© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Chapter 8 Memory

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The Nature of Memory

The Retention of Information or Experience over Time

Three Phases of Memory Encoding Storage Retrieval

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Three Stage Model

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Computer/Memory Analogy Input

Typing, scanning, downloading vs. Visual, acoustic, semantic encoding

Seeing, hearing, sound of words Storage

RAM, hard drive, diskette vs. Sensory memory, short term memory, long term

memory

Retrieval Pulling out of storage, access file vs. Remembering the name of your 6th grade teacher

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The Computer Analogy

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Encoding: Sensory Input

Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding

What is the role of attention? Selective attention Divided attention

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Encoding: Levels of Processing

Encoding occurs on a continuum… Shallow processing

Sensory input and general perception Ex) take in visual stimuli, begin to form perception

Intermediate processing Recognition and labeling

Ex) label object as a car

Deep processing Uses meaningful and symbolic characteristics

Ex) specific type of car (i.e. convertible) and associate with a particular memory of driving this car

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Encoding: Elaboration

Elaboration Can Enhance Memory

How Extensively is Information Processed? Vivid examples Self-referencing effect Distinctive memory codes

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The Identification of Three Memory Systems

Sensory Memory: brief storage of environmental information

Senses bring it in Passive

Echoic (auditory) memory Iconic (visual) memory

Short Term Memory: A limited capacity memory system where we actively “work” with information

Working memory—active Rehearsal loop—audio Sketchpad—visual Central executive—filters and encodes, retrieves from long term

Long-Term Memory: A durable memory system that has an immense capacity for information storage

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Retention: Short-Term Memory

How can we improve STM?

Chunking Memory encoding - elaboration Increase STM capacity: 7 ± 2 chunks Ex) phone numbers (###)-(###)-(####)

Rehearsal Conscious repetition of information Enhances STM duration Eidetic imagery Ex) repeating a phone number until you can write it down

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Retention: Long-Term Memory

Relatively Permanent; Unlimited Capacity

Explicit Long-Term Memory Episodic memory Semantic memory

Implicit Long-Term Memory Procedural memory Classical conditioning

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Retention: Long-Term Memory

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Retention: Explicit LTM

Declarative Memory Hippocampus, temporal lobes, limbic system

Conscious recollection of specific facts and events that can be verbally communicated

Subtypes of Explicit Memory Episodic – autobiographical memories Semantic – knowledge about the world

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Retention: Explicit LTM

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Retention: Implicit LTM

No conscious recollection of an experience

Procedural Memory Cerebellum, temporal lobes, hippocampus

Classical Conditioning

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Memory: Organization

Hierarchies

Schemas (Script)

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Retrieval: Serial Position Effect

Primacy Effect: Weaker Effect LT memory

Recency Effect: Stronger Effect ST memory

Explanations Encoding, rehearsal, and working memory

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Difficulty of Memory Retrieval

Explicit memory can be tested by:

Recall: Retrieval and reproduction of information from memory

Recognition: Deciding whether or not something has been previously encountered

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Retrieval: Special Cases

Autobiographical Memories Structure: Life time periods, general events, event-specific information

Are they accurate?

Emotional Memories Flashbulb memories

Are they accurate?

Repressed Memories First forgotten and later recovered Freudian defense mechanism Motivated forgetting

Are they accurate?

Eyewitness Testimony Distortion Bias Inaccuracy

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Forgetting: Memory Failure

Encoding Failure

Retrieval Failure / Interference Theory Proactive Interference

“Old” info interferes with retrieval of “new” info Examples

Retroactive Interference “New” info interferes with retrieval of “old” info Examples

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Forgetting: Interference

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Forgetting: Memory Failure

Memory Decay and Transience Passage of time forgetting Does not explain all instances of forgetting

Amnesia Anterograde amnesia

Inability to store new information and events

Retrograde amnesia Inability to retrieve past information and events

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Motivated Forgetting

Motivated forgetting: Forgetting because they want to forget information

Suppression: conscious motivated forgetting Ex) trying not to remember an unpleasant experience

Repression: unconscious influence of a person’s behavior, thoughts and feelings

Ex) unpleasant memories pushed out of conscious realm

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Application: Study Tips

Encoding, Rehearsal, and Retrieval Accuracy and organization Effortful and deep processing Relate information to yourself Distributed practice and test yourself

Mnemonic Strategies Keyword method Acronyms