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KNAPP TRAIL GUIDE
KNAPP TRAIL GUIDE
TAbLE of CoNTENTsWelcome 1Marker#1 2Marker#2 3Marker#3 5Marker#4 7TrailMap 8Marker#5 10Marker#6 13Equinox/SolsticeInfo 14GuidedTramTour 15 ContactInfo 16
ToLTEC MoUNDsToLTEC MoUNDsARCHEOLOGICAL STATE PARK
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WelcometoToltecMoundsArcheologicalStatePark!Youareabouttoembarkonavery special tourof this prehistoricNativeAmerican site.TheKnappTrailisthreequartersofamilelong,fullypavedandaccessible.Yourfirststopwillbeatthefirstmarkeronthetrailjustovertheculvert.Eachofthesixstationshasacorrespondingmarkerlocatedalongthetrail.
Inordertopreservescenicbeauty,itisimportantthatyoustayonthetrail.Asthisisastatepark,allplants,animalsandartifactsareprotectedbystatelaw.Therefore,pleasedonotdisturbanyoftheplantsoranimals,removeanyartifacts,digonthesite,orclimbanyofthemounds.Pleasekeepaneyeonyourchildrenatalltimes,andpetsmustbekeptonaleash.Thankyouforhelpingtoprotectthiswindowtoourpast.Enjoyyourtour!
MARKER #1Beforeyoubeginyourjourneythroughthisprehistoricsite,itmayinterestyoutoknowthatthename“ToltecMounds”isactuallyamisnomer.GilbertKnapp, who owned this site from 1848 to 1905, mistakenly thoughtthemoundswereassociatedwiththeToltecpeopleofMexico.In1883,this idea was disproved.Investigationsbyarcheologistsat that time showed thatthese mounds, like othersin North America, hadbeenbuiltby theancestorsof North American, notMexican,Indians.
Morethanacenturyago,earlyvisitorsreportedthatsixteenmoundsstoodatthissitewithinanearthenembankmentwall.Today,eighteenmoundlocationshavebeenidentified.Farmingactivitiesoverthepast150yearshavecausedconsiderabledestructiontothearcheologicalsite,destroyingnearlyallofthemoundsandalargeportionoftheembankmentwall.In1975, this landofficiallybecameanArkansasstatepark,protecting theearthworksfromfurtherdamage.
Duetoalackofwrittenrecords,thebuildersofthissitecannotbeassociatedwithanymodernNativeAmericantribe.Forthisreason,theprehistoricpeoplewhoinhabitedthissitefromapproximately650ADtoapproximately1050ADhavebeennamedthePlumBayouculturebyarcheologists.PlumBayoureferstothenameofalocalstream.Forunknownreasons,thesitewasabandonedaround1050AD.ThePlumBayouculturegrewandflourished
atthisprehistoricceremonialcenterfor approximately four hundredyears and leftmysteries that stillattract us today. Throughout thistour you will learn more aboutthis ceremonial center and thesemysteries.
Markertwoislocatedinfrontoftheembankmentwalltoyourleft.
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Drawing by Henry Lewis Late 1882-1883
Toltec Mounds circa late 1970s
MARKER #2Asyoulookoutoverthesitebeforeyou,youwillseewhatremainsofthisculturalandceremonialsite.Duetothefarmingandplowingconductedatthislocation,archeologistswereleftpiecingtogetherthemysteryofhowthissitewouldhaveappearedwhenthePlumBayouculturewasthriving.WhenthislandbecameprotectedwithinArkansas’StateParksystem,onlythelocationsofthethreelargestmoundswereknown.Thesemoundscaneasilybeseenbeforeyou.MoundA,thetallestmoundinArkansasatforty-ninefeet,islocatedbetweenMoundBontherightandMoundContheleft.Throughsketchesandwrittenaccountsmadeofthisareabeforeitwasfarmed,archeologistsknewthatoriginallytherehadbeenmorethenjustthethreevisiblemounds.Usingthesesketchesandaccounts,alongwithaerialphotographsandsoilsampling,archeologistswereabletosolveonemysteryanddeterminethelocationsoftheothermounds.Inall,archeologistslocatedfifteenadditionalmounds.Thesemoundsaredesignatedbytheredandwhitelettermarkers.
AnothermysteryleftbytheseNativeAmericanscanbeseenbehindyouatthislocation.Ontheleftsideofthetrail,aportionofwhatarcheologistscalltheembankmentwallisstillvisible.Aditchfilledwithwateroncestoodontheoutsideoftheembankmentwall.Exceptforthissmallsectioninfrontofyou,andanotherareainthewoodstothesouth,themajorityoftheembankmentwallwasdestroyedbyplowingandtheditchfilledin.Archeologistsusedthesametechniquestolocatethedestroyedmoundstodeterminewheretheembankmentwalloriginallystood.WhenthePlumBayoucultureoccupiedthisceremonialcenter,theten-foothighembankmentwallandadjacentditchencircledthreesidesofthesite.Thefourthsidewas,andstillis,borderedbyanoxbowlakenamedMoundLake.Not only was the location of the embankment wall a mystery forarcheologists,butsowasitspurpose.Oneideawasthatitwasusedforfloodcontrol.Sincenoembankmentwallwas foundalong thebankof
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Mounds A & B
Mound Lake, that ideawas disregarded.Another thoughtwas that itwasconstructedforprotectionfrominvadingtribes.Asstatedearlier,thiswallwasonly about ten feet tall.There is alsono evidence to suggestthat apalisadeor fence sat atop it. Inaddition, therewere severalgapsintheembankmentwall,allowingpeopletofreelyenterandexit.Sinceonlyaboutfiftypeoplelivedatthissite, itwouldhavebeenimprobablethat individualswere stationed on thewall for defensive purposes. Forthesereasons, it isunlikelythat thisembankmentwallwasconstructedforprotectionfromenemies.Instead,archeologistshavecometothinkthattheembankmentwallwasbuiltasaboundarymarker.Researchindicatesthatthissitewasusedfirstandforemostasareligiousgatheringcenter.So,itisthoughtthattheembankmentwallwasusedtoindicatetheboundarybetweentheinsidesacredlandfromthemoresecularworldoutside.
Earlieritwasmentionedthatarcheologistsbelieveonlyaboutfiftypeoplelivedwithintheboundariesof thissite.These individualswhoactuallylivedwithintheboundariesoftheembankmentwallarethoughttohavebeenthereligiousandcivic leadersof thePlumBayoupeopleandtheirfamilies.Thegeneralpopulation,itisbelieved,livedinscatteredvillagesand farmsteads in the surrounding area. Archeologists speculate thatseveraltimesayearthewholepopulationofthePlumBayouculturewouldhavetraveledtothissiteforspecialceremoniesandtorenewsocialandfamilyties.Lookingatwhatremainsoftheseimpressiveearthworks,tryto
imaginethissiteoverflowingwith Native Americans –thefood,thesmells,thenoise.Whatmustithavebeenlike?
The next stop on your tourwill be at the heart of thisceremonial center, one oftwo central plazas. As youcontinue, stay to your leftand on the pavement at thistrailjunction.MarkerthreeislocatedontherightsideofthetrailnearMoundC.
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MARKER #3Before you is a rectangular area called a plaza. As mentioned at theprevious station, Toltec Mounds was first and foremost a ceremonialcenterforthePlumBayouculture.Theplaza,theheartoftheceremonialcenter,may have been used for dances, festivals, feasts, ceremonies orgames.ANativeAmericangamecalled“Chungke”wasplayedbymanytribesthroughoutthesoutheastandmayhavebeenplayedinthisplazaatToltec. In ‘Chungke,’ twomenplayedagainst eachother, sometimesrepresentingtwoclanswithinatribe.Apersonwouldrollaroundstone,calledachunkeestone,andthenbothmenwouldrunafteritwithlongpolescalled‘tchung-kee’s.Theobjectofthegamewastothrowyourpoleasclosetothestoneaspossiblebeforeitstoppedrolling.Archeologistscanonlymakeeducatedguessesastowhattheplazawasusedfor.Thedetailsoftheactivitiesareunknownandwillalwaysbeamystery.
Itmaybedifficulttovisualize,becausemostofthemoundsarenotpresent,butthisplazaissurroundedbymounds.Asyouwalkedtothismarker,youpassedoneof thesemoundsonyour right.Thismound is referredto asMoundC.The shapeof thismound created anothermystery forarcheologists. As you have probably noticed, the two larger moundshaveflattops.Forthisreason,they are called platformmounds, and it is believedthatresidencesortemplessatatopthem.
Mound C, however, has aroundedtop.Atothermoundsites in the SoutheasternUnited States, mounds withrounded tops are known tohave been used for burialpurposes. By comparison,archeologists hypothesizedthatMoundCwasalsousedfor burial purposes. Throughthe partial excavation of
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MoundCinthe1960’s,archeologistsgainedevidenceinsupportoftheirhypothesis.Theylearnedthatthemounditselfwasconstructedbyplacingindividualsatasinglelocationandthencoveringthemwithsoil.Thiswasdoneoveraperiodoftime,resultinginthelowdome-shapedmoundyouseetoday.ThepartialexcavationofMoundChelpedtosolvethemysterybehindtheshapeofthismound.
Withoutarcheology,wewouldnotbeabletolearnaboutthepeopleoflongago.However,mostpeoplebelievethattheremainsoftheirancestorsandgravegoodsmust be treatedwith respect and remain in the earthforever.Inrecentyears,NativeAmericanshaveprotestedthediggingofremainsandartifacts.The1990passingoftheNativeAmericanGravesProtectionandRepatriationActnowprovidesawayforNativeAmericanstoreclaimremainsandspecialartifactsandhavethemreturnedtotheirtribes.InArkansas,bywayofthe1991ArkansasActnumber753,itisillegaltodisturborexcavatehumanburialsexceptinspecialcircumstanceswithpermission.HelptoprotecttheculturalheritageofArkansas.Reportanyviolationorsuspectedviolationyouobservetolawenforcement.
Anothermound that borders the plaza and can be easily seen on theothersideofthetrail,isMoundS.Overadecadeago,thismoundwasfullyexcavatedandthenreconstructedtoformthelow,flatmoundyouseetoday.Theresultsfromthisexcavationprovidedanotherpiecetothe
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Mound C
overallmysterythatisToltecMounds.Duringtheexcavation,archeologistsuncovered a large amount of animal bone,mostlywhite-tailed deer, aswellasanabundanceofcharredseedsandnuts.Infact,thereweremoreanimalremainsfoundonthisonemoundthancouldhavebeenconsumedbythefewpeoplelivinghere.ThisdiscoveryledarcheologiststobelievethatMoundSwasthelocationofmanyfeasts.
Thefourthstoponourtourwillbeontheboardwalk.Asyouarewalkingalongtheboardwalk,remembertokeepaneyeoutforturtles,ducks,andother aquaticwildlife. The fourthmarker is located on the observationdeckwiththereplicadugoutcanoe.
MARKER #4You are standingon what was theArkansas River over4,000 years ago.AlthoughtheArkansasRiverisnowfourmilesaway,when the PlumBayou culture wasthriving, it was onlya mile from this site.WhenthePlumBayoupeople inhabited thisarea, theywould haveseenthiswaterwayasyouseeittoday,asanoxbowlake.Overtime,riversandtheirchannelsmeander back and forth within their floodplain. This meanderingeventuallycreates lakessuchas thisone.Thisoxbowlake isknownasMoundLake.
Waterways, such as the Arkansas and Mississippi Rivers, were animportantpartof lifeforNativeAmericansat thissite. It isquite likelythatmanyof thePlumBayoupeoplewouldhaveused thesurroundingwaterwaystoreachToltecMoundsfortheirceremonies.Dugoutcanoes,suchas theone in thevisitorcenterandsimilar to theonehereon the
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Boardwalk overlooking Mound Lake
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observationdeck,arebelieved tobe themainmodeof transportation fortheseNativeAmericanswhentheytraveledbywater.Thesecanoesweremadefromavarietyoftrees,includingpineandbaldcypress.Thelargetreesyouseeattheedgeofthelake,withthespreadingtrunks,arebaldcypress.
Duringexcavations,archeologistsuncovered fragmentsofaconchshellfromtheGulfofMexicoaswellascopperfromtheGreatLakesarea.ThisdiscoveryprovidesanothersliverofinsightintothemysteryofthelivesofthePlumBayoupeople.ItdoessobypresentingevidencethattheNativeAmericanswholivedherehadcontactandtradedwithpeoplealongtheMississippiRiver.
Pleasetakeyourtimeontheboardwalk.Whenyouareready,continueontothefifthmarkerontheleftsideofthetrailnearMoundB.
MARKER #5Duringthistour,youhaveheardaboutafewexcavationsthathavehelpedtosolvecertainmysteriesatToltecMounds.Notonlyhaveexcavationshelpedtodeterminethepurposeoftheembankmentwall,thereasonfortheshapeofMoundC,andthefeastinglocationatMoundS,butexcavationshavealsoshedlightontheactualbuildingofthemounds,thekindoffoodthePlumBayoupeople consumed, theweapons theyused forhunting,andthetypeofpotterymadeandusedbythePlumBayouculture.
YouarenowstandingbesideMoundB,thesecondtallestmoundhereatToltecatthirty-ninefeet.Anexcavationonthesoutheasterncornerwas
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Excavated dugout canoe
conductedin1979.Throughthisstudy,archeologistslearnedthatMoundBwasnotbuiltallatonetimebut inseveralstages.Otherexcavationsshowedthistobetrueofseveraloftheothermoundsaswell.AtMoundB,three different stages wereidentified by the presenceofmidden,ortrash.Layersofmiddentypicallyindicatethelocationofaresidentialstructure.
Through theexcavationof severalof themounds, it is known that thePlumBayoupeopleateavarietyoffoodsbothwildanddomestic.Theyhuntedmany different kinds ofmammals including deer, squirrel, andraccoon.Theyalsoateturkeys,geese,ducks,andavarietyofotherbirdsincludingthepassengerpigeonwhichisextincttoday.Archeologistshavefoundevidencethatthesepeoplealsoatefishandturtlesaswellasacorns,nuts,berriesandgreens.Theycultivated severalnativegrasses suchasmaygrass,littlebarley,pigweed,amaranth,squashesandmaize.AlthoughmaizeorcornwasconsumedattheToltecsite,itwasonlyasmallpartoftheirdiet.
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Excavation site at Toltec
Resources used by the Plum Bayou Culture
Excavations indicate that the Plum Bayou people used several types ofweapons forhuntingbutprimarily reliedon thebowandarrow.Rivercane growing nearbywasmost likely used tomake shafts for arrows.Archeologists at this site have uncovered many stone tools includingarrowpoints,knives,drills,awls,axes,andadzes.Thesetoolsweremadethroughtheprocessofflintknapping.
Asharppointorbladewascreatedbyprehistoricpeoplebyknockingoffflakesaroundtheedgesofonerockwithanotherrockorbyusingabilletmade fromanantlerof adeer.Thepeopleat theToltec site commonlyusedatypeofrockcalledchertcollectedfromrivergravelbarstomaketheirstonepoints.Lesscommonly,theyusednovaculiteandquartzcrystal,foundinrockformationsneartheOuachitaMountains.
EvidencealsoshowsthatthePlumBayoupeoplemadeandfiredpotsfromclaytheycollectedlocally.Thecontainerstheymadewerecommonlybowlsand deep jars that wereused for cooking and forholding and storing food.Mostofthedecorationsonthe pottery were simple,withafewincisedlinesornotchesplacedaroundtheupper edge. Some of thebowlswerecoatedwithasliporfilmofredclay.
Hadexcavationsneverbeenconducted,mostofthisinformationwouldstill remainamystery tous today.Examplesofartifacts, found throughexcavationsatToltec, canbe seen in themuseum located in thevisitorcenter.
ThesixthmarkerislocatedontheleftsideofthetrailbesideMoundH.
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Excavated pot crafted by Plum Bayou People
MARKER #6 Youhavelearned,duringthistour,thatthePlumBayoupeoplewereveryconcernedaboutthesizeandshapeoftheirmounds.Inadditiontothesefactors, theNativeAmericans at ToltecMoundswere also concernedabouttheplacementofthesemounds.Somewereplacedtolineupwitheachother,whileothersmarkthepositionofthesunatsunriseandsunsetonthesolsticesandequinoxes.ThePlumBayoupeoplemostlikelyalignedthemoundstotheshiftingsuninordertoidentifythechangeoftheseasonsfortheplantingandharvestingofcropsaswellasfortheschedulingofceremoniesandfeasts.
ItisfromMoundH,alsoknownastheobservationalmound,that,ontheSummerSolstice,youcanwatchthesunsetdirectlybehindMoundB.OntheSpringandFallEquinoxes,fromthismound,thesunsetsbehindMoundA,and,onthewintersolstice,thesunwillsetbehindMoundS.Therefore,bystandingonMoundH,thePlumBayoupeoplecouldmarkthechangingoftheseasonsjustbywatchingwherethesunset.Althougharcheologistshavebeenabletodeterminehowthesemoundsalign,thefullextentoftheirastronomicalandsolarknowledgewillalwaysremainamystery.
The biggest mystery ofall, surrounding the PlumBayou culture, is why theyabandoned the Toltec sitearound 1050 AD. After allthehardworkputintothissiteand thecountless ceremoniesheldhere,thesepeoplesimplydisappearedfromthesite.Wedonotknowwheretheywentorwhytheyleft.As you come to the end ofthe trail, take a moment tolook back at the mounds.Imagine this village more
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a thousand years agowhen thePlumBayou culturewas still thriving.ImaginehowitmusthavebeentoseeanoverflowofNativeAmericansallcomingtogetherforaceremony.Menarereturningfromasuccessfulhunt, children are listening to the stories of their elders, everyonewascoming together to play games and to participate in dances and feasts.Manymysteriesstillremainaboutthepeoplewhoflourishedhereandtheceremoniestheyheldatthissite,butthemoundsatleastgiveuscluesandallowustotakeaglimpseintothepast.
ThankyoufortakingthisjourneythroughapartofArkansas’shistory.Wehopeyouhaveenjoyedyourvisit.Ifyouhaveanyquestionsorcomments,ourstaffinthevisitorcenterwillbehappytotalkwithyou.
EachyearToltecMoundsArcheologicalStateParkencouragesvisitorstoexperiencetheSpringEquinox,SummerSolstice,andFallEquinoxsunsetsonMoundHthewaythePlumBayouculturedidover1,000yearsago.Pleasemakeplanstobringyourfamilyandfriendsthisyear!
Spring Equinox, Summer Solstice & Fall Equinox
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Guided Tram Tours:Sunday, Wednesday, & Saturday at 2 P.M.
(in lieu of special events)
Join a park interpreter for a guided tram tour of the largest prehistoric mound complex in Arkansas. This unique mound complex was the cultural center of the Plum Bayou people, who interacted with their environment and each other much as we do today. Contact the park for information about tram fees.
Guided Tram Tour
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Park HourSopen:
Tuesday - Saturday 8 A.M. to 5 P.M.Sunday 1 P.M. to 5 P.M.
Closed:Mondays (except Monday holidays)
Thanksgiving DayChristmas EveChristmas Day
New Year’s Day
ForalistofupcomingactivitiesandinterpretiveprogramsatToltecMoundsArcheologicalStatePark,pleasepickupaCalendarofEventsinthevisitorcenterorvisitusonthewebatwww.ArkansasStateParks.com.
WeencourageyoutogetoutandexploreYOURArkansasStateParks!
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ArkansasArcheologicalSurveyToltecStation
490ToltecMoundsRoadScott,Arkansas72142phone:(501)961-2420
ToshareyourstoriesaboutToltecorshowusartifactsyouhavecollected,contactToltecMoundsArcheologicalStateParkorthe
ArkansasArcheologicalSurvey.Wewouldlovetohearyourstories!
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ArkansasArcheologicalSurveyToltecStation
490ToltecMoundsRoadScott,Arkansas72142phone:(501)961-2420
