Khatiwada, J.R. 2004. The status of Snow Leopard (Uncia Uncia Schreber 1778) and its conflict perception in Langtang National Park. M.Sc. Thesis, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu. pp.69

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Background

Although Nepal is a small country, Nature has blessed it with diverse

wildlife biodiversity with a variety of climatic zones ranging from sub -

tropical to alpine. Topographically, it contains a series of inaccessible hilly

terrains in the world. It is located on the southern lap of the Mighty Himalayan

Ranges in southern Asia. About 75 % of Nepal is covered by mountains,

making it one of the most rugged mountains countries in the world. Although

there are varieties of relief features, the country can broadly divided into three

major physical divisions; as- 1) the Terai region 2) the Mid-mountain region 3)

the Himalayan region (Shrestha 1968). In the south along its border with India,

lies the Terai a low, flat and fertile landscape that is the northern extension of

Gangetic plain and which varies in width from about 25 to more them 32

kilometers. The northern part is a little more elevated hills up to 1500-2000 m

called Churiya (Siwalik) which is rich in wildlife. Immediately north of the

Terai are steep forested Churiya range that rise in almost perpendicular

escarpments to an elevation of nearly 2,000m. Next comes mid-mountain

region, a densely populated area with a complex mountain ranges up to 3,000m

. This region includes the fertile flat valleys like Kathmandu and Pokhara and

covers roughly 33% of the country. Finally along its northern border with

Tibet, China lies the Himalayan mountain range contains world’s 13 highest

peaks including with its highest crest up to 8848m. Except for the scattered

settlements in valleys and gentle slops the entire high mountain range is barren

and the areas lying above 5000m are permanently snow – bound (Shrestha

2003).

Himalayan region has unique functions and roles as represents one of

the world's richest ecosystem in terms of biodiversity. This diversity is a result

of the extreme altitudinal differences and associated changes in climate and soil

condition creating a striking verticality characteristic in natural vegetation and

faunal diversity. The rich biodiversity in ecosystems, species and genetics are

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found in the Himalayas is a result of the immense variety of environments

found in the mountain ecosystem (ICIMOD 1998).

Biodiversity refers to the 'variety and variability among living organism

and ecological complexes in which they occur. In practical terms, biodiversity

is expressed as species diversity (weighted for rarity, endemism and

Taxonomic distinctive if necessary) at the landscape level (Kramer et al. 1997).

Where as at national and global levels, a long term perspective on sustainable

development is the overriding justification for conserving biodiversity at local

level biodiversity is for food, medicines and other products that can satisfy

basic needs of a local communities and individual household. The information

on biodiversity such as animal status (abundance, distribution, home range etc.)

population and community interactions along with the contribution to the

development of ecosystem is essential for the conservation and management of

wildlife and protected areas (Basnet 1998). For the conservation point of view,

scientific studies on specific wild animals should be conducted. Therefore, this

study is specific on Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia) and its prey species in

Langtang National Park .

1.2 Study Objectives

The prime objective of the study was to collect basic ecological

information on Snow Leopard and their prey species in Langtang National

Park. The specific objectives of the study were :

1) To explore the status and distribution of Snow Leopard in the area.

2) To show the prey and predator relationship.

3) To find the extent and actual loss of livestock due to depredation by

Snow Leopard.

1.3 Rationale

Studies on Snow Leopard were conducted in western Himalayas of

Nepal by some researchers (Jackson 1996, Oli 1988 , Ale and Gurung 1995,

Shah 1998). But intensive studies focusing on Snow Leopard in the Langtang

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National Park are rare. A study on the relative abundance of their prey species

is also essential for the conservation of Snow Leopard population .

Further the study will be helpful for proper management of Langtang

National Park regarding the wildlife strategies.

1.4 Limitation of the Study

1. This study was mainly based on indirect observations in designed five

different study blocks in Langtang National Park as per previous

background information

2. The Snow Leopard's elusive, shy, solitary and nocturnal habit limits the

study work.

3. Our study was concentrated only for the partial fulfillment of academic

degree for Master's in Zoology (Ecology). Therefore we could not spent

much time regularly in the study area.

1.5 The Snow Leopard

1.5.1 Taxonomy

There is some difference as the taxonomy in the literature. Two

scientific names have been given to the species (e.g. Uncia uncia and Panthera

uncia) (Shrestha 2003). According to Wozencraft 1993, based upon recent

genetic and systematic research placed in to the separate genus Unica based on

morphological and behavioral differences from other members of the genus

Panthera (Jackson 1996).

Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia) is known as 'Hiun Chituwa' in Nepali and Sarkin

in Tibetan language belongs to the order carnivora of the sub family

Pantherinae with in the family Felidae.

1.5.2 General Status and Distribution

The Snow Leopard is a legendary elusive mega - species across the wild

spread mountains of central Asia. It is referred to as the "Queen of the

mountain" (Jackson 1995) a little off perspective for the animal at the top of a

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food chain. However, unlike Tiger "King of the jungle" and Lion "King of the

Beasts", Snow Leopard does not represent ferocity but rather represents gentle

image and hence "Queen of the mountain" is justified. It is legally protected by

HMG / Nepal under Schedule I (Section 10) of the National Parks and

Conservation Act, 2029 (1973). The fourth amendment of this act increased

penalties for Snow Leopard poaching or the acquiring, buying and selling of its

pelt or any body parts. The present penalties for person convicted under such

offenses ranges from 50000 to 1000000 rupees (NRs 74 = 1 $ US) or five to 15

years imprison or both. Similarly, there is a provision for a reward payment of

up to 50, 000 rupees to information leading to the capture and conviction of a

Snow Leopard's poacher (Kattel and Bajimaya 1995). The Snow Leopard is

listed on the IUCN Red data list and in Appendix I as an endangered and

protected animal, which subjects to the international trade restrictions under

CITES.

Snow Leopard is widely but sparsely distributed through the mountains

ranges from 3000m to 5400m of Tibet and adjoining parts of China, the

Himalaya of Nepal, India, Bhutan and Sikkim, the Karakorum mountains along

the Indo - Pakistan border the Hindu - Kush range of Pakistan and Afghanistan,

the Pamirs along the Tajikistan - Afghanistan border, the Tien Shan of

Kyrgystan, Kazaksthan and China and the Altai Range of Mongolia and Russia

among other mountain complexes (Jackson 1996).

In Nepal, they are found along the northern border with the Tibet

Autonomous region, China and occur in eight protected Areas (Map: 1) .

These area are:

1. Shey Phoksundo National Park (3555 km2)

2. Langtang National Park (1710 km2)

3. Sagarmatha National Park (1148 km2.)

4. Mukalu Barun National Park (1500 km2)

5. Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve (1325 km2)

6. Annapurna Conservation Area (7,629 km2.)

7. Kanchenjunga Conservation Area (2035 km2)

8. Manaslu Conservation Area (1663 km2)

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Jackson (1996) estimated the number of Snow Leopard in Nepal to be

between 300 to 500. Green (1981) reported the existence of Snow Leopard

living within Langtang National Park near Gosainkunda 3,900m and Langsisa

4500m (Shrestha 1997, Shrestha 2003).

1.5.3 Physical Characteristics and Habitat

The Snow Leopard is a medium to large sized cat standing 60 cm at the

shoulder and with a body to tail length of 1.8 - 2.3 m. Its skull is short and

broad with an elevated forehead and with an imperfectly ossified hyoid so that

is can not roar (Theile 2003). It has an exquisite smoky-grey pelage tinged

with yellow and patterned with dark grey open rosettes and black spots.

Besides its superb camouflage for life among bare rocks and patchy snow, it

has well developed chest, short fore limbs with sizeable paws, relatively long

hind limbs and a noticeably long thick tail (75 - 90 % of its head to body

length) that gives the species its renown agility for negotiating steep terrain

and jumping along the narrow rocky ledges which characterize its preferred

resting or escape areas. Adaptation for cold include on enlarged nasal cavity,

long body hair with a dense wooly under fur and a thick tail that can be

wrapped around the body. Males average 45 - 55 kg in body weight compared

to 35 - 40 kg for females (Jackson and Chundawat 1999). The pugmarks of

adults are 9-11 cm in length and 7-9 cm in width but variation in cubs (Jackson

1996, WWF 2001, Shrestha 2003).

1.5.4 Habit and Habitat

Snow Leopards are most active at dawn and dusk. They are active

though much of the day in areas with few people but become nocturnal when

their habitat become disturbed (Jackson and Ahlborn 1999). Social behavior of

the Snow Leopard is solitary but not unsociable. Male and female of the Snow

Leopards have been hunting together.

Snow Leopards are sexually matured at 2 - 3 years. Mating occurs

between January and Mid March - a period of intensified marking and

vocalization. Estrus lasts 2 - 12 days and gestation lasts 90 - 103 days. Cubs are

born in late spring or early summer, in litters of 2 - 3. On rare occasion there

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are litters up to 7. The first 4 - 6 weeks of a cubs life is restricted to an

inaccessible and hidden distance. The cubs stay with their mother until they

reach 8 - 22 months of age (IUCN 1996).

The Snow Leopard is associated with steep broken mountainous habitat

in the alpine and sub alpine zone where the vegetation is sparse. It prefers steep

terrain broken by cliffs ridges and gullies. These terrain features serve as day -

time resting sites for social marking including scrapes, scats (faces) and scent

sprays (Ahlborn and Jackson 1998, Chundawat 1990). Day time beds are

strongly associated with cliffs, ridge-tops and rocky outcrops and in Nepal

Snow Leopards often rest with in a hundred meters of ridge line stream bed

and other linear feature that they use to travel about their home ranges (Jackson

1996)

1.6 Prey Species

Food is the main factors affecting distribution of Snow Leopards. The

Blue Sheep's behavior and ecology is important in the Nepal Himalayas as it is

the primary food source. It is known to prey on Ibis (Capra ibex), Bharal or

Blue sheep (Pseuoid nayaur) and Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus).

Live stock especially Sheep, sub adult Yak, Goat, and Baby Horses are

important food items in areas depleted of native prey. Other reported prey

includes Ghoral (Nemorhaedas goral), Serow (Capricornis sumatraensis),

Argali (Ovis ammon, hodgsoni), Impeyan Pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus),

Chukor partridge (Alectoris graeca), Snow cock (Tetraogallus tibetanus),

Marmot (Marmota himalayan), Pika (Ochotona spp), Musk deer (Moschus

chrysogaster) ( Jackson 1996).

1.6.1 Himalayan Tahr

Taxonomy

Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) is known as Jharal in Nepali. It

belong to order Artiodactyla, of the family Bovidae. It is an evolutionary

primitive from of wild goat that apparently evolved some where in the south

Asian Middle east region .Today three species occur, the Arabian Tahr

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(Hemitragus jayakeri) in Oman, the Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius) in

southern India and the Himalayan Tahr.

Habitat and Distribution

The Himalayan tahr inhibits a narrow strip of steep habitat along the

southern flanks of the Himalayans. Its current distribution is bounded by the

Pirpanjal range in western Himalayas and central Bhutan in the eastern

Himalayas. It is listed as indeterminate by IUCN Red list of threatened animals

due to lack of information on populations through out its range. However, a

large introduced populations occurs on New Zealand's south Island and small

isolated population are present in Ontario in Canada, Woburn Park in England,

California in USA and Table mountain (near Cape Town) in South Africa .

Table 1 : Estimated Population of Himalayan tahr in Nepal

Location Estimated Population Year of Survey

Hinku/Hongu 400 - 500 1987

Sagarmatha 400 - 500 1987

Langtang 300 - 400 1987

Dhorpatan > 100 1993

Khaptad < 50 1994

Phoksundo < 50 1994

Rara 750 1992

Langu (Dolpo) > 100 1987

(Gurung 1995)

Background on Himalayan Tahr

The Himalayan tahr is related to the domestic goat but it different in

many aspects. The Tahr has long robust limbs, narrow erect ears and

backwardly curved horns. The body is covered with tangled mass of coppery

brown flowing hairs. The hair on the head is short, while the hair on the neck

and shoulder is modified in to a shaggy mane, sweeping down to the knee. The

color of the hair depends on age (Prater 1971). Adult males measure 90 - 100

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cm at the shoulder where as the female is 84 - 89 cm and weight ranges from

90 - 160 kg in males and 50 kg in females (Shrestha 2003).

The Himalayan tahr prefers sub - alpine to alpine habitat with

topographical features characterized by vertical cliffs, broken mountain terrain

and rock caves near the tree line. The Tahr is primarily a grazing animal,

mostly active in the morning and evening, with a rest period around noon

(Green 1978). They are Commonly found on open grass land.

1.6.2 Musk deer

Taxonomy

The Musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster) is known as Kasturi in Nepali

belong to the order Artiodactyla and sub family Moschidae family Cervidae.

Status and Distribution

It is listed on appendix I of CITES, endangered on the IUCN RED LIST

of 1996 and protected by HMG / Nepal under schedule I (section 10) of the

National Parks and Conservation Act 2029.

Musk deer an under developed form of deer with respect to the rest of its

family is a widely distributed species. The Himalayan musk deer ranges

through the Himalayan Range of India, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, parts of

Pakistan. In Nepal they are distributed through out the Nepal Himalayas from

east. Sagarmatha National Park, Kanchanjunga Conservation area to west

Bajhang, Doti, Simikot, Dhorpatan, Manang.

Physical Characteristics

Musk deer are of dark brown colour and their body is covered over with

coarse and brittle hair (Shrestha 2003). They are know to attain a height of 40

to 50 cm at shoulder. It has dagger like canine teeth, which attain about 7 cm

and project out wards as tusks. This is a solely a defensive weapon for the

deer. Musk deer undergo colour changes with age.

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Habit and Habitat

The Himalayan Musk deer generally solitary but also living in small

groups are associated with temperate, sub alpine and alpine in the Himalayas.

However, these deer as true alpine animals well adapted to traversing

mountainous terrain and snow with capacity to leap in precipitous crags along

cliffs. Usually they are found at elevations between 3000m to 4600m. In the

Sagarmatha National Park, Gurung (1991) found it at 4750m.

The Musk deer are primarily browsers however, during summer when

the grass is at its full growth, turn to grazing. Food items include

Rhododendron spp, Juniper spp, Abies (Fir), Deodars, grasses, lichens and

mosses. Generally, they prefer steep wooded terrain with in relatively overhead

canopy closure. Males are known to retire in accessible clefts due to its

solitary nature. But the female utilize dense alpine forest (Gurung 1991). They

prefer to stay close to cliffs large rock boulders with crabs and clefts was

obvious and bedding sites of these cervids correspond to its usual preferred

habitat .

Mating occurs in December to January. During mating season male eat

very little. On the contrary, females become completely exhausted. Female

shows hiding tendency when estrous is terminated. Gestation period constitute

five months. Delivery of pregnant does take place from April to June.

Generally they give birth to one or two fawns. Rock and thickets are utilized

for fawning (Shrestha 2003).

1.6.3 Royle's Pika (Ochotana roylei) or Mouse Hare

The Himalayan mouse hare is a tiny Himalayan mammals measuring

head and body 19.0 to 20.5 cm. It weighs about 154 gms. It resembles a guinea

pig in build. Like the guinea pig it has a short muzzle, small rounded head,

grounded ears and no tail. The body is covered over with exceedingly fine hair

which is straight and glossy (Shrestha 2003).

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The pika of Nepal Himalayas come down to lower levels where they

found in open ground and in the pine forest of steep slopes. they do not make

burrows in open ground but live in sheltered rocks and piles of stones.

1.6.4 The Blue Sheep

Taxonomy

Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) Hodgson, 1833 is know as 'Naur' in

Nepali, 'Na' in Tibetan language and 'Bharal' in India belongs to the order

Artiodactyla of the sub family Caprinae with in the family Bovidae .

It has a taxonomically controversial status, placing it some where

between the genus Capra and Ovis (Schaller 1973 and Oli 1991). However

Schaller (1973) suggests it to be an aberrant goat with sheep like affinities

(Koirala and Shrestha 1997). It is listed as lower risk (not threatened) in 1996

IUCN Red list of Threatened Animals and is among the most important game

animals in Nepal. In Nepal they are fairly continuously distributed to the North

of greater Himalayas from the border with India and Tibet in the extreme north

west east wards though Dolpa and Mustang to Gorkha district in North - central

Nepal. It also occurs in Kanchanjunga Conservation Area (Timilsina 2002).

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2. STUDY AREA

2.1 Physical Description

The study Area (Longitude 85° 33' 98.4'' E, Latitude 28° 12' 47.4 " N)

lies along the Langtang river to the northern Himalayan range near the border

with Tibet in the central region of Nepal (Map 1). The study area lies in the

Langtang National Park was established in 1976 by His Majesty's Government

of Nepal to conserve the unique flora and found of the region. The park

represents a meeting point between Indo-Malayan and Paleartic realms and

holds a rich biodiversity. (DNPWC 2002). It has an area of 1710 km2

and

extends over parts of Nuwakot in the southern mountains terrain of Nepal-

China (Tibet) border. The park lies in the central - Himalayas, it is bisected east

west by the Gosainkunda lake and Dorje Lakpa range in the north. Langtang

Lirung 7,245m dominates the peaks. Gosainkunda lake 4,380m lies in the south

- west and Dorje Lakpa at 6,988m lies in the east. The park represents some of

the best examples of graded climatic condition in the central Himalaya.

Elevational gradient (ranging from mid - hill to alpine) coupled with complex

topography and geology have produced a rich bio-diversity unique patch work

of vegetation (Map 2 and 3).

It is the most accessible of the mountain national park and can be

reached during the monsoon and winter, the park is accessible from Katmandu

by vehicle to Dhunche and Syabrubensi via Trisuli and then trekking in to

Langtang valley. Alternate routes are from Gosainkunda or Ganjala a 5,100m

pass, negotiable during monsoon and autumn months.

2.2 Drainage

All the rivers in the park are torrential. There are two major sources

types : those fed partially by glacier (e.g. Langtang Khola, Bhote Kosi and

those which don’t have glacial origins (e.g. Trisuli , Phalangu, Tadi khola).

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River discharge is greatly affected by the monsoon climate with five

fold increase in the Bhotekosi at Syabrubensi. A seven fold increases in the

Langtang khola at Syabrubensi and a twenty four fold increase in the Trisuli

khola at Dhunche (DNPWC/DUHE 1976).

2.3 Climate

The seasonal climate is dominated by the southerly monsoon which

occurs June to September. The incidence and type of precipitation is mainly

related to aspect, attitude and the presence of a rain shadow effect. Total annual

precipitation is estimated at 526.8 mm to 1041.5 mm, with more that half

occurring as rain during the monsoon period (July - September). Date from

Langtang the nearest weather station (which lies inside the study block also),

annual precipitation is extremely variable ranging from less than 526.8mm in

1993 to about 1041.5mm in 1995.

The coldest and driest months are January, February, March, November,

December while the warmest and wettest month are May, June, July, August

and September. In the Summer, the mean maximum temperature recorded was

14 0C in June 1998 and mean minimum temperature recorded since 1993 to

2001 was - 14 °C in February 2001.

Snowfall rarely remained on the ground for more than a few days on

south facing slopes, in contrast to northerly slopes which retain their winter

snow cover up to several months. The monsoon usually reaches the study area

in late June or early July and lasts until the end of September. June to August

tend to be the wettest month but precipitation varies greatly from year to year.

The skies were clear in early in the morning. After the late afternoon all the

skies covered by cloud and mist which reduced the visibility. For the purposes

of this study the seasons were defined as winter (December - Mid March),

spring (mid March - May), summer (June to September) and Autumn (October

- November).

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Figure : 1 Monthly maximum and minimum temperature (1999-2001)

recorded at Kyanjing Gumba, Rasuwa.

1999

-10

-5

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Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Months

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The data of temperature, clearly shows that December, January and

February are very cold months and June, July and August are warm months.

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The figure 1 and Annex-1 (a and b) shows that 2001 year was very coldest year

in comparison to others.

Figure 2: Monthly Precipitation (1999-2001)

1999

0

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Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Months

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The figure 2 and Annex-1(f) show that June, July, August and

September are rainy months; where precipitation rate is high and less

precipitation on October, November, December and January. From the

comparison of precipitation data more precipitation was in 1995 (i.e. 1041.5

mm).

Figure 3 : Monthly Minimum And Maximum Relative Humidity (1999-2001)

1999

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Months

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The figure 3 and Annex-1 (c,d,e) show that, 1997 AD was most dry year

and 2001 was wet year between 1993 to 2001. June, July and August are the

most humid months.

2.4 Geology and Soil

Although no economically viable mineral concentrations are reported to

occur in Langtang. Topography, vegetation, cultivation, severely affects the

local soil patterns. It is difficult to generalize. Mature soils occur in the lower

forested regions, mainly fertile loams. In the upper Langtang valley, the most

common textural component is sandy - loam with a large proportion of rocks.

The mean proportion of san decreases with elevation and loamy-sands become

predominant below 2440m, where the practice of pasture burning occurs. The

soils are generally fairly acidic, PH 5-6 (Shrestha 1988).

2.5 Vegetation

The description and classification of the vegetation in the park has been

described in detail in the Management Plan (DNPWC/DUHE, 1997). Different

vegetation zones are described.

Upper Tropical Zone (Below 1,000m)

A very small area in the lower Bhote Kosi is covered by hill Sal (Shorea

robusta) forest. However, the vegetation composition of this zone is completely

different from that of Sal forests of southern plain of the country. This zone is

under heavy pressure from man. This zone corresponds to the Wet Hill Sal

forest.

Subtropical Zone (1,000-2,000m)

In Nepal, this zone is under the greatest pressure from man. Small

pockets remain relatively untouched on steep slopes.

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Hydrophyllic forest (Schima wallichii, Lagerstroemia parviflora) occur

in the wettest areas of the park, e.g. the lower elevations of the Larke. Panch

Pokhari and Nasem Khola and the east bank of the Melamchi Khola. This

appears to be the only vegetation type of this zone is which small areas have

remained reasonably unspoilt in Nepal. Mesohydrophyllic forest (Schima

wallichii,, Castanopsis indica) occurs in the damper areas of the lower Trisuli,

Melamchi, Larke, Panch Pokhari and Balephi Khola and the Bhote Kosi.

Xerophyllic forest and heath (Pinus roxburghii) occurs on drier slopes,

mainly in the upper Bhote Kosi Valley, due to the rocky terrain and reduced

rainfall. P. roxburghii is often the only tree species present. This vegetation

type is frequently exposed to fires and the dense herb layer is poor in species.

Euphorbia royleana occurs in the dry, rocky habitats along the Bhote Kosi and

lower Langtang Valleys, in association with other strictly xerophyllic plants

such as Agave mexicana.

Often, the mesophyllic types have been replaced through the actions of

local people and livestock. Heaths, characterized by shrubs and small trees

(Berberis aristata, Rubus ellipticus) predominate. Pastures represent the

ultimate stage of degradation. A small number of species favored by

overgrazing, always dominate the health and include Eupatorium

adenophorum, Artemisia vulgaris and B. asiatica. This corresponds to Bengal

subtropical Hill forest. Himalayan Subtropical pine forest.

Hill Zone 2000 - 2600m

Within the Park, agricultural expansion has greatly affected the forest.

Grazing throughout, each year has impoverished the forest.

Hydrophyllic Quercus lamellosa forest occurs on south side of the Park,

although it is also present in the wetter parts of the Bhote Kosi and Trisuli

Khola. Mesophyllic Quercus lanata forest on south facing slopes together with

Rhododendron arboreum and Lyonia ovalifolia occur. Mesoxerophyllic Pinus

18

excelsa and Rhododendron arboreum forest lies in the upper Bhote Kosi, lower

Langtang. Due to human interference, P. excelsa is now often the dominant or

only species represented in this types. An interesting species, Picea smithiana,

is scattered throughout the upper part of this forest

Degraded forest means intensive collection of fuel wood and fodder.

The resulting heath are, therefore, plagioclimax communities where the

stunted, sparse tree species present are associated with shrubs such as Berberis

sp., Rubus sp., and Lonicera sp.. Grazing - resistant species are Anaphalis sp.,

Anemona sp., Potentilla sp. and Gentiana sp..

Montane zone (2600-3,000m)

Montane and Hill Zone are sometimes considered as Temperate zone.

Vegetation vary from the damp, shaded Q. semecarpifolia and Tsuga dumosa

type, to the mesohydrophyllic stands which are almost pure Q. semecarpifolia.

Other types of forest include those which have been burnt and now consist

mainly of Q.semecarpifolia. The further degeneration of natural forest, due to

the presence of livestock in spring and autumn, has resulted in heaths

community where Rhododendron arboreum is at a selective advantage and

ultimately, heath communities, where trees have been removed (Dobremez et

al. 1974). This zone corresponds to the Himalayan wet Temperate forest

(Champion, 1968).

Lower Subalpine Zone (3,000-3,600m)

This zone is mainly characterized by the dominance of conifers and rich

variety associate species. It occupies an almost continuous belt throughout the

park, broken in places by burnt areas where dense bamboo (Arundinaria sp.,

Thamnocalamus aristatus and Himalayacalamus falconeri) stands thrive.

On damper, steep, north - facing slopes Rhododendron barbatum is

often present in pure stands. At the lower altitudes in this zone, Acer spps. are

important associates on the north - facing slopes. These often extend down into

19

gulleys of the upper Montane Zone. In slightly drier conditions, T. dumosa is

an important constituent of the zone together with Abies spectabilis. The

mesophyllic habitats are characterized by A. spectabilis and Larix nepalensis in

the area of less rainfall to the north of the Gosainkund Lake-Dorje Lhakpa

range. The latter species is peculiar because of its localized distribution in the

Eastern Himalayas.

Abies spectabilis, the high altitude fir, is common in the upper forest. It

is not usually found below 3,000m, but where occasional trees occur rather

below that altitude they retain the appearance characteristic of the tree at higher

altitudes. A. spectabilis does not usually exceed 24m in height, it branches are

widely spreading, and its leaves are much more stiff. Above 3,500m the Abies

often is superseded by Betula utilis, but in some places it ascends to the

treeline. Below 3,000m it usually gives way to Tsuga dumosa forest or to Acer,

Osmanthus, and Magnolia of the upper temperate mixed broad-leaved forest.

This fir forest normally has a dense under story of rhododendrons and when

seen in the spring it is one of the most beautiful sights in Nepal. The upper

canopy of the forest is composed almost exclusively of the fir, and the straight

stemmed trees attain a height of 25-30m.

The Rhododendron occurring in Abies forest are limited to

Rhododendron barbatum, R. campanulatum, R. arboreum and in a few places

the Nepalese endemic R. cowanianum occur. Broad-leaved trees are not

common in this Abies-Rhododendron forest and mostly confined to clearings.

The one most frequently found are Betula utilis and species of Sorbus and Acer

where the Abies is burnt or the area cleared, dense thickets of bamboo often

spring up. The area near Sing Gompa and Thada have dead stand and fire-

blackened trunks of conifers. This zone corresponds to Alpine Fir-Birch forest.

Birch -Rhododendron forest, Moist Temperate Deciduous forest and Eastern

Oak-Hemlock forest (Champion, 1963).

20

Upper Sub Alpine Zone (3,600-4,000m)

Betula utilis is the characteristic tree species of this zone. Pastures often

extend down to areas covered previously by forest. This is largely attributed by

overgrazing. On north-facing slopes. B. utilis is associated with Rhododendron

campanulate,. the latter being scattered and stunted above the tree-line. In drier

habitats, B. utilis is absent and R. campanulatum is associated with J. indica

and J. recurva.. These juniper species are common. A. spectabilis is still

present, in small numbers, in the damp areas.

Wherever forest is absent, clumps of R. lepidotum, and R. anthopogon

develop and are dominant in and around the pasture (DNPWC/DUHE, 1977).

This zone corresponds to the Alpine Fir Birch forest and Birch-Rhododendron

forest (Champion, 1968).

Lower Alpine Zone (4,000-4,500m)

Above the tree line scrub species such as Rhododendron sp., Lonicera

spp, Juniperus sp., Cotoneaster sp. are found. Depending on climate and

humidity, the heaths are dominated by Rhododendron sp. (damp) or Juniperus

sp. (dry). Occurrence of Rhododendron anthopogon is characteristic of the

moist areas. Salix sp. occurs in the Langtang Valley, often down into the Sub

alpine Zone, but are seldom seen in the south of the Park. This zone

corresponds to the Dry Alpine Scrub (Champion, 1968).

Upper Alpine Zone (4,500-5,500m)

Species vary depending on the soil, aspect and degree of shelter.

Grasses, herbs and cushion plants occur in the most favorable microhabitats

(DNPWC/NUHE, 1977).

21

2.6 Fauna

The Langtang National Park has an abundant of found species due to its

physiographic diversity. There are recorded more than 46 mammal species, 345

bird species, 11 species of herpeto fauna, 30 species of fishes, 70 species

butterflies and 10 species of spiders (Khatiwada 2002, Chaudhary 1998, Karki

et al. 2002). Some of the endangered species found in the park are: Snow

Leopard (Uncia uncia), Clouded Lepoard (Neofelis nebulosa), Musk deer

(Moschus chrysogaster), Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens). The prey species such as

the Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), Himalayan Marmot (Marmota

himalayan), Pika (Ochotona sp.), Ghoral (Nemorhaedas goral). Other major

fauna found in the park are Wild Dog (Canis alpinus), Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes)

Common Leopard (Panthera paradus), Wolf (Canis lupus), Himalayan Yellow

Throated Marten (Martes flavigula), Himalayan Black Bear (Selenarctos

thibetanus), Large India Civet (Viverra zibetha), Common Langur

(Simnopathicus entellus), Rhesus Macaque (Macaca mulatta), Assamese

Macaque (Macaca assamensis), Barking deer (Muntiacus muntijac).

Some of the important bird species in the Park are: Impeyam Pheasant

(Lophophorus impejanus), Blood Pheasant (Ithaginis cruentus), Monal

Pheasant (Tragopan styra),Tibetan Snow Cock (Tetraogallus tibetanus), Snow

Partridge (Lerwa lerwa), Long-gailed Minivets (Pericrocotus ethologus),

Black-capped Sibias (Heterophasia capistrata), River Chat (Chimarrornis

leucocephalus), Yellow-billed Blue Magpie (Cissa flavirostris), Ibisbill

(Ibidorhyncha struthersii) etc. Eagles and vultures are often seen soaring above

cliffs and high pastures in search of carrion or prey. White-collared black bird,

Himalayan Honey guide, Scaly-bellied woodpecker, Redstarts, Tits are other

birds that can be seen. The Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysetus) is also present,

although less common. The most commonly seen reptile is the Himalayan rock

lizard, Green Pit Viper, Himalayan Matrix, Mountain Pit Viper, Large Toad

Viper are found in the park.

22

2.7 Village Socio-Economic Aspects

The Langtang National Park is extended across three districts Rasuwa,

Nuwakot and Sindhupalchok. The Buffer zone of Langtang National park was

declared in 1998 under the provision made by the fouth amendment of the

DNPWC Act 1973. The Buffer Zone of Langtang National Park is an area

peripheral to the park, also regarded as a zone of impact comprising of about

420 km2 with 10,509 households. There are 15 VDCs within the Buffer zone

(Rasuwa-11, Nuwakot-3 and Sindhupalchok- 1) (Khatiwada 2002). Present

study is focused on the Langtang VDC, the statistical report of Census 2001

shows the total population of 521 with 143 households (CBS 2001). It seems

that the Langtang was settled by families from the Kerung Tibet (China). The

people from Langtang speak Kerung dialect. However, there is intermingle of

Tamangs and refugees from Tibet with local population. Although, they call

themselves Tamangs but don’t speak authentic Tamang dialect. (Gurung 1988).

They also celebrate Tibetan Buddhist festivals such as Loshar.

Occupations for living are livestock raising and farming. Agriculture is

secondary in terms of costs and benefits because of low crop production. Most

of the people buy food grains by using money earned from various activities.

Popular crop combination being buck wheat, potato and barley, Cropping

pattern is set in alternative way or one crop each year.

Raising of animals is a very important aspect of the people of Langtang.

Transhuman system of grazing is practiced (Gurung 1988). Livestock

movement is between 3000-5000 m elevation from May-September and in

winter, they come down to lower elevation at 2,000m. However, high altitude

Yak and Nak do not come below 2,500. Sheep and Goats are grouped into

several herds for the summer grazing. These animals usually graze in meadows

not accessible to Yaks and in area where these is not enough fodder for larger

livestock.

23

Animals are allowed to graze freely in the valley. Because of the nature

of animal pasture management, animals are passing through the valley from

April to June and move to alpine pasture. The number of days spent in each

pasture varies as it depends on availability of grass, weather and religious

festivals. Chauris and Naks are milked once a day and usually in the morning.

They collect hay in October for feeding during the winter.

2.8 Tourism

Panoramic natural scenery combined with an exotic cultural heritage

have become Nepal’s biggest assets in this era of wide spread international

tourism. The Langtang trekking is popular tourist destination receiving about

8,000 visitors per year. With advent of motor able road to Dhunche and

Syabrubensi, Langtang National Park has become the shortest trek in the

Himalayas (Gurung 1988).

More than 59 hotels and tea stalls are present along the trail from

Syabrubensi to the Kyanjing Gumba. In the entire Langtang valley, there are 44

lodges, 13 tea stalls, camping sites and restaurants that are run by local people.

It indicates that tourism has a positive impact on the area creating various

employment opportunities for the local people and providing substantial

contribution in improving the local economy. The large and increasing number

of tourists in a small area might have some negative impact as the local

environment. Due to high tourist pressure, the environment could easily

degrade. It has been reported that more than 200 children from the Langtang

have been studying in Kathmandu by the donation from the tourist. A part from

socio-economic changes, increased tourism activity also modifies the natural

and man made physical environment of the valley. The more trekkers in the

valley the more requirement of energy, which is based on fuelwood from local

forests. the forest deterioration can reduce soil fertility and enhance erosion and

hence tourism can also be a disturbance to wildlife.

24

3. METHODOLOGY

3.1. Reconnaissance Survey

The reconnaissance survey on Snow Leopard was conducted from

February 14 to March 4, 2003 in Langtang National Park. During this period,

general survey was done for Snow Leopard habitat, its sign and its prey

species. A fresh pugmark was found near the Kyanjing Gumba and was

conformed as of a Snow Leopard by International Snow Leopard Trust (ISLT)

(Chalise et al. 2004).

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) method was applied during the

survey on February 2003 before starting the actual fieldwork. The survey was

done with yak herders, local people, and hotel owners to find out collect

information on the Snow Leopard and its prey in LNP.

3.2 Survey Block Design

The study area was focused on Ghondatabela to Langsisa,with an area of

25 km2. The study area was divided into five survey blocks, having an area of 5

km2. The study blocks had given the names as A,B,C,D and E. The first block

A lies in Ghondatabla (latitude N 28º 10.213’ to N 28º12.286’, longitude E

85027.316’ to E 85

029.971’ and Elevation 3000m to 5058m) B lies in Langtang

village (latitude N 28012.315’ to N28

012.60’, longitude E 85

030.00’ to E

85032.830’ and elevation 3455m to 5572m). C lies in Kyanjing Gumba

(latitude N 28012.408’ to N28

014.057’, longitude E 85

032.972’ to E 85

035.550’

and elevation 3900m to 4983m). D block lies in Numthan (latitude N

2811.177’ to N28013.374’, longitude E 85

035.811’ to E 85

037.933’ and

elevation 4000m to 5163m)at. E block lies in Langsisa Kharka (latitude N

28012.286’ to N28

014.201’, longitude E 85

038.00’ to E 85

042.169’ and

elevation 4060m to 5578m), at.(Map: 2 and 3)

25

3.3 Snow Leopard Sign Transects

The Snow Leopard survey was done according to SLIMS (The Snow

Leopard Information Management System) developed by the International

Snow Leopard Trust. The length of sign transect was 500m and breadth was

5m left and 5m right from the center of line. The total area occupied by each

sign transect was 0.5 km2. The length of the transect was measured by the

pedometer and confirmed by survey tape. The sign transects were laid in ridge

line, crest of cliff, human footpaths, base of sloppy hills, stream bed and cliff

base as the potential sites of Snow leopard. The signs (feces, scrapes and scent

spraying) left by Snow Leopard were noted down. The topographic map

(1:50,000) was utilized to marked the transect routes for regular observation.

The Snow Leopard signs were searched in each transect. If the Snow Leopard

sign was confirmed then, it was measured and the tentative date was estimated.

On each transect, the dominant habitat features like Longitude, latitude,

elevation, habitat type, rangeland use, landform, ruggedness, dominant

topographic feature and substrate were recorded. Although 25 transects were

laid down in four survey blocks namely B,C,D and E. The distribution of

transect was uneven in all survey blocks this is due to unequal distribution of

Topography. No single transect was laid in block A (Ghodatabela) due to lack

to signs and more disturbance from people and livestocks. Similarly 5 transects

were laid down in Block B (Langtang), 8 is in C (Kyanjing), 8 in D

(Numthang) and 4 in block E (Langsisa Kharka).

3.4 Identification of Pugmarks (Track survey)

To assess the Snow Leopard status in the study area , sandy bank, dusty

footpath muddy trail and snow covered area were surveyed. Pugmark observed

in a new tracks were noted down with measurement and also recorded by

photographs, digitally and also by still camera. The date, time, place, GPS

recorded were also noted down.

26

3.5 Camera Trapping Method

The automatic heat sensor cameras (manufactured by Goodson and

Associates, Inc. of Lexix, Kansas, USA collaboration with China) were used to

photograph the Snow Leopard. Each Camera Trap unit consists of one Trail

Master (TM) -35 Camera (modified Olympus water proof 28 x 80mm lens

containing compact camera with auto focus). Whenever an animal passes the

beam, the TM -35 camera attached to the system to take photograph of the

target animal, records the action with the time and date (plate ...). The camera

devices were mounted (on the stone or wooden posts) in strategic locations and

trails frequently used by Snow Leopard.

Three cameras were used at a time to photograph the Snow Leopard.

The camera traps were placed for 2 to 4 days at every trapping station. The

devices were not placed during day time to avoid the risk of theft. The colour

print films with ASA-200 Kodak were used to take the shots. The camera delay

was normally fixed at 1.0 minute.

3.6 Questionnaire Survey

Interviews from local people, hotel owner and herders were carried out

with in the village settlements and herders herd site. For the presence/absence,

status of the Snow Leopards and their prey and livestock depredation, two sets

of questionnaire were prepared (Annex 2 and 3). The first set of questionnaire

was related to the Snow Leopard and their prey species contained three

different sections.

The first section contained questions related to the personal information

and GPS recording. The second section dealt about the Snow Leopard sighting

and status. The third section dealt about the threats and conservation Issues.

27

The second set of questionnaire also contained three different sections

the first section contained personal information, second section livestock

ownership and trend and third section dealt about livestock husbandry.

Following considerations were made during questionnaire survey.

People were briefed about the purpose of the study prior to survey.

Interviews were taken from local people (villagers), herders and hotel

owners.

As per local harsh consideration of people activities we had collected

and fill out form according to local schedule with out disturbing their

daily chorus.

In the field, before actual data collection from the locals, we get

acquainted with their feeling about Snow Leopard and shed light of our

main aim of research. Afterward with support of local opinion leader

and Lamas, we were able to collect our questionnaire from completely

and satisfactory.

3.7 Data Analysis

Primary and secondary data were collected for the study from February

2003 to May 2004 spending more than 143 days in the field. The actual study

hours in the Snow Leopard study was 769.15hrs. Primary data were collected

by quadrate sampling, questionnaire survey, information interviews and

observations.

Secondary data were collected from VDC offices, different Journals,

research articles, bulletins published from different offices and department,

newspapers and books.

The collected primary and secondary data have been processed by

statistical methods. Microsoft excel was used to analyze the data and the results

were presented in tables and charts wherever possible. To examine the

28

significance of data, chi - square test was employed. The 95 % significance

level was used to accept or reject the null hypothesis.

E

)EO( 22

Where ,

O = Observed value

E = Expected value

3.8 Prey Species Survey

3.8.1 Survey of Himalayan Tahr

The survey of the Himalayan Tahr was done by direct census method.

The individual species were counted by using binocular (10x40). The date,

place, time and GPS Recording were noted down.

3.8.2 Pika Survey

The Royle’s pikas were surveyed by using quadrate sampling method.

The size of quadrate was 10x10 m2. Ten randomly selected quadrates were laid

down to the different study sites. The individual species were counted inside

the quadrate. The date, time, place, GPS recording and elevation were noted

down.

3.9 Time Schedule

Table 2 : Schedule of field time spent in Langtang Valley study area

(2003-2004)

S. No. Field Duration Total working

days

Total working

hours

1. 14 February to 4 March 2003 20 Preliminary Survey

2. 5 April to 8 June 2003 62 402.66

3. 23 August to 18 September 2003 25 151.61

4. 10 February to 27 Feb 2004 17 72.50

5. 9 May to 28 May 2004 19 132.38

Total 143 769.15

29

4. RESULTS

4.1 Status of Snow Leopard

4.1.1 Snow Leopard Sign Observed According to Transect

Altogether 90 signs (feces, tracks and scrapes) were observed in 25 sign

transects. The highest no. of signs were observed in transect No. C5 (on the way to

Langtang Glacier Kharka). Not a single sign was observed in seven sign transects.

(Table No. 3)

Table-3: Signs recording according to transects

Block Transect

No. Location

GPS recording Total No. of

Sign Latitude Longitude Elevation

B B1 Yamphu N28°12.419'

N28°12.492'

E85°33.261'

E 85°32.992'

3980m

3930m

0

B2 Opposite to Mundu Village

N28°12.627' N28°12750'

E85°31.438' E85°31.416'

3660m 3830m

0

B3 Falls side Mundu Village

N28°13.125' N28°12.917'

E85°31.468' E85°31.620'

3720m 3690m

0

B4 Down side of Mundu

Village

N28°12.727'

N28°12.60'

E85°31.845'

E85°32.107'

3660m

3680m

1

B5 Way to Yamphu N28°12.610' N28°16.600'

E85°32.335' E85°32.634'

3700m 3720m

5

C C1 Langtang Khola Basin N28°12.480; N28°12.501'

E85°33.810' E85°33.784'

3758m 3727m

4

C2 Cherkori Basecamp N28°12.829'

N28°12.929'

E85°35.405'

E85°35.583'

4515m

4606m

8

C3 Ganjala Pass Basecamp N28°12.107' N28°11.705'

E85°33.550' E85°34.977'

4160m 4310m

10

C4 Tharthepisa N28°12.578' N28°12.499'

E85°35.153' E85°34.630'

4240m 3950m

10

C5 Langtang Glacier N28°12.974' N28°13.307'

E85°33.975' E85°34.058'

4000m 4040m

13

C6 Langtang Lirung Basecamp

N28°14.030' N28°13.755'

E85°33.571' E85°13.560'

4350m 4300m

1

C7 Langtang Glacier Lakeside

N28°13.348' N28°13.090'

E85°33.640' E85°33.667'

4220m 4160m

1

C8 Glacier Kharka N28°13.214' N28°13.657'

E85°34.013' E85°34.286'

4350m 4220m

0

D D1 Chyadan N28°11.800' N28°11.781'

E85°36.705' E85°36.430'

3910m 3980m

11

D2 Yala Basecamp N28°12.920' N28°12.214'

E85°35.123' E85°36.487'

4606m 4485m

5

D3 Thungchung N28°11.711' N28°11.706'

E85°35.973' E85°36.50'

4279m 4249m

7

D4 Yalakharka N28°12.768' N28°12.957'

E85°36.926' E85°36.739'

4750m 4810m

1

D5 Way to YalaBase N28°13.177' N28°13.314'

E85°36.344' E85°36.392'

4800m 4750m

0

D6 Way to Yalapeak Kharka

N28°12.146' N28°12.199'

E85°35.928' E85°36.458'

4400m 4510m

1

D7 Numthan Kharka N28°11.790' N28°11.797'

E85°36.780' E85°37.075'

4000m 4010m

0

D8 Kinggurchen Kharka N28°11.741' N28°11.709'

E85°35.535' E85°35.811'

3950m 3980m

0

E E1 Langsisa Kharka (1) N28°12.926' N28°13.192'

E85°40.521' E85°40.681'

4091m 4152m

6

E2 Langsisa Kharka (2) N28°12.286' N28°12.176'

E85°39.169' E85°39.421'

4070m 4060m

4

E3 Langsisa Kharka (3) N28°12.275' N28°12.467'

E85°39.816' E85°39.978'

4170m 4130m

1

E4 Langsisa Kharka (4) N28°12.912' N28°13.155'

E85°40.518' E85°40.672'

4200m 4240m

1

30

Statistically, there was significantly difference in the signs distribution

between the transects. (2=113.18 p < 0.05, at 24 d.f.) i.e. the signs weren't

evenly distributed in all transects.

4.1.2 Snow Leopard Sign Observed According to Block

Among the 5 different blocks highest no. of signs were observed in

Block C (Kyanging area) and least no. of signs were observed in Block B

(Langtang valley) (Table : 4).

Table-4: Signs distribution according to blocks

Blocks No. of Signs Observed

B 6

C 47

D 25

E 12

Total 90

4.1.3 Distribution of Sign Transect According to Blocks

The distribution of transects were not uniform in all blocks. Highest

number of sign transects were laid in block C and D and least in

block E. The Block C and D have more accessible landform feature then that of

Block D and E.

Figure-4: Showing the distribution of sign transect on blocks

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Langtang Kyanjing Numthang Kharka Langsisa Kharka

Place

No

. o

f S

ign

tra

nsect

tran

sect

31

4.1.4 Occurrence of Signs

During the study period different Snow Leopard signs (feces, tracks and

scrapes) were observed. Among the total 90 signs, more than 94% of sings

were feces and 2.22% wee scrapes.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Feces Tracks Scrapes

Sign Type

No

. o

f S

ign

Ob

serv

ed

Figure-5: Distribution of sign in different transects

4.1.5 Signs Distribution According to Topography

Due to rugged and steep terrain, the sign transects were laid in different

topography. More than 28% transects were laid in cliff base and hill side. Other

transects were laid in valley bottom, stream bed, human tracks and ridgeline

respectively.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Valley

bottom

Streambed Cliff base Hillside Human

track

Ridgeline

Topography

No. of

transects

sin

gs &

density

No. of transects

No. of signs

Signs density/ K m2

Figure-6: Signs distribution according to topography

32

4.1.6 Pugmark/Track Seen

The different size of pugmarks of Snow Leopard were found on dusty

footpath, muddy trail, and snow covered area. During the study period, five

different sizes of pugmarks were identified (Table : 5).

Table-5: Pugmark recording on study area

S. N. Date Location Size of Pugmark (cm)

1. 8 April, 2003 Airport 9×11

2. 10 April, 2003 Glacier 7×9

3. 15 April, 2003 Glacier 7×9

4. 29 April, 2003 Cherkori 9×10

5. 30 April, 2003 Cherikori 7×9

6. 3 May, 2003 Airport 7×8

7. 14 May, 2003 Airport 7×9

8. 18 May, 2003 Yala base 7×8

9. 20 May, 2003 Ganjala 9×11

10. 27 Aug, 2003 Sindhum 8×10

11. 27, Aug, 2003 Mundum 7×9

4.1.7 Snow Leopard Fecal Samples

The scats were observed and collected from the transect and study sites.

(Table : 6). Out of 12 observation, 6 scats were recorded from above 4200m

elevation. At the lowest elevation i.e. at 3720m a single scat was observed.

33

Table-6: Occurence of Snow Leopard fecal samples

Sample Date Location Lat/ Long Elev (m) Age

1 8-Apr-03 Kyanjin - near

bridge

N28°12'621

E085°33'675

3850 old

2 10-Apr-03 Kyanjin - near river N28°12'621

E085°33'810

3850 old

3 11-A pr-03 along transect B-3 N28°13'125

E085°31'468

3720 old

4 2-May-03 Cherkori kharka N28°12'522

E085°34'940

4200 old

5 2-May-03 Cherkori kharka N28°12'597

E085°35'740

4250 old

6 3-May-03 Near Cherkori

kharka

N28°12'578

E085°35'153

4320 old

7 11-May-03 Way to Yala Peak N28°12'540

E085°35'210

4250 new

8 11-May-03 Way to Yala Peak N28°12'528

E085°35'100

4200 old

9 16-May-03 Gangala Pass base

camp (C-3)

N28°12'170

E085°33'550

3950 old

10 21-May-03 Cherkori kharka N28°12'884

E085°35'483

4555 new

11 24-May-03 near Chyandan (D-

1)

N28°11'710

E085°36'505

3875 old

12 27-May-03 Langtang Lirung N28°12'886

E085°33'704

3920 new

4.1.8 Snow Leopard Occurrence

From the Questionnaire Survey findings, among 55 respondents out of

60 households, 90.9% respondents affirmed the occurrence of Snow Leopard in

Langtang and its vicinity (Figure: 7). However, 4% did not know whether it

exists or not and 5.09% responded about its unavailability in the study area.

34

4% 5.09%

90.9%

Yes

No

Don't Know

Figure-7: View of respondent about Snow Leopard occurrence

4.1.9 Place of Snow Leopard Sighting

More than 22% villager's had noticed Snow Leopard in rocky mountain

area of Langtang. Langtang village lies on the Langtang river valley below the

mountain. The Rocky mountain is the good habitat of the Snow Leopard which

justified the respondent's answer. As per the interviews result, 14.58% of

respondents had sighted the Snow Leopard in Langtang Lirung base camp and

Langtang glacier Kharka from where herders had loosed their heavy livestock.

Table-7: Name of place where the villager's noticed Snow Leopard

S. N. Name of place (Location) Respondent that seen Percentage

1. Langsisa Kharka 3 6.20

2. Langtang Lirung 7 14.58

3. Ghodatabela 1 2.08

4. Rocky Mountain of Langtang 11 22.9

5. Near Sindum 3 6.20

6. Thangsep 1 2.08

7. Chamki 4 8.33

8. Langtang glacier Kharka 2 4.16

9. Airport 1 2.08

10. Yala peak Kharka 7 14.58

11. Numthang 2 4.16

12. Cherikori 2 4.16

13. Nayakhyang 1 2.08

14. Kinggurchen 2 4.16

35

4.1.10 Kinds of Evidence

As per the respondent response, out of 55 respondents more than 64%

had seen to the Snow Leopard. Out of them 18% saw the Snow Leopard while

it was killing the livestock.

Figure 8: Kinds of evidence

4.2 Livestock Depredation in 2003

4.2.1 Livestock Owner Ship

Hundred percent of the respondent, among 55 respondent (Household),

out of 60 households residing in the Langtang own livestock. According to

interviews, the villagers owned about 858 livestock, with Yak and Chauri

comprising 63.37%, Horses 31.12% and Sheep and Goats 5.01% (Figure : 9).

Only the wealthiest families kept horses. Most of the headers owned less than

15 cattle.

31.12%

5.01%

63.37%

Yak

Horse

Sheep and Goats

Figure-9: Percentage of livestock holding in Langtang

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Sighting At Livestock Kill

Pugmark Feces Vocal/Voice

Evidence

% o

f R

esp

on

den

t re

sp

on

se

resp

on

se

36

4.2.2 Livestock Loss

Interviews with the local headers indicated that mortality of the

livestock were caused by different reasons i.e. lack of forage, winter snow/cold,

disease, accident and predator. Altogether 440 livestock were lost due to

different sources (Table : 10). Among the different source of mortality, the

highest mortality of livestock was caused by predators (62%) and lowest

caused by cold (4.3%).

62.04%5.6%

5.2%

4.3%

22.7%

Lack of forage

Cold

Accident

Disease

Predator

Figure-10: Percentage of livestock depredation

4.2.3 Total Economic Loss

Livestock worth NRs. 39,57,500 was lost by Langtang villagers in

2003. About 56% of economic lost caused by predators. (Table : 8). According

to local people the main predator was Snow Leopard and caused the great

livestock loss.

Table-8: Economic Loss caused by different sources

S.N. Source Economic loss in NRs.

1 Lack of forage 104450

2 Cold 217500

3 Accident 257500

4 Disease 232500

5 Predator 2202500

Total 3957500

(Note : The average price of Yak is 12,500 NRs., Sheep and Goat 2,500 NRs.

and Horse 20,000 NRs.

37

4.2.4 Livestock Loss Caused by Predators

The highest livestock loss was caused by the predators among the

different mortality sources. From the interviews with herder reveled that the

sub adult Yaks, baby Horse, Sheep etc are found more vulnerable towards

predator attack. Among the total livestock lost by predator, 82% constitute

Yaks (sub adults).

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Yak Sheep Horse Goat

Livestock Type

No

. o

f L

ivesto

ck

Figure-11: Total number of livestock killed by predators

4.2.5 Months of High Livestock Losses

According to local people, Seasonal grazing can enhance the quality of

pasture land. Therefore, locals make of the seasonal grazing in the area like

Yalakharka, Langsisa Kharka, Langtang Glacier Kharka and so on (Figure: 12).

Figure-12: Months of high livestock losses

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

January February March Apri May June July August September October November December

Months

Perc

en

tag

e o

f to

tal li

vesto

ck lo

st

lost

38

Generally, more livestock were lost in the months of June to September.

Herders had taken their livestock in high pastureland in those months which is

the potential habitat of Snow Leopard and other high altitude predators.

4.3 Prey Species Survey

4.3.1 Himalayan Tahr

a. Population Size

A total of 179 Himalayan tahrs were sighted in 13 herds. Block D

(Markhu-Numthang) area had a relatively high population of Himalayan Tahr

in terms of sighting. No single group was observed in survey block C

(Kyanjing Gumba area) (Table : 9). This block is quite disturbed due to

excessive grazing and tourist pressure.

Table-9: Numbers of Himalayan tahr observed in the area

S.N Date/Time Location Total Number

1 5 May 2003/11:00 Marku Cliff area 50

2 7 May 2003 /11:45 Numthan area 42

3 11 May 2003/8:30 way of Yalapeak 30

4 17 May 2004 /12:05 Thungchung Kharka 33

5 19 May 2004 /10:13 Langang cliff 11

6 16 Feb 2004/16:00 Langtang village 13

Total 179

b. Group Size

The observed group size of Himalaya tahr ranges 4-50.

4.3.2 Pika

Out of the 10 observed sites for pika species, Langtang Lirung and

Glacier Kharka had the highest where as least number were observed in

Ganjala Base Camp (Table:10). A total of 370 pikas ha-1

were found in the

present study area.

39

The highest population density of Pika was found in Langtang Lirung

Base Camp and Glacier Kharka i.e. 0.07m-2

.

Table-10: Pika observed in a (10×10)m2 quandrat

S.N. Location Date of time Longitude/Latitude Elevation Total

headcount

Density

1 Langsisa 13 May

2004/10:85

N28012.882'/E85

040413' 4183m 5 0.05

2 Numthan 13 May

2004/13:00

N28011.724'/E85

036.613' 4019 m 2 0.02

3 Marku

(Airport)

13 May

2004/17:31

N28011.017'/E85

031.317' 3933 m 3 0.03

4 Langtang

Lirung base

15 May

2004/11:32

N28012.810/E85

033.612' 4015 m 7 0.07

5 Langtang

Lirung Kharka

15 May

2004/12:31

N28014112'/E85

033.617' 4319 m 2 0.02

6 Glacier Kharka 16 May

2004/18:35

N28014.229'/E85

033.969' 4351 m 7 0.07

7 Ganjala Base 16 May

2004/14:10

N28011.631'/E85

034.998' 4312 m 1 0.01

8 Yala Base 17 May

2004/14:45

N28012.431'/E85

0.36.893' 4481 m 3 0.03

9 Glacier site 18 May

2004/9:15

N28013.297'/E85

034.157' 4391 m 4 0.04

10 Kyanjing valley 18 May

2004/15:35

N28012.769/E85

035.315' 3973m 3 0.03

4.3.3 Musk Deer

Fresh dropping were collected from the Musk deer Conservation Area

and Glacier kharka. But their actual status could not be ascertained.

4.3.4 Blue Sheep

According to the local people they had never seen blue sheep in

Langtang area. But according to Ranjen Dorje Lama (Local Hotel Owner) he

saw 10 individuals of blue sheep near the Langsisa glacier in 1982 (Personal

communication). On the present study period, Blue sheep or its sign was not

noticed from the area.

40

4.4 Threats to Wild Life

4.4.1 Poaching

Local people from Langtang affirmed that Snow Leopards and its prey

species such as Musk deer, Himalayan tahr and Ghoral were hunted illegally in

Langtang valley. During the study period, freshly hunted specimen was not

noticed but 20 leg snares (Paso) were found in Musk Deer Conservation Area

(Which lies in block C) at the N 28012.133'/E85

033.488' on May 2003. During

interview, 62.7% of respondents were agreed about on going hunting of Snow

Leopard and its prey species (Musk deer, Tahr and Ghoral). According to some

informants in 2001, 26 Musk deer were poached by poachers 14 Himalayan

tahrs were killed by government employees in 2002 in Langtang and Markhu

area.

Table : 11 : Opinion of the villagers about present situation of hunting in LNP.

Opinion Respondent response %

Hunting of Snow Leopard and its prey 67.37

No 23.63

Don't know 9.09

4.4.2 Attitude Local People Toward Snow Leopard

Interviews with local people reveled that more than 51% had negative

attitude towards Snow Leopards due to its livestock depredating nature. They

affirmed that the main predator of that area is Sarkin (in Tibetan Language

Sarkin Means Snow Leopard). So anger herder wanted to eliminate it.

41.8%51.0%

7.2%

Bad

Good

No opinion

Figure 13 : Attitude of local people towards Snow Leopard

41

5. DISCUSSION

5.1 Status and Sign Abundance

Highly cryptic coloration, sedentary behaviour, mostly solitary

behaviour and sparse distribution in far flung and generally inaccessible

mountain range make the survey of Snow Leopard extremely difficulty (Malik

1995). So , the direct census of the Snow Leopard is very difficult to estimate

the population status. Indirect census method was employed to estimate the

rough population status, habitat and distribution of the Snow Leopard in the

present study.

During the study period, 5 survey blocks were visited and walked 25

transects with a total length of 1250m (mean transect length was 500m).

Altogether 90 signs were identified inside the transect from single visit.

Individual sign included 85 feces and 2 scrapes. A Snow Leopard was Sighted

on 26th

April 2003 at Cherkori at GPS recording N 280 12.598’/ E 85

0 35.811’

and elevation 4570 m.

Similar work was done by McCarthy and Mukhtsag (1995) in Mangolia

between October and September 1995, they visited 23 survey sites and walked

102 Transects with a 101.1 km total length. They recorded 933 Scrapes, 623

fecal piles and 62 scent spray. Similarly, J.L. Fox and R.S. Chundawat (1995)

evaluated the Snow Leopard sign abundance in the upper Indus valley. They

recorded 1.3-2.9 scrapes per km from valley floor.

The population home range and distribution of the Snow Leopards were

estimated by using radio-telemetry (Shah 1983, Jackson and Ahlborn 1988, Oli

1994) in North Western Himalaya of Nepal. Similar work was done in India

(Chundawat 1992), Mongolia (Schaller et al. 1994) & Pakistan but the method

is costly and need more technical support.

Camera trap method also used for estimating the population of the

animal, photo capture technique are being increasing used to study solitary and

42

secretive (Carbon et al. 2001), but little effort has been investigated in seeing

whether such techniques could be employed successfully to study Snow

Leopard (Spearing 2002).During the study period, three camera traps were used

to capture the Snow Leopard photographs but among 55 photographs taken by

camera trap, 7 photos of Red Jungle Fox, 2 of Marmot, 13 of domestic Horse,

20 of Yaks and remainder were blank. Due to limited number of equipments,

Snow Leopard could not be trapped by the camera. Many biologist used this

method for Tiger census too.

Pugmark method was used by many biologists (e.g. Choudhary 1971,

Mc Dougal 1997, Sunquist 1981, Tamang 1982) to estimate the rough figure of

Tiger population because it is reliable, easier, cheaper and more precise. In the

present study, this methods was employed to estimate the abundance of Snow

Leopard in Langtang National Park. During the study period, Five different

size of Pugmarks (Table 5 and Plate 14) were observed. Mc Carthy and

Munkhtog (1995) reported similar study applied in Mongolia and found 21

instances of Pugmarks. The observed and recorded fecal samples from study

area showed that more scats were observed above the altitude of 4000m (Table-

5). This indicates the availability of the Snow Leopard was more frequent

above the altitude 4000m.

In 1981, Green reported the existence of Snow Leopards living within

Langtang National Park near Gosainkinda 3900m and Langsisa 4540m

(Shrestha 2003). Discussion with locals showed that a Snow Leopard had seen

while it was killing the Himalayan tahr near Langtang in May 2003. Similarly

two caracass to Snow Leopard were found by local hotel owner near the

Langsisa glacier in 1985 (Personal Communication with Renjen Dorje Lama).

Similarly in August 2003, local herders were killed a cub of Snow Leopard

near the Yala peak (Personal with local owner, Thile Sherpa). Unreported and

scattered in formation showed that illegal hunting, poaching and retaliatory

attack of local people (herders) are the major causes of decline in the number of

Snow Leopard in Langtang National Park.

43

5.2 Prey Species

5.2.1 Himalayan Tahr Population

Population of the Himalayan tahr in Langtang area has been decreasing

due to habitat fragmentation and degradation. Anthropogenic causes such as

excessive grazing poaching also played role in decline of this species.

During the present study period, a group of 4 individuals at the

minimum and a maximum of 50 individuals of Tahrs were observed. The mean

group size was 19 individuals per group noticed. Good population of Tahr were

observed in block D (Markhu-Numthang area) can be attributed to the good

sloppy grassland and relatively undisturbed by livestock and tourists.

Similar work was done by Green (1978) in Langtang valley, he reported

the average group size of the tahr was 15 and largest group was 77 in maternal

herd. Present study showed that this figure was higher in case of mean group

size and lower in the largest group than previous study by Green 1978. This

could be due to limited observation to the tahr species. Discussion with locals

showed that 14 Himalayan tahr individuals were killed by government

authority form Langtang and Markhu area. So illegal hunting and Poaching

could be the factors of decreasing Himalayan tahr group size.

Similar study in Annapurna Conservation Area showed the size of the

Himalayan tahr less than 10 individuals per group. In Dhorpatan, average

group sizes of Tahr varied from 3 to 16 in different Sub habitats holding

different number of Tahr (Gurung 1995). In the Kang Chu valley of east Nepal

the average group size was 7 in winter and 23 was the largest group in a

maternal herd (Schaller 1973).

The number of prey group size might have higher in LNP than previous

area of Nepal may be due to less diversity of prey species.

44

5.2.2 Musk Deer

Musk deer, once plentiful in Langtang Area has now heading towards

crisis and vanishing from many parts of the Himalayas due to habitat

encroachment and habitat change. Anthropogenic causes such as poisoning and

poaching have also played role in decline of this species. Report from the

locals and different authorities indicated the decline of this species. Although

the population has decreased drastically in comparison to last decades. In

present study, bedding sites were observed and droppings were collected from

Musk deer Conservation Area. In 1990, alone 26 musk deer were killed by

poachers for their musk. So Poaching was the main threat to musk deer in

Langtang National Park.

5.2.3 Pika

Pikas were frequently seen in Langtang valley during the study period.

The least no. of Pikas were seen during the months of December to February.

The highest population density of Pika was found in Langtang lirung base

camp and Glacier Kharka (0.07 m-2

). These areas had plenty of hiding places,

less disturbance from human beings and grass land than other study sites.

Royle's pika (Ochotona sp.) constituting a substantial portion of Snow Leopard

as winter diet when marmots were hibernating (Oli et al. 1993).

5.3 Livestock Depredation

Local people agreed that , the large wild ungulates: Himalayan tahr,

Musk deer, Ghoral etc. were hunted by poacher and even by governmental

authorities. Not only poaching but also over-grazing by domestic livestock

which lead to competition with and eventually loss of, wild ungulates, a major

a prey source for Snow Leopard. In turn, such reduction of wild prêt often leads

Snow Leopards to prey on domestic livestock. Therefore, due to shortage of

natural prey species, Snow Leopards preyed upon domestic Livestock like Sub-

adult yak, Baby Horse, Sheep and Goat. So more than 50.9% of local had a

45

negative perception and wanted to eliminate it. Present study suggested that

predator was main factor that caused the greater livestock loss about 62%

among the total livestock loss. Loss rates differed according to the kind of

livestock involved, with Sheep, Goats, Young Yak and Baby Horses being

most vulnerable because they are either smaller and left unattended on the open

range for extended period of time. A similar pattern was noted by Jackson et al.

(1990) from Annapurna conservation Area, estimate the depredation rate

19.6%. Oil (1991) estimated the depredation rate 2.6% from Manang Area.

Scat analysis indicated livestock contributed about a third of Snow Leopard's

diet (Oil et al. 1993) but this does not rule out scavenging. Comparison with

them, present study showed the livestock depredation rate higher. This could be

due to the shortage of Natural prey species.

Killing of Snow Leopards in response to, or in prevention of, livestock

losses were reported as the other prime danger to the species (Besides loss of

prey) (Theile 2003). Present study suggest that total 2202500 NRs was lost by

the villagers from predator (NRs.40045 per household). The animal husbandry

has been found to be the main source of economy of the local people.

Therefore, Snow Leopard predation directly threatened the livelihood of the

herding families. In Quomolungma Nature Reserves Tibet, Jackson (1991)

found that $25 was lost per households. Similarly, Mc Carthy (1999) reported

that among 105 herders interviewed, 57 leads of livestock a year were lost in

Snow Leopard attacks. It was calculated that the damage amounted a round $47

per household affected. In the Annapurna Conservation Area revealed that 72

animals were lost by Snow Leopard and economic lost equivalent to $3866 (Oli

et al. 1994).

Present study suggests that depredation loss occurred through out the

year but peaked in the months of June to September after livestock arrives in

the high pasture (Summer Pasture) area from the village. Those shifted

pastured security is very poor and no enclosures ring time are used so predator

caused greater livestock lost. In the winter herders kept their stock in the well

46

fenced shed. Jackson et al. (1995) has reported the depredation rate peaked in

spring and early summer (April-June) with secondary peaks in late October

through mid - December, after livestock arrives in the village area from the

high summer pasture. Oli (1991) reported that Snow Leopard predation in

Annapurna Conservation Area of Nepal was higher in winter and that this was

probably partly owing to the unavailability of Marmots during their winter

hibernation. In the more remote parts of southern Tibet, herders clamed to lose

up to 9.5% of their head to predator wolf, Snow Leopard, Lynx and Golden

eagle (Jackson 1991). In the Khunjerab National Park of northern Pakistan,

Wegge (1989) reported that about 10% of the domestic stock (mostly Sheep

and Goat) were killed annually by Snow Leopard and Wolf with most of the

loss occurring in Winter and early Spring.

47

6. CONCLUSION

Langtang Valley and its vicinity provide good habitat for Snow Leopard

and its prey species. Ninety different signs, 5 Pugmarks and 5 killing sites were

recorded. The average Snow Leopard sign density was 7.2/km2. The Snow

Leopards signs were more seen on the way to Langtang glacier and Cherkori

Kharka and considered as the potential habitat of Snow Leopard, too.

A total of 253 Himalayan tahr individuals from 13 groups were

recorded. The poaching and over grazing were the major threat to the Wildlife

in LNP. A total of 370 individuals of pika per hectare were estimated.

Questionnaire survey revealed that predator was responsible for 62% livestock

loss. The problem of livestock depredation is very serious problem in Langtang

Valley. The total economic loss caused by the predator is recorded Rs.40046

per household. Yak, horse and other livestock are found to be mostly killed by

predator. The Snow Leopard sometimes enter inside the cow shed causing great

livestock loss. Local preventive methods adopted by farmers were only

partially effective.

The survival of Snow Leopard in Langtang seems uncertain. Because of

its livestock depredating nature, local people have negative attitude towards

this animal. So, the anger local people wanted to eliminate or directly killed the

Snow Leopard to take the revenge. Also habitat fragmentation and depredation,

deforestation and over grazing have disturbed the animals.

Even though some of the Snow Leopards have been surviving, to satisfy

the local needs more awareness programmes and income generation program is

needed to save the Snow Leopard. During the study period conservation

education and awareness programs were launched in Langtang Primary School

Langtang, Shyame Wanphel Secondary School, Sabrubensi and Rasuwa

Secondary School Dhunche.

48

7. RECOMMENDATIONS

The information presented in this report relates to status of Snow

Leopard and its relation to principle prey population The followings are the

recommendations:

1. Strengthening national legislation and conservation policies

The government should address any gaps in legislation to ensure that

Snow Leopards are fully protected by law. To provide full legal

protection for Snow Leopard, government should ensure that legislation

specifically out laws hunting. Possession, sale are trade of Snow

Leopards including all their parts, derivatives and products made from

these and that the legislation is applicable to all regions of the country,

including those where Snow Leopards do not occur.

2. CITES parties, the CITES secretariat inter governmental organizations

and NGOs should offer advice and assistance to relative authorities in

revising or drafting legislation relevant to the protection of Snow

Leopards.

3. Strengthen trade controls on known trade routes, at black markets and

cross border points.

Field patrolling is difficult in many areas of Snow Leopard's range

however known trade rotes, wildlife black markets and important border

crossings e.g. Nepalese Chinese border, Nepalese Indian border, should

be regularly controlled by efficiently equipped and trained staff.

4. Illegal hunting from the park security person should be stopped.

5. Regular monitoring of major markets and known trade centre.

Governments in co-operation with NGOs, should regularly monitor

markets and other locations where Snow Leopard skins and other

49

products have been frequently offered, most notably markets and tourist

stops in Nepal (Kathmandu) and China.

6. Herding practices : Government should co-operate with communities

and NGOs at local level to encourage herding and guarding practices

that reduce depredation by Snow Leopards and other predators.

7. We should assist local communities in the construction of predator proof

corrals night shelters and other means of livestock protection.

8. Governments resource managers , conservation NGOs and development

agencies should undertake efforts that will help to promote livestock

grazing practices that reduce impacts on native wildlife.

9. Scientific and other relevant institutions should compile information on

the levels and impact of illegal hunting and or unregulated hunting of

wild ungulates and other Snow Leopard prey species.

10. The local communities should be assisted in the design, establishment

and implementation of schemes that provide economic incentives to

protect Snow Leopards and wild ungulates.

11. The establishment of conservation based tourism program should be

promoted to bring additional income to local communities through the

establishment of conservation trust funds.

12. Public awareness program

Education will facilitate local people's understanding their environment

and wildlife, and discourage poaching, hunting encroachment of them.

Massive formal and non formal education program is recommended to

conserve the Snow Leopard and their habitat in the wild. Inter - school

debates or conservation education, consent should be encouraged.

50

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International Snow Leopard Trust and Worldwide Fund for Nature -

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56

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Thesis, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur.

57

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Crotett and Michael Hutchins. p. 289-310 .

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of Nepal. WWF Nepal Program, Kathmandu, Nepal. 70 p.

58

ANNEX-I

Meteorological data on temperature, relative humidity, precipitation for

1993-2001 recorded at Kyanjing Gumba, Rasuwa. (Source :HMG/N

Department of Hydrology and Meteorology).

a) Monthly mean Air Maximum Temperature (°C)

Altitude : 3920m

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

1993 -1.3 6.3 -1.5 4.5 7.6 9.3 9.6 9.3 8.0 5.1 3.3 5.1

1994 2.3 -2.3 5.0 1.6 7.0 9.3 10.0 9.3 8.8 7.9 3.0 4.3

1995 0.8 3.0 4.8 6.5 10.8 12.0 11.8 12.0 10.5 7.8 5.8 3.3

1996 3.7 3.5 7.3 9.0 12.2 12.4 13.9 12.9 12.2 9.7 9.3 8.8

1997 3.3 2.0 4.5 6.0 7.8 11.3 12.3 12.0 10.7 7.0 8.3 0.5

1998 2.5 3.5 3.8 7.5 11.8 14.0 11.6 12.3 11.0 8.8 7.5 6.8

1999 2.0 4.5 6.3 9.3 10.8 11.5 12.5 13.3 10.8 8.5 7.0 3.5

2000 3.0 -1.5 6.2 6.5 10.5 11.3 12.0 11.5 9.7 6.8 3.8 1.0

2001 0.5 -2.3 -4.3 -2.3 2.3 0.9 12.3 12.3 11.1 11.0 9.0 6.1

b. Monthly Mean Air Minimum Temperature (°C)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

1993 -9.5 -11.6 -8.0 -3.6 -0.5 4.4 6.8 5.8 4.3 -2.5 -2.8 -7.3

1994 -14.3 -10.0 -5.0 -3.3 -3.4 4.3 5.8 5.8 4.5 -2.0 -4.5 -7.5

1995 -9.5 -7.6 -3.5 -1.8 4.5 7.5 8.8 8.5 6.5 3.0 -3.5 -5.3

1996 -7.6 -6.5 -2.4 -0.6 2.9 2.8 8.2 7.3 5.7 1.4 -1.3 -2.5

1997 -10.0 -8.0 -3.4 -4.3 2.8 5.3 9.5 4.5 4.8 -3.8 -4.3 -8.3

1998 -6.8 -7.0 -3.8 0.3 2.3 8.3 8.8 9.3 6.3 3.5 -1.3 -3.5

1999 -7.5 -4.0 -0.8 2.8 3.5 5.8 8.3 7.9 7.9 1.0 -1.0 -5.5

2000 -6.8 -8.0 -4.0 2.0 3.3 7.3 9.0 9.3 3.3 -4.8 -5.0 -9.5

2001 -13.0 -14.0 -10.5 -9.6 -4.9 -4.3 -2.0 8.8 8.3 5.0 1.3 -13.0

59

c. Monthly Mean Relative Humidity (%)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

1993 36 43 40 43 49 64 66 62 62 41 28 27

1994 32 38 42 44 54 60 62 64 63 47 47 30

1995 36 43 40 43 49 64 66 62 62 41 28 27

1996 63 68 70 68 74 88 91 90 87 74 55 48

1997 21 29 28 37 34 40 47 45 44 32 23 -

1998 70 81 81 67 73 70 81 81 76 66 47 38

1999 47 51 46 47 92 91 87 82 81 60 46 47

2000 59 44 59 54 67 79 79 79 73 57 50 41

2001 49 63 63 72 88 94 96 97 91 80 57 46

d. Monthly Maximum Relative Humidity (%)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

1993 77 73 73 80 79 79 82 81 81 78 67 46

1994 60 55 60 61 68 66 70 70 84 78 66 56

1995 64 66 66 54 62 70 69 68 70 63 57 53

1996 78 88 93 84 92 94 95 95 96 88 73 57

1997 40 47 48 45 44 50 51 50 51 45 37 -

1998 85 85 85 83 85 85 85 85 85 85 83 63

1999 85 81 71 91 99 99 99 86 85 86 72 79

2000 95 73 95 71 80 84 84 84 84 71 76 79

2001 85 95 90 92 95 99 99 99 99 98 83 82

e. Monthly Minimum Relative Humidity (%)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

1993 20 21 25 26 30 58 57 - 54 17 15 13

1994 13 20 13 30 34 40 52 57 47 26 24 12

1995 20 21 25 26 30 58 57 - 54 17 15 13

1996 50 52 49 52 56 70 77 76 69 56 43 42

1997 9 13 12 20 23 26 38 32 29 16 13 -

1998 42 72 70 53 58 42 72 70 63 34 23 30

1999 25 35 27 60 75 68 76 77 70 40 23 26

2000 29 24 29 34 32 71 71 70 53 25 28 22

2001 30 34 30 55 71 65 86 92 76 58 54 32

60

f. Monthly Precipitation (mm)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Yearly

1993 13.0 22.5 27.4 36.0 73.8 28.8 74.0 124.3 127.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 526.8

1994 5.6 5.9 13.2 15.1 32.5 26.7 - 141.7 87.7 - - - -

1995 42.7 53.0 65.0 40.6 29.3 82.7 124.8 139.3 87.1 0.0 5.7 5.9 1041.5

1996 25.7 9.2 0.0 18.1 17.7 84.7 140.6 175.3 67.8 66.7 0.0 0.0 605.8

1997 6.9 11.3 21.5 24.5 29.6 119.6 153.7 111.7 65.2 17 35.7 0.0 596.7

1998 0.0 38.4 40.8 14.9 35.5 97.7 149.0 183.6 43.1 21.0 4.2 0.0 628.2

1999 6.9 4.0 21.8 27.0 59.3 147.8 232.4 145.6 6.3 26.7 4.2 0.0 682

2000 0.0 8.9 13.0 22.6 54.5 125.9 216.6 172.1 115.8 0.0 1.2 0.0 730.6

2001 3.5 7.5 15.7 52.3 57.1 149.3 158.9 142.1 48.1 6.5 0.0 0.0 641

61

ANNEX II

Snow Leopard Sing Transect

Observaer (s) ________________ Date : _____________ Transect No. : ____

Start Time : _______________ Weather (Temp. and Conditions) _________

GPS (Lat/Long at beginnig)___________ /__________ Elev. (at beginning__

EPS (Last Long at end): ________-/_______ Elev. (at. end): ________

length of Transect : _________

Country : ______- Province : _________ Prefecture : ________- Country : ___

Protected area : ________ Location : ___________

Sign Codes : PU =Pug mark, SC = Scrapes FE = RC = feces Seent spray, CL =

Claw rake

Age Codes: Old = 1, Fresh = 2.

Obs Sign Type Age Obs Age

PU SC FE RC CL PU SC FE RC CL

1 26

2 27

3 28

4 29

5 30

6 31

7 32

8 33

9 34

10 35

11 36

12 37

13 38

14 39

15 40

16 41

17 42

18 43

19 44

20 45

21 46

22 47

23 48

24 49

25 50

62

Transect Summary

Total Sign ___________ (a)

Total Length of Transect ___________ (b)

Sign per km (a/b) ___________

Dominant topographic feature (circle), Cliff base, Ridgeline, hillside, valley

bottom, Terrace; Stream bed

Other (Specify) _________________________

General comments on topography

_______________________________________________________________

Primary Habitat type (circle): Barren: grass; Shrub: forest

General Comments on habitat :

_______________________________________________________________

Grazing Status (Circle): Year-round: Seasonal: Non-Grazing

General comments on Grazing.

_______________________________________________________________

Ruggedness (Circle): Flat: Rolling: Slightly broken: Moderately broken: very

broken general comments on ruggedness:

_______________________________________________________________

Overall aspect of transect: ______________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

Other wildlife seen and numbers : ___________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

Other comments on conservation concerns (recent depredatin in area, human

impacts, etc):

_______________________________________________________________

Should this transect be repeated on a regular basis ? Yes ____ No. ____

If yes, clearly mark on map and note GPS location.

Recommendation for re-survey (Season, support required, etc).

63

ANNEX III

Snow Leopard and Prey Species Survey Questionnaire

(for interviewing local residents on presence/absence and status of Snow

Leopard and their prey in Nepal)

This questionnaire is being given to find out what people know about

Snow Leopards. You do not have to answer these questions if you do not want

to. I will not write your name on the questionnaire and no one will know which

answers are yours. Answering the questions will take about 30 minutes. You

can skip any questions you like by saying "skip" or stop answering anything at

any time you choose. If you have any questions you can ask me now or after

you anything at any time you choose. If you have any questions you can ask me

now or after you finish answering questions. Do you have any questions for me

right now about the survey ?

Would you like to participate in the survey ? (If Yes, Proceed to ties #1)

1. Name of interviewer : Interview Date :

2. Name of Park:

3. Village name (or approximate location):

GPS reading :

Elevation (m) :

4. Respondent's Gender : Age : Occupation :

5. Total village Populaiton (number Persons /households) :

Snow Leopard Sightings and Status

6. Do Snow Leopards coccur here or in nearby areas ? Yes ____ No. ____

(If respondent answers "No" or to question # 22).

7. If so, Where ? (list name of place (s) where seen in the past year ).

8. Where was one (or evidence of one) last seen ? (Month/Year).

9. How far from the village/this location (km) ? ______________

10. Indicate kind of evidence found with tick below:

Pugmark ____ Scrape ___ feces ____ Sighting ____ a livestock kill ___

64

11. Indicate Size of Sign (Pugmark, scrape, feces ):

12. Describe the place where the sign was found (e.g., trail, base of cliff,

strem - bed, ridge, wooldlan, rocky area, other):

13. What habitat type ? (Forest, Pasture, rock, shrub):

14. If a sighting, how many Snow Leopards were seen in the group and

what was their age class (indicate number below)?

Male _____ female ____ young ____ Unknown age ____

15. Describe distinctive physical Feature :

16. How big was it ? (indicate height as shoulder )

17. How many Snow Leopards do you think use this area ?

18. Do you see their sign: very often commonly uncommonly rarely

19. During which months are they or their sign seen ? (list each moth and

circle the month when most are seen):

20. How long do you remain in the area (days, weeks, or months) ?

21. Are they here all year or seasonally ? All year Seasonally only

22. What is your opinion about Snow Leopards ? Good Bad No. Opinion

23. Should they be protected or eliminated and why ?

24. Do local people and any kinds of beliefs about the Snow Leopard ?

Threats and Conservation Issues

25. Do Snow Leopards kill livestock in your area ? Yes No. Don't Know

(If No or Don't Know, go to Question #30)

26. If yes, which kind of livestock are killed ? (Please list in order from

most to least commonly killed) ?

27. How many were killed in the last 12 months (Specify type of livestock

killed ?

28. List months of year with most losses

29. How many in winter ? _____ How many in summer ? ______

30. Is there any poaching in your area ?

(If No or Don't Know, go to question #3).

31. If yes, which wildlife species ?

32. Kind f Weaspons/methods used for poaching ?

65

33. Have other persons visited and inquired about Snow Leopard petlts or

body parts ?

Yes No Don't Know

(If No or Don't Know, go to question #40).

34. If yes, when and how many ? (Mention day, month, year, and number of

persons).

36. Were they interested in (circle all that apply):

Seeing a now leopard buying a pelt purchasing its bones.

37. How much we they willing to pay (price in Rs) ?

38. Did they offer any incentive or money for information about Snow

Leopard parts ?

39. If so, was it is cash ? _____ or in Kind ? (e.g., cigarettes or goods) ____

Other Wildlife Present In the Area

40. What other predators occur here (circle all that apply) ?

Tiger Common leopard Lynx Wolf Wild dog other

41. What prey species like blue sheep occur here ? (list in order of

abundance ).

42. Are blue sheep seen (Circle one ).

Frequently Sometimes Never

43. Please indicate how often you see other species of their sign like

Musk deer, Argali, or Himalayan tahr ?

Species Frequency

Frequently Sometimes Never

44. Have number declined over the past 5-10 years ? If so, for which

species ?

45. Have numbers increased over the past 5-10 years ? If so, for which

species ?

66

48. Are any of these species hunted or poached ? Yes No. Don't know

(If No or Don't Know, go to End of Interview)

49. If so, which species ?

50. Who are the main persons responsible for poaching but no individual

names please ?

51. Places list areas you think have the most poaching.

52. During What seasons does poaching occur ?

(End of Interview): Thank you very much for answering these question for me.

I appreciate your ability to help gather information.

********* Interviewer comments - Do not Read Aloud **************

53. (Do not read aloud) How would yourank the informat's reliability (circle

one):

0 1 2 3

Very Unreliable Very reliable

54. Comments and other observations: Use the back of the page to add any

comments of observations you my have.

67

ANNEX IV

Livestock Depredation Report Data Form

1. Name of Interviewer

2. Name of Park

3. Name of Village (or approximate locations)

4. Number in household:

(a) Adult male __ (b) Adult female __(c) Children __

5. Primary Source (s) of livelihood.

Livestock Ownership and Trend:

6. Current livestock holdings

Type Total Number Adult male Adult female Juvenile

Yak/Dzo (hybrid)

Cattle

Buffalo

Sheep

Goats

Horse

Other

Has your herd increased or decreased from last year or is it about the

same size ? Please indicate what your herd size was last year, preferably by

kind of livestock.

7. Livestock holdings last year

Type Total

Number

Adult male Adult

female

Juvenile

Yak/Dzo (hbrid)

Cattle

Buffalo

Sheep

Goats

Horse

Other

Livestock Husbandry: Please Describe your annual husbandry Cycle

68

8. Do you use separate pastures during the Winter and Summer ? Yes _ No

Please indicate the number, approximate size, and location (name) and

the distance (hours walked) of each major pasture from your home village in

the following table.

Pasture

Name

Months

Used

Approximate

size

distance

(hours)

Type of livestock

using pasture

9. Do you share use of this pasture with other villages and/or outside

herders" ___ Yes ___no.

If yes, describe who and explain how pasture use is allocated among

authorized users:

10. Are you able to obtain enough summer and winter forage of your

animals ? Have supplies become more or less available in recent

years ? Please explain.

11. Which Person (Men, Women, Or Children) are responsible for looking

after the animals in your household, and how is this I accomplished

(explain day - time and seasonal herding patterns) ?

12. has your income from livestock herding increased or decreased in recent

years ? If there is a change, pleases explain.

13. Sources of Mortality

Type of Mortality Ranking (1-5) Comments

Lack of forage

Winter Snow

Diseases

Accident

Predation

Other (Describe)

69

14. Enter the number of animals lost last year to each type of mortality. If

Possible, record the number of adults and young separately:

Source of

Mortality

Number lost by kind of livestock

Yak/hybrid Cattle Buffalo Sheep/Goats Horse Other

Lack of forage

Winter

snow/cold

Disease

Accident

Predation

Other

15. Describe what actions you take to minimize losses to each mortality

source:

Mortality Source Precaution of Actions (s) taken

Lack of forage

Winter snow/cold

Disease

accident

Predation

Other (specify)

Thank you very much for answering these questions. Your responses

will help us in understanding the problems villages face.