AC + AUX + VERB + COMPLEMENT + [SUBJECT]?

To create a Yes/No question in the Pseudo-Perfect, we use the auxiliary ma at the beginning

of the sentence. Other questions asking for information use interrogative words as shown in the

following 3rd and 4th sentences (See also QUESTIONS).

Lain ac shin oksii li Sî sâ Caɓ. I have brought the wood inside.



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Ma ac sha oksii li Sî sâ Caɓ? Ehê. Have you brought the wood inside [the house]? Yes. Anii ac ish oksii li Sî sâ Caɓ? Aan. Who has brought the wood inside? He has. C’aput ac shat oksii li Sî sâ Caɓ? Why have you brought the wood inside?

PASSIVE VOICE

The passive voice in KC can be formed in every tense, aspect and modal as shown in the ta-

ble below. Note that the column labeled as past participle shows two verb forms which should be

derived from the base form. Refer to P AST P ARTICIPLE to find out how to derive passive participles.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE PASSIVE VOICE ACCORDING TO TAM*

TENSE BASE FORM AUXILIAR PAST PARTICIPLE

PRESENT ɓasok SIT ɓasê / ɓasman

PAST ɓasok SIT basê / ɓasman

FUTURE ɓasok SIT ɓasek’ / ɓasmaanq

PRESENT CONTINUOUS AUX + chi ɓasok SIT chi ɓasec’

PAST CONTINUOUS AUX + raj chi ɓasok SIT raj chi ɓasec’

PSEUDO-PERFECT ac + AUX + ɓasok SIT ɓasê / ɓasman

MODAL narruu + AUX + ɓasok SIT ɓasê / ɓasman

*TAM – Tense, Aspect, Modal; SIT - Same as in Indicated Tense BUT only those defined for the antipassive voice.

Affirmative Sentence Structure: SUBJECT + AUX + VERBPST PART + COMPLEMENT

TENSE K’EQCH – A: ACTIVE VOICE, P: PASSIVE VOICE ENGLISH

PRESENT A: Aanheɓ enkesh tyii ɓ Caɓ ric’in Utz’aal. They make brown sugar with sugar cane.

P: Caɓ na tyi ɓman ric’in Utz’aal. Brown sugar is made with sugar cane.

PRESENT CONT Lao tyokoo chi chapok Car. We are catching fish.

P: Car tyoo chi chapec ’ . Fish is being caught.

PAST A: Aj Luis ish c ’ am chaq li Ishim. Luis brought the maize.

P: Li Ishim ish c ’ amê chaq ɓan aj Luis. The maize was brought by Luis.

PAST CONT Lao tyokoo raj chi ɓisok Peens. We were weighing allspice.

P: Peens tyoo raj chi ɓisec’. Allspice was being weighed.

PSEUDO-PERFECT Lao ac sho c ’ atok naɓal chi Pim. We have burned a lot of weed.

P: Naɓal chi Pim ac ish c ’ atê. A lot of weed has been burned.

FUTURE A: Tesh tyii ɓ junaq chic Ɓee. They will build another road.

P: Junaq chic Ɓee ta tyibaaq. Another road will be built.

MODAL A: Laat narru inka tyiiɓ a Ochoch sâ Tenamit. You can build your house in the city.

P: Ochoch narru na tyi ɓman sâ Tenamit. A house can be built in the city.

Negative Sentence Structure: SUBJECT + NEG + AUX + VERBPST PART + COMPLEMENT

Cooc’al inc’â enke c ’ ulman sâ Ch’utam. PRES Children are not allowed in the meeting. Ishim inc’â tyo raj chi ɓisec’. PST CONT Maize was not being weighed.

Questions Sentence Structure: QW + SUBJECT + AUX + VERBPST PART + COMPLEMENT + [SUBJECT]?

Jok’ee ish chapê li Cuiinq? PST When was the man caught?



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Ma Pish tyoo chi ɓisec’? PRS CONT Are tomatoes being weighed? Ɓar ta tyibaaq junaq chic Ɓee? FUT Where will another road be built? C’arruu ac ish tzolê? PPERF What has been learned?

MODALS

In KC, we can create a modal expressing physical ability by the use of the verb ruuk (can, beable to). We also use narruu (may, could ) and marree ( perhaps, maybe) to express probabilityand possibility, respectively. In addition, the modifier raj is used to create the sense of to like toand would like to.

Affirmative Sentence Structure: SUBJECT + MOD + [ AUX] + VERB + COMPLEMENT

Laat narruu inkat chapok Carr arrin. PERMISSION WITH VERB IN PRESENT TENSE o You can [catch] fish here.

Lain narruu tin shik chi ɓeek kwulaj Ek’laa. POSSIBILITY WITH VERB IN FUTURE TENSE o I might be able to go out tomorrow morning.

Aan marree

tish lok ’ junaq ish cashlan sâ C’atyil. PROBABILITY WITH VERB IN FUTURE TENSE

o He/she might buy a chicken at the market.

Marree inc’â teheɓ c ’ ulunq. SPK NON-PROBABILITY WITH VERB IN FUTURE TENSE o Perhaps they won’t come. OR They may not come.

In modals, the particle raj acts as a modifier after a verb so that it acquires equivalent mean-

ing to the English modal should .

Lao inko c ’ anjelak raj sâ commonil. ADVICE, SUGGESTION WITH VERB IN PRESENT TENSE o We should work together.

Ac shat c ’ irraa raj. POSSIBILITY WITH VERB IN PAST TENSE o You should have cured already.

Li Mess ki tyolesiik raj ɓan li Tz’ î. PROBABILITY WITH VERB IN PRETERITE o The cat wanted to be chased by the dog.

Laesh enke c ’ aytesii raj e riɓ chi aɓiink. ADVICE, SUGGESTION; PRESENT TENSE W/ REFLEXIVE PRONOUN o You should get used to listen.

Aanheɓ cuankheɓ raj sâ Tz’alam. STRONG ADVICE, SUGGESTION WITH VERB CUAANK o They should be in jail/prison.

Particularly, raj can also be used after the verb ajok ( to want, need, require) to give the mean-ing of would like to in English.

Aanheɓ teheɓ raj 1 raj shik a cuic’in. WOULD LIKE TO o They would like to go with you.

Negative Sentence Structure: SUBJECT + NEG + AUX + VERB + COMPLEMENT / SUBJECT + NEG + MOD + AUX + VERB + COMPLEMENT / MOD + NEG + AUX + VERB + COMPLEMENT

To form the negative in a modal, we use inc’â (literally not ) before the verb ruuk or the mod-al verb narruu. Marree can only be negated by a negative word after it.

1 The verb ajok is prefixed for each person in the active voice so that it becomes raj for the 3 rd person singular and plural.

The complete conjugated set is as follows: Singular: cuaj, cuaj, raj; Plural: qaj, raj, raj.



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Aan inc’â na ruu alinak sâ jumpaat. INABILITY He cannot run very fast.

Laat inc’â narruu inkat chunlaa arrin.Lain inc’â narruu tin shik chi ɓatz’uunk.

NON PERMISSION IMPOSSIBILITY

You may not sit here.I cannot be able to go play. [SPORT]

Marree inc’â ish c ’ ul ish Tumin. SPK NON PROBABILITY He/she may not have got paid.

Lao inc’â inko c ’ anjelak raj sâ Sabado. ADVICE We should not work on Saturday.

Inc’â enkheɓ raj raj chaalk. SPK NOT TO LIKE TO They would not want to come.

Questions Sentence Structure: QW + [MOD] + AUX + VERB + [RAJ] + COMPLEMENT + [SUBJECT]?

Ma inkat ruu ajlaank? Can you count?

Ma narruu to ilaanq arrin? Can we rest here?

Ma ta cuaj raj shik chi lok’ok ekwuu? Would you like to go shopping in the afternoon? C’arruu ta cuaj 1 raj? What would you like?

IMPERATIVE MOOD

We use the imperative mood to form commands or requests in KC. No subject is necessary

in an imperative for the second person singular or plural unless we want to address someone(s)specifically.

Affirmative Sentence Structure: VERB + COMPLEMENT + [SUBJECT]

C’am chaq la Hu. 2nd

S Bring your book/notebook/paper.

Tyolesii li Cashlan. 2nd

S Chase the chicken.

Mesuu li Nâjej. 2nd

S Sweep the place.

Ɓanumaq e C’anjel. 2nd P Do your work.

C’amomaq e Tumin. 2nd

P Take/bring money with you!

Negative Sentence Structure: NEG + VERB + COMPLEMENT

Ma/mat and me/mesh (literally do not , active/antipassive voices respectively) are used tocreate the negative form of imperatives for the second person singular and plural respectively.

Ma tz ’ ap li Uc’al. 2nd S Do not cover the pot. Mat shucuak ɓan li Tz’î. Do not be scared of the dog.

Me ɓuyuɓ li Sî arran. 2nd P Do not pile the wood there. Mesh shik sâ Ɓee. Do not go to the street.

PRONOUNS

KC pronouns are classified into Subject, Object, Possessive Pronoun, Possessive Adjective

and Reflexive. The following table presents these pronouns according to the English classifica-tion. Although the Object and Possessive Pronouns are the same in writing and pronunciation,

those of the latter are each preceeded by a definite article.



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CLASSIFICATION OF K’EQCHÎ PRONOUNS

Subject Object Ob PossessiveAdjective(with a noun)

PA PossessivePronoun(without anoun)

PP Reflexive

SINGULAR

Lain I cue me lin / in my Ii cue mine cuiɓ myselflaat you a cue you la / a your la cue yours a cuiɓ yourself

Aan he/she re him/her lish / ish his/herli re his/hers

riɓ himself -herself

aan it re it lish / ish its li re its riɓ itself

PLURAL

lao we qe us li qa / qa our li qe ours qiɓ ourselves

laesh you e re you le / e your le re yours e riɓ yourselves

aanheɓ theyeɓ aan,reheɓ them

eɓ lish / eɓ ish, esh their

eɓ li re theirs ribeɓ themselves

Subject

Use a subject pronoun as the subject of a sentence in KC.

Aan na alinak sâ Ɓee. PRES He/she runs on the street. Aanheɓ tyokheɓ chi tzolok K’eqchî. PRES CONT They are learning K ’ eqchî .

Lao taqa lok ’ li Cuyam. FUT We will buy the pig.

Object

Use an object pronoun as the object of a verb or the object of a preposition.

Aan ta c ’ amoq e re. FUT He/she will take you. [PL] Shin lok ’ re jun ish Punit. SPK I bought him a hat. OR I bought a hat for him.

Possessive Adjectives (with a noun)

Possessive adjectives show that something belongs to someone. Use possessive adjectives

with a noun (underlined). Possessive adjectives in KC distinguish between possessed (including

body parts) and non-possessed items (things or objects).

Aan lish Sî aj Beto. POSSD That is Beto’s wood.

Lin Nâ na c’anjelak sâ Hospital. POSSD My mother works at the hospital. La Cuesh cuan chirruu li Caɓ. POSSD Your pants are against the [house’s] wall .

Tin lok’ e cuesh sâ C’atyil. NON-POSSD I will buy you pants in the market. (P L ) Junaq raj qa Mess. NON-POSSD I wish we had a cat.

Majun eɓ ish Ac’ach shesh lok’ . NON-POSSD They didn’t buy any turkeys.

Possessive Pronouns (without a noun)

Possessive pronouns show that something belongs to someone. Use a possessive pronoun

without a noun but always with the respective definite article before it.

Lish Ac’ach cuan sâ Caɓ ut la cue cuan sâ Pim. Her turkey is in the house and yours is in the bushes.



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Ain lin Mesleɓ ut aan li re. This is my broom and that ’ s his/hers.

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns in KC reflect on the subject of the sentence.

Laat inka cuil a cuiɓ sâ Lem. You see yourself in the mirror. Laesh enke tenk ’ aa raj e riɓ chi tzolok. You should help yourselves to learn.

NOUNS

A noun in KC can be the name of a person, place, thing or idea. Following are some noun

examples listed in several categories:

Person Place Object Abstract

Nâ, Tyucuâ Chisec Mesleɓ Usilal

mother, father location broom Favor

Qanâ, Qacuâ Chirrepec Cuesh Sahilch’olej

Mrs., Mr. location pants happiness

C’uulal, Teelom Raɓinal Tz’umuy Ch’inausal

baby, boy (sex) location anona niceness, beautiful

Ish Aurelia nash k ’ aluu lish Tyucuâ. Aurelia hugs her father.

Shin lok ’ oshib chi Tz’umuy . SPK I bought three anonas.

Li Mesleɓ ac k’eel chic. The broom is old already.

Plural nouns

The pluralization of nouns follows this syntax: eɓ + li + noun, where eɓ = pluralizer, li = def-inite article. A noun should always be preceded by l i when we refer to a specific noun in singu-

lar.

SINGULAR PLURAL

li Ochoch the house eɓ li Ochoch the houses

li Ac’ach the turkey eɓ li Ac’ach the turkeys

li Tz’ î the dog eɓ li Tz’ î the dogs

li Ishq the woman eɓ li Ishq the women

Eɓ li Ac’ach cuankheɓ sâ Ɓê. The turkeys are on the street. Tin tyolesii eɓ li Cashlan. SPK I will chase the chicken.

NOTE: Words already in plural include: li Cooc’ al , li Poyanam.

Count and Non Count Nouns

Nouns in KC can be counted. Counted nouns, however, have no plural form. Syntax: NUM-

BER + CHI + NOUN.



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NOUN COUNTED NOUN

Ochoch house oshiɓ chi Ochoch three houses

Cashlan chicken ooɓ chi Cashlan five chicken

Ɓee road cuiɓ chi Ɓee two roads

Tin lok ’ oshiɓ chi Ac’ach. SPK I will buy three turkeys.

Jun chi Ishq ki ok sâ Tz’alam. PRET A woman went to prison.

The following examples are non-count nouns and cannot have a number before them or have

plural forms.

Hâ Ik’ Ch’och’ Sahilch’olej Sham Haɓ

water wind, air earth, ground, dirt happiness fire rain

C ’ ee li Tiɓ ut li Cuaa sâ Sham. Put the meat and the tortillas in the fire.

Tiikil Hâ na moq sâ li Tzuul. Pure water springs from the mountain.

We use ɓayaq (adj. some) and nâɓal (adj. a lot ) as quantifiers for nouns to indicate small and

large amounts respectively. Nâɓal still requires the preposition chi to connect with the noun.

EXAMPLES: ɓayaq Hâ, some water ; ɓayaq Atz’am, some salt ; ɓayaq cashlan K’een, some pepper

C ’ ee bayaq Atz’am sâ li Tiɓelcuaa. Put some salt in the food.

EXAMPLES: nâɓal Tumin, much money; nâɓal Pim, much grass; nâɓal Utz’uuj, much flowers.

Nâɓal chi Utz’uuj na lok’ ê sâ K’esaant. A lot of flowers are bought on All Saint ’ s Day.

Noun Substitutes

Athough KC has no indefinite articles (e.g. a, an), a noun can be substituted by jun (one), junaq chic (another one; I NDEFINITE ) or junchic (the other one; D EFINITE ). The following sen-tences illustrate this feature.

Ish Nela cuan jun ish Ac’ach ut ish Amalia cuan jun re ajcuî.o Nela has a turkey and Amalia has one too.

In Nâchin ta raj shik sâ li C’atyil ain aɓan Lain tin cuaj shik sâ junaq chic.o My grandmother wants to go this market but I want to go to another one.

Aj Maco ac cuan jun ish Cashlan aɓan tish lok ’ junaq chic.o Maco already has one chicken but he will buy another one.

Ish Nâ ta raj shik sâ li C’atyiɓāl ain aɓan Aan ta raj shik sâ li junchic. o His/her mother wants to go to this store but he/she wants to go to the other one.

Aan na wulak chi ruu li Cuesh ain aɓan inc’â na wulak chi ruu eɓ li junchic. o He likes this pants but he does not like the other ones.

ARTICLES

The main definite article in KC is li. We can use it with all kinds of nouns: singular and plu-

ral; count and non-count. There are two definite articles for the 3rd person singular in KC: aj and



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ish for male and female, respectively. There are no a or an indefinite articles in KC such as thereare in other modern languages (e.g., German, English or Spanish).

Li ishq ish wulak sâ C’atyil. The woman went to the market.

Li Ochoch naj ish terram. [NO VERB] The house is tall.

Shin wulak toj sâ ishɓeen li Tzuul. SPK I went to the top of the mountain.

Aj Miguel cuan sâ Caɓ. Miguel is at home. Ish Marta nash naw kemok. Marta knows how to weave.

Lain ut aj Pedro inko tzolok . I and Pedro study.

Although, li is an article it can also be used as a conjunction for that/the one that . The fol-lowing examples illustrate this.

Aan li1 Cuiinq li2 na c ’ atyin Chacach. That ’ s the man that sells baskets. Ainheɓ li1 Cooc’al li2 tyokheɓ raj chi sêek. These are the kids that were laughing.

1) li as a definite article; 2) li as a conjunction.

ADJECTIVES

An adjective in KC describes a noun. It goes before the noun in syntactic terms (e.g., Eng-

lish, German). Study the following examples.

nim Ɓee ac’ Chacach chaaɓil Hal Ch’ajom Cuiinq chaj Sî

wide road new basket good corn young man pine wood

tzô Ac’ach saq Tz’ î tiikil Hâ teelom Mess K’eel Punit

male turkey white dog pure water male cat old hat

Jun camenaq Mess cuan sâ li nim Ɓee. A dead cat is on the road.

Li cuiinq na c ’ atyin chaaɓil Hal. The man sells good corn.

Cuiɓ chi tzô Ac’ach taqa lok ’ re K’esaant. We will buy two turkeys for All Saints’ Day.

Comparisons

We can use adjectives to compare two people or objects in KC. Adjectives do not undergo

any change during this process.

Comparison pattern 1: SUBJ1 + JWAL + ADJ + PA-NOUN/ AUX-VERB + CHIRRUU + SUBJ2

Ish Berta jwal nim ish terram chirru aj Manuel. Berta is taller than Manuel. Li Mess jwal naj na pisc ’ ok chirruu li Tz’ î. The cat jumps higher than the dog.

Comparison pattern 2: SUBJ1 + JWAL + AUX-VERB + […] + CHI US + CHIRRUU + SUBJ2

Laat jwal inkat ch’ eok Marimba chi us chirruu aj Kal. You play the Marimba better than Karl. Aj Marcos jwal nash naw tz ’ i ɓak chi us chirruu aj Ton. Marcos knows how to write better than Ton.



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Superlatives

We can use adjectives to compare three or more people or objects in KC. Adjectives do not

undergo any change during this process.

Comparison pattern: SUBJ1 + K’ ASHAL + ADJ/ ADV + PA-NOUN/ AUX-VERB + CHIRRUU + SUBJ2

Ish Berta k’ashal n im ish terram chirruu eɓ li oshiɓ chi Ishq.o Berta is the tallest of the three women.

Aj Leo k’ashal ek’laa na cuaclii chirruu eɓ li ooɓ chi Cooc’al.o Leo gets up the earliest of the five kids.

Any/Some

Junaq (any, some, a, an) and ɓayaq ( some, a little) are commonly used with question, re-quest or wish statements. In opposition, majun (literally there is/are not/no […] any/not to have)

and mac’â (there is not, not to have) are used in a negative sense to denote the lack of or absence

of a possession or thing, including people.

Ma cuan junaq ish Ac’ach ish Julia? Does Julia have any turkeys?

Ma cuan ɓayaq Sak’ee anajcuan? Is there some sun now/today/at this moment? C ’ ee bayaq ish Cuaa li Mess. IMP → REQ Give the cat some food.

Junaq raj in Hu re tzolok. WISH I wish I had a book to learn.

Majun Cooc’al cuankheɓ sâ Tzolebāl. There are no children at school . Li Mess mac’â ish Cuaa. [NO VERB] The cat does not have food.

Many/A Lot of

Nâɓal (there is many/a lot of, many) and c’ajô (there is a lot of ) are generally used to expressa large quantity and number for count and non-count nouns.

Nâɓal chi Carr cuan sâ li Nimhâ. There is many fish in the river.

C’ajô chi Saank cuankheɓ sâ li Pim. There are a lot of ants on the grass. Aj Mel ish c ’ ul nâɓal chi Tumin. Mel received a lot of money.

A Little/A Few

Baɓay (a little, some) and cach’in (a few, some; little, small ) are generally used to expresssmall quantity, number or measurement.

Aan cuan ɓaɓay ish Tumin. He has some money. Cach’in ajcuî ish May lin Jolom. [NO VERB] My head only hurts a little.

PREPOSITIONS

The following table contains a list of prepositions in current use in KC. The most common

are chi, sâ, and re, literally to, in, and for .



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TABLE OF K’EQCHÎ PREPOSITIONS

chalen since re for, to, so

chi to (for connecting verbs and other ric’in with, together with, along with

chirree at the edge/border/mouth of ruɓel under

chirrish in back of, behind of sâ in, into, at, to

chirruuchisâ

in front of, during, by

inside, within, intak’aa taqek’

down, below

up, high, above

/sâ/ ishɓeen above, on, over, on top of toj until, as far as (distance), up to

/sâ/ ishɓeen cuaa before, first /sâ ish/ tyaanq in between

nach’ near, close to, in the vicinity /sâ ish/ tyitoq in the middle of

Lin Cuas na wulak chi c’anjelak. My older brother goes to work.

Li Pish cuan sâ ishɓeen li Cuahileɓ. The tomatoes are on the table.

Laesh tesh tzoloq re naq te naw e C’anjel. You will study so that you can learn a skill. Aanheɓ sheheɓ cuaak sâ li Pâɓaank. They ate at the party ( RELIGIOUS ).

ADVERBS

Adverbs of Frequency

The most common adverbs of frequency in KC include: junelik (always), cuannaq ( some-times), majuncuaa (never, ever ), majok ’ee (never, not at all; not at any time), and majarruj (not ever; not in any way).

Affirmative Sentence Structure: SUBJECT + ADV + AUX + VERB + COMPLEMENT

Ish Teresa junelik na wulak sâ C’atyil. Teresa always goes to the market.

Li Chiin cuannaq inc’â na atzumak . Sometimes the orange tree does not blossom.

Negative Sentence Structure: SUBJECT + ADVNEG + AUX + VERB + COMPLEMENT

Lao majuncuaa inko wulak chi ɓeek. We never go out. Majok’ee tin taw ru aan. SPK I will never understand that.

Questions Sentence Structure: QA + ADV + AUX + VERB + COMPLEMENT + [SUBJECT]

Ma junelik na wulak chi ɓatz’uunk aj Gil? Does Gil always go to play? [G AME ] Ma majarruj na aɓin? Doesn’ t he/she ever listen/learn?

Very/Too

We use the intensifier c’ajô (very, too) to make an adjective stronger. It has similar meaningto the word very in English.

ADJECTIVE PHRASEATTRIBUTIVE

SENTENCE with C’AJÔSTRESSED

INDICATIVE MOODPREDICATIVE

Tiq ru li Hâ. C’ajô ish tiqual ru li Hâ. Li Hâ c’ajô ish tiqual ru.

The water is hot. The water is very hot. Same as previous



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Kee ru li Cutan. C’ajô ish kehil ru li Cutan. Li Cutan c’ajô ish kehil ru.

It is cold today. It is very cold today. Same as previous

K’eel ru li Ochoch. C’ajô ish k’elil ru li Ochoch. Li Ochoch c’ajô ish k’elil ru.

The house is old. The house is very old. Same as previous

The following examples show the use of c’ajô in conditional sentences

C’ajô ish kehil ru li cutan re shik chi ɓeek. PRES It is very cold today to go out/for a walk . C’ajô ish kehil raj ru li cutan re shik chi ɓeek. PST It was very cold today to go out/for a walk . Ish Natalia c’ajô raj ish luɓik re shik chi c’atyiink. PST Natalia was very tired to go selling.

Already/Yet/Not yet

We often use chican (literally already, yet ) with the PSEUDO-PERFECT. It shows that somethinghas happened. Chican can only go after the verb. In opposition, majî (literally not yet ) showsthat something has not happened but will possibly happen.

Aj Mario ac ish cuaklii chican. Mario has already got up. Laesh majî enke c ’ ul e Tojɓal. You haven’ t received your payment yet.

Since/For

We use chalen (literally since, for ) with the pseudo-perfect in KC. It is used to tell from a particular time until now and also for a period of time.

Laat ac chalen a Ch’ajomal inkat numshik . You swim since you were a boy.

Li Mess majî na cuaak chalen oshiɓ Cutan. The cat has not eaten for three days.

DEMONSTRATIVESThe following table presents KC’s demonstratives together with their respective plural forms

and two adverbs of place, arrin and arran; for reference.

ADV DEMONSTRATIVES

SINGULAR PLURAL

arrin ain ← PROXIMAL → ainheɓ

here this these

arran aan ← DISTAL → aanheɓ

there that those

Ain li Ishim re li Ac’ach. This is the maize for the turkey .

Ainheɓ li Cuesh re C’ay. These are the pants for sale. Aan li Ishq li na c ’ atyin C’um. That ’ s the woman that sells squash.

Aanheɓ li ishq li tyokheb chi puch’uk. Those are the women that are washing [clothes].

Arrin cuan li Ochoch ut arran cuan li Nimhâ. Here is the house and there is the river.



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BE, HAVE, THERE IS/THERE ARE

The verb cuaank (to be, have, there is/are) in KC may indicate a state of being, occurrenceor possession (to have or to own sth.). The following table shows a derived form of cuaank thatcan indicate from physical presence to an emotional state.

SINGULAR Lain cuankin laat cuankat Aan cuan aan cuan

I am you are he/she is it is

PLURAL lao cuankoo laesh cuankesh aanheɓ cuankheɓ

we are you are they are

Laesh cuankesh raj sâ li Ch’utam. You should be in the meeting. Aj Sec cuan sâ jun Ch’aajkilal. Sec is in a hardship.

Affirmative Sentence Structure: SUBJECT + [ AUX] + VERB + COMPLEMENT

Aj Ton cuan sâ ish C’anjel. Ton is at work. Li Tz’ î cuan sâ Ɓee. The dog is on the street.

Ish Chabela cuan jun ish Ac’ach. Chabella has a turkey. Tesh cuaanq sâ Usilal. FUT [You will] stay in wellness. OR [You will] remain in peace. Naɓal chi Choq cuan sâ li Chushaa. There are a lot of clouds in the sky.

Aan ki cuan sâ Tz’oleɓāl. PRET He/she attended school.

Negative Sentence Structure: SUBJECT + NEG + VERB + COMPLEMENT / NEG + SUBJECT + [VERB] + COMPLE-MENT

Manii (is/are not ), mac’â (there is/are not ) and majun (none, nobody, not one, any) are usedin opposition to cuaank to deny or negate a statement. It denotes the absence and/or lack of a

person, thing or attribute as exemplified below.

Ish Elena manii [cuan] sâ ish C’anjel. [OPT] NOT PRESENT Elena is not at his work.

Aj Mateo majun ish Aaq [cuan]. [OPT] L ACK OF Mateo does not have any pigs. Eɓ li Tz’ î manii cuankheɓ sâ Ɓee. NOT PRESENT The dogs are not on the street. Mac’â Pim chirrish Caɓ. [NO VERB] NONEXISTENT There is no weeds outside the house.

Mac’â Choq sâ li Chushaa. [NO VERB] ABSENCE OF There is no clouds in the sky. Majun chi Ch’aat cuankheb sâ li Ochoch. L ACK OF There are no beds in the house.

Questions Sentence Structure: QW + [ AUX] + VERB + COMPLEMENT

The auxiliary ma goes before the verb cuaank when making a question. Other questions ask-

ing for information use interrogative words such as in the following 3rd and 4th examples (see also

QUESTIONS).

Ma cuan sâ ish C’anjel aj Ton? Is Ton at his work? Ma cuan junaq ish Ac’ach ish Nela? Does Nela have any turkeys?

Anii cuankhe ɓ sâ li Ch’utam? Who are at the meeting?

C’arruu cuan sâ li Sec’? What is in the cup/bowl?



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USEFUL TIME EXPRESSIONS

Time expressions are still not extended in KC. The following table presents the most com-

mon time expressions referent to past, present and future times.

ecuer anajcuan, oon kwulajyesterday today ↔ now tomorrow

ecuer ek’laa anajcuan ek’laa kwulaj ek’laa

yesterday morning this morning tomorrow morning

ecuer ekwuu anajcuan ekwuu kwulaj ekwuu

yesterday afternoon this afternoon tomorrow afternoon

ecuer chik’eq oon chik’eq kwulaj chik’eq

last night tonight tomorrow night

sâ li Poo ish numê sâ li Poo ain sâ li junchic Poo

last month this month next month

sâ li Chaɓ ish numê sâ li Chaɓ ain sâ li junchic Chaɓ

last year this year next year

The hour can be roughly stated with the word oonal which denotes a certain time of the day.

Sâ li oonal ain. [No Verb] At this hour.

QUESTIONS

There are two main types of questions KC: Yes/No Questions and Information Questions.

Tag Questions comprise a less frequently used type of question. Non-Verb Questions are more

frequently used but in spoken KC.

Yes/No Questions

Sentence Structures: QA + AUX + VERB + COMPLEMENT + [SUBJECT]? / QA + SUBJECT + AUX + VERB + COMPLE-MENT? / QA + NOUN/ADJECTIVE/OTHER + SUBJECT + COMPLEMENT?

Questions under this category use the auxiliary word ma at the beginning of an interrogativesentence. This makes them semantically similar to the use of do as an auxiliary verb for this typeof questions in English. Ma can take on the meanings of the verbs be and have as examplified

below.

Ma inkat wulak chi auk? Inc’â. AUX AS DO Do you go to sow? No.

Ma Carmen ish C’abâ? Ehê. AUX AS BE Is Carmen her name? Yes. Ma ac shat cuaak ? Majî. AUX AS H AVE Have you eaten? Not yet.

Ma cham li Nimhâ? Ehê. AUX AS BE + ADJ Is the river deep? Yes.

Yes/No Questions as such require an affirmative or negative answer that in KC corresponds to

ehê or inc’â, yes and no respectively.

Ma te c ’ at li Pim? Ehê Are you going to burn the weeds? Yes.

Ma sha set li Tiɓ? Inc’â? Did you cut the meat? No.



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Information Questions

Questions under this category use interrogative words at the beginning of a sentence. The

following table shows KC’s interrogative words according to the English classification.

CLASSIFICATION OF INTERROGATIVE WORDSanii c’arruu ɓar c’aput jok’ee chan ruu

who what where why when how

The vowel repetition for anii, c’arruu and jok ’ee resembles that of the English words flee, too, etc. in intonation, but not in vowel pronunciation.

We combine the word jô (how) with a modified adjective to tell to what extent , amount ordegree: jô nimal, how many/much, jô najtil, how far , jô oonal, what time, and so on. Harruɓ (how many/much) asks for quantity or amount.

Jô oonal ta lok ’ chaq li Keenk’? What time are you going to buy the beans? Harruɓ chi Cooc’al tyokheɓ chi alinak ? How many children are running?

Sentence Structures: QI + AUX + VERB + COMPLEMENT + [SUBJECT]? / QI + VERB + COMPLEMENT + [SUBJECT]? / QI + [PA] + NOUN + [SUBJECT]?

Interrogative words should always go at the beginning of the question such as shown in the

following examples.

Anii na c ’ atyin Mol? PRES Who sells eggs?

C’arruu ish C’anjel Aan? [NO VERB] What does he/she do? [AS A JOB, P ROFESSION ] Ɓar cuan lin Cuesh? Where are my pants?

C’aput cuankoo arrin? Why are we here?

Jok’ee tesh shik chi c’anjelak? FUT When do you leave for work? Chan ruu na ɓichan aan? PRES How does he sing?

Examples showing the use of interrogative content clauses in yes/no questions:

– Ma sha aɓii c’arruu ish tyee? – Ehê. – Did you hear what he/she said? – Yes.

– Ma she ril ɓar ish c ’ am? – Inc’â. – Did you see where he/she took? – No.

Tag Questions

A tag question in KC uses the word ɓetyaal (right, correct ) at the end of a sentence. It can beused in affirmative and negative questions.

Tyoo chi cuaark a Nâchin, ɓetyaal? AFF SPK Your grandmother is sleeping, isn’ t she? Inc’â ish coo chi c’anjelak aj Pablo, ɓetyaal? NEG SPK Pablo did not go to work, did he?

A negative question tag with an affirmative sentence combines the words malaj (or ) + inc’â(not ) so that it translates more like “or not?” at the end of a sentence. This type of question tagmay be confrontational in that it inquiries for the truth.

Ma inka naw atinak sâ K’eqchî, malaj inc’â? Do you or do you not know how to speak K ’ eqchî?



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Ma shesh wulak chi c’alek, malaj inc’â? Did you or did you not go to graze?

Non-Verb Questions

Non-verb questions are short sentences that inquiry on a person or thing’s properties, charac-teristics, attributes, look, appearance, condition, and so on. As the title suggests, they do not use

verbs and they rely on the auxiliary word ma or interrogative words to formulate a Yes/No or In-

formation question.

Ma kee li Hâ? Is the water cold?

Ma tz’aj ru li Uc’al? Is the pot dirty?

Anii raj lish C’aɓâ? What was his/her/its name? C’arruu lish C’aush Aan? What does he/she worry about?

SPELLING

Active and Antipassive Verb FormsThese verb forms are widely used in phrases and sentences in KC. So, in order to derive verb

forms for the active and antipassive voices, one must take into account that all verbs end in v + k

or v + nk ; where v = vowel and k, nk = end consonants.

Active Verb Form

We apply a simple, general rule to derive an active verb from the basic form whereby if the

verb ends in -v + k, the verb drops both letters. If it ends with -v + nk, the verb drops the -nk

BUT there is an exception to this general rule for certains verbs and is explained further below.

Dropping of -v + k ending Verb: sac’ok – to hit

ALL TENSES SINGULAR Lain AUX sac ’ Laat AUX sac ’ Aan AUX sac ’ aan AUX sac ’

Plural lao AUX sac ’ laesh AUX sac ’ aanheɓ AUX sac ’

LIKEWISE: ɓoqok, cutuk, chupuk, sachok, tojok, utz’uk, tyamok, tyuluk, etc.

Dropping of -nk ending Verb: numsiink – to pass

ALL TENSES SINGULAR Lain AUX numsii laat AUX numsii Aan AUX numsii aan AUX numsii

PLURAL Lao AUX numsii aanheɓ AUX numsii aanheɓ AUX numsii

LIKEWISE: cuartesīnk, hasɓaank, keloonk, c’irrisīnk, taqsiink, etc.

IMPORTANT:From the two rules defined above to turn infinitive verbs into active verb forms, a group of verbs need special attention.

These verbs show a -v + b + v + nk ending pattern and thus drop their -v + nk ending. Therefore, ach’aɓānk → ach’ aɓ,buyuɓānk → buyuɓ, canaɓānk → canaɓ, ch’utuɓānk → ch’ utuɓ, and so on. This rule applies for all tenses from present tofuture.

Aanheɓ enkesh buyu ɓ li Sî sâ Ɓee. PRES They are piling up the wood on the street. Aj Luis ish ch ’ utu ɓ ish Tumin re Raalankil. P AST Luis saved money for Christmas.



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Antipassive Verb Form

We apply a general rule to derive an antipassive verb from the basic form whereby if the verb

ends with -v + k, it is used in its basic form. If the verb ends with -v + nk, the verb drops the k

and ends in n. Refer back to TENSE M ARKERS for the list of tense markers that are used with anti-

passive verbs.

No change in verb ending Verb: lochok – to turn/switch on, light up

PRESENT, PAST,PRETERITE

SINGULAR Lain AUX lochok Laat AUX lochok Aan AUX lochok aan AUX lochok

PLURAL lao AUX lochok laesh AUX lochok Aanheɓ AUX lochok

Likewise: ɓoqok, cutuk, chupuk, sachok, tojok, utz’uk, tyamok, tyuluk, etc.

Dropping of k Verb: toloɓānk - to lay down

PRESENT, PAST,PRETERITE

SINGULAR Lain AUX toloɓan laat AUX toloɓan Aan AUX toloɓan aan AUX toloɓan

PLURAL lao AUX toloɓan laesh AUX toloɓan aanheɓ AUX toloɓan

LIKEWISE: ajlaank, cuartesīnk, hasɓaank, pumuɓānk, keloonk, salaɓānk,etc.

A simple rule pertaining KC phonetics makes the verb form for the future tense change its k

ending into q. This change is valid according to the separate sounds currently assigned to these

consonants.

Change of k ending for q for verbs ending in –v + k Verb: uc’ak - to drink

SINGULAR Lain tin uc ’ aq laat tat uc ’ aq Aan ta uc ’ aq aan ta uc ’ aq

PLURAL lao to uc ’ aq laesh tesh uc ’ aq aanheɓ teheɓ uc ’ aq

LIKEWISE: quemoq, nuk’uq, topoq, tzoloq, etc.

Change of k ending for q for verbs ending in –v + nk Verb: nimaank - to grow up

SINGULAR Lain tin nimaanq laat tat mimaanq Aan ta nimaanq aan ta nimaanq

PLURAL Lao to nimaanq laesh tesh nimaanq aanheɓ teheɓ nimaanq

LIKEWISE: toloɓānq, mesuunq, salaɓānq, etc.

Present Participle

While all verbs can be used in their base form in the continuous aspect of KC, the progressive

aspect uses two verb forms which correspond to the present participle (see CONTINUOUS AND PRO-

GRESSIVE.) Consequently, all verbs ending with -ok and -uk are replaced by -ɓal. Examples: cutuk- cut ɓal ; cuosok - cuosɓal ; chupuk - chupɓal . All verbs ending with -v + nk are added the suffix -il. Examples: hasɓaank - hasɓankil ; mesuunk - mesunkil ; pajiink - pajinkil .

Eb li Cuiinq tyokheɓ ish c ’ amɓal li Hal. The men are taking the corn.

Lao tyokoo ish ɓanunkil qa C’anjel. We are doing our work.

Past Participle

In KC, we use the past participle to build the Passive Voice only. This verb form shows sev-

eral variations according to TAM and whether the inflexion is possible or likely for a certain verb

and the given case.



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Present, Past and Preterite

As a general rule, verbs ending with -ok or -uk should be replaced by -ê or -man. Those con-

cerned may be mono- and two-sylable verbs having this ending pattern.

EXAMPLES: tzolok → tzolê/tzolman; c�

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K’EQCHÎ GRAMMAR - An Introduction - Aug 2014

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