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Metaphors of learning and (computer) gaming

P. Robert-Jan Simons

the Netherlands School of Educational Management

(NSO)

&

Utrecht University

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We wanted to device a system that escapes from problems of learning

styles research: – Overlapping patterns instead of styles

– Educational + noneducational – Individual and social– Deliberate and spontaneous learning– Without learning cycles– Related to prevailing learning theories

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Sfard

objective facts,

transmission,

knowledge,

from experts,

research based,

explicit learning,

from theory to practice

dialogue,

with others,

enculturation,

collaboration,

discourse,

conversation,

in practice

Acquisition metaphor Participation metaphor

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Paavola, Lipponen & Hakkarainen: in need of a 3rd metaphor

Dynamic knowledge creation / newnessMediating elements to the process of knowledge

creationLearning is fundamentally socialYet individuals play important rolesTacit knowledge is an essential resourceFocus on modelling, theory, symbols and risk-

taking, uncertainty

Discovery metaphor:Meaning, deep understanding, inspiration, design

based learning, critical reflection, innovation, creation

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Two more metaphors from practice and theory:

role models,

imitation,

best-practice,

real-life,

pressure,

competition

safe experimentation,

deliberate practice,

skill training,

explicit learning,

role-playing

games

Observation / imitation Practicing

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15 components:

• situations in which one learns

• relations with others• dealing with mistakes• the role of emotions• acquiring knowledge• guidance preferences• allergies for ways of

learning of others• preferences in training

• who determines learning

• how to organize learning

• what is annoying in learning

• what makes you think

• reaction to unknown situations

• what is knowledge

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Example 2: Allergies

• Boredom• People who withdraw from collaboration• Lack of knowledge• Acting without feeling competent• Lack of room for initiatives

Learning metaphors

• Defining patterns of learning preferences

• Describing patterns in learning environments

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Overlapobservation / imitation

participation the need for others

observation / imitation

acquisition focus on goals, results

observation / imitation

exercising respecting experience

observation / imitation

discovery learning in the real world

participation acquisition avoiding mistakes

participation exercising safety and trust

participation discovery meaning construction

acquisition exercising explicit focus on learning

acquisition discovery focus on content

exercising discovery focus on personal growth

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Differencesobservation / imitation

participation observing versus participating

observation / imitation

acquisition experience or expertise

observation / imitation

exercising tension versus safety

observation / imitation

discovery what works versus what’s new

participation acquisition proces versus content

participation exercising collective learning versus learning with others

participation discovery collective meaning versus personal meaning

acquisition exercising knowledge versus experience

acquisition discovery objectivity versus subjectivity of knowledge

exercising discovery guided versus self-directed

Games (Leemkuil, de Jong & Ootes (2000):

1. Players have to reach certain goals. Sometimes they choose goals themselves; sometimes the game determines the goals.

2. There is competition with other players or a computer;sometimes players try to improve their own previous results.

3. There are rules and barriers.

4. There is a context that makes the game realistic or attractive and contributes to motivation. These contexts refer to a story, realistic developments/impediments, division of roles, or availability of information.

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Are all necessary to make it a game?

• Goals, competition, rules, & context?

• Blurred boundaries with cases and simulations

• Perhaps not all equally important?

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4 categories of games

• entertainment games,

• multiplayer online games,

• serious games – epistemic games

• designing a game

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Mallone (1981):

4 characteristics of motivating entertainment games

•challenge,

•fantasy,

•player control

•curiosity

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Judy Herz: online multiplayer games

5 main principles:

1.constructive learning,

2.participatory design,

3.acknowledgement of contributions,

4.peer acknowledgement

5.group identity.

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Serious games

• raise awareness,

• instruct a new generation of good citizens,

• create new business models,

• train military personnel,

• educate students

• model surgery for doctors.

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Example

• Frequency 1550

• How was Amsterdam in 1550

• Using gps, gsm and video

• Teams of children discovering the city

• Competition between teams

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Epistemic games

• Simulation of a profession such as journalism or engineering

• Using the tools of the profession

• Solving real life but simulated professional problems

• Learning the ways of thinking of this professions: epistemic frames

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Designing a game

• boys and girls enjoy making games for learning.

• does not require expensive technologies to provide learners with the opportunities – to develop their programming skills and– to design rich and interesting gameworlds and

characters.

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Conclusions

• All learning metaphors show up in a kind of game.

• Some kinds of games can trigger all kinds of learning depending on the way they are designed.

• Other kinds of games are more closely related to one or 2 of the metaphors.

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Using the metaphors:

• Game designers: deliberately trigger certain ways of learning.

• Teachers; for specific groups of students or to broaden their teaching

• Theorists: clarify the functions of and distinctions between kinds of games.

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