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KNOWLEDGE PARTNERSHIP PROGRAMME

Initial Findings Report

Residential Schooling Strategies: Impact on Girl’s Education and Empowerment

Centre for Budget and Policy Studies

Submitted to

Department for International Development (DFID)

IPE Global (P) Ltd.

July 2014

Residential Schooling Strategies: Impact on Girl’s Education and

Empowerment

Initial Findings Report

CENTRE FOR BUDGET AND POLICY STUDIES (CBPS)

July 2014

Initial Findings Report for IPE-KPP-2014-03(57) - CBPS

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1. The Present Study

In this study, we are carrying out a comprehensive review of the impact and

effectiveness of residential schooling facilities for girls from disadvantaged

communities. Mapping of residential schools for girls (private and public), review of

national policy on residential schooling, meta-analysis of evaluation studies, rationale

for residential schools for girls from disadvantaged sections, cost-budget analysis for

different schemes/programmes, site visits for validation and documentation of good

practices are some of the key activities being undertaken. Based on this review and

information available, a scoping review of the existing scenario at international levels,

particularly in other Asian and East African countries will also be conducted for cross-

learning. The main objectives of this study are:

a) To understand the kinds of residential schooling programmes or schemes that

exist in India, managed by either government or non-governmental bodies, and

to understand their reach, spread, target and focus;

b) To review what kind of information and knowledge exists pertaining to

residential schooling for girls, and understand the impact that have had on girls

schooling and empowerment in India through the information and knowledge

that exists; identify the gaps and review/ rank the need for research;

c) To have a comparative understanding of different schemes and programmes in

terms of their costs, scale, curricular and evaluation approaches, and impact

using the existing information and knowledge base; and

d) To trace and analyse the national policy towards residential school as a strategy

for girls schooling and empowerment especially for girls from disadvantaged and

marginalized communities/ areas, and see to what extent the schemes and

programmes have contributed to that; to place this as against policies and

practices internationally.

This Report includes the progress of the study in the last three months and the plan for

the remaining time period of the study. The Annexures elaborate upon the draft desk

review (including spectrum of documents reviewed, approach to policy, review of

schemes and programmes and limitations of the research), international examples of

residential schooling for girls from disadvantaged sections and data tables from DISE

and SEMIS.


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2. Historical antecedents of residential schools as an empowering strategy for

girls from disadvantaged communities in India

Residential schooling facilities in India, from the more traditional antecedents to early

post-independence arrangements, have typically been exclusionary, elitist or both.

Whether it was the gurukula or later pathshalas and madrasas, that were not accessible

for girls; or more modern arrangements catering to better-off sections and upper castes,

both clearly were beyond the reach of those from disadvantaged classes and

communities in Indian society (Ramachandran 2003). Whilst hostels to facilitate going

to (physically separated) schools were recognized and adopted as a strategy to

improving educational indicators particularly for SC/ST/OBC groups, in the first four

plan periods (including through special grants to state governments for the purpose

from the third plan period, through schemes implemented by (1) Department of Social

Welfare, (2) Department of Tribal Welfare, and (3) Department of Women’s Welfare)

(Dubey and Chander 1973), it was the efforts of several NGOs, particularly from the

1980s onwards that brought renewed energy, initiative, and insights to residential

schooling as an appropriate strategy to reach out to girls from disadvantaged

communities.

The empowering potential of various small initiatives, mostly in the non-government

sector, captured mainly through small scale qualitative studies (see, for instance,

(Sandhan 2011)), can be understood in relation to:

i. The way girls experience the process of negotiating with the status-quo,

particularly in relation to the: (a) cultural norms and ‘standard’ expectations

for their age and situation in life, (b) actual experience and sense of choice

and freedom (both physical and in the mind-space), (c) improved awareness

of their equality and rights and (d) institutional support from the school and

its functionaries/support structures for all of the above

ii. The extent to which these initiatives pre-empt experiences of abuse or

violence on girls and equip them to deal with the possibility of these in

domestic, work space and public spheres

iii. The manner in which they satisfy stage-appropriate academic learning

outcomes in meaningful and long-lasting ways

iv. The extent to which they are understood as and attributed to have been life-

changing in terms of positive environment/new possibilities/ tangible

opportunities for the girls concerned.


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2.1 From models to the mainstream

Residential schooling was recognised and promoted as a strategy that had the scope to

address several factors that influence girls’ participation (or lack thereof) in education

(as described, for instance, by Ramachandran (2010) and Ramachandran, Patni et al.

(2013)), particularly in the upper primary level and beyond, and when they are from

disadvantaged communities.

Gender mainstreaming to address the double disadvantage that girls from traditionally

disadvantaged communities face in relation to access (and retention) and transition in

school required moving beyond the tokenism that central government run co-ed

residential schools like Kendriya Vidyalayas (KVs) and Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas

(JNVs) served. The transferable nature of the jobs of Central Government employees

and a bid to meet the aspirations of rural residents in the 1970's and 80's were the main

motivating forces behind the Centre establishing quality residential schools such as KVs

and JNVs respectively, and reservation within them made residential schooling more

accessible to those from disadvantaged communities, on the side.

As Tögel (2013) rightly observes, Navodaya Vidyalayas established by the Ministry of

Human Resource Development to serve “talented and predominantly rural students”

otherwise denied good educational opportunities, have till date had no comprehensive

evaluation conducted to understand whether they serve the ‘deserving’ rural poor and

provided quality education. In 2003, they received more than 40 per cent of the Central

Government’s outlay on secondary education, yet served less than 1 per cent of students

in Classes IX-XII. Established in all districts of the country, admissions through

competitive entrance exams are reserved for 75 per cent rural students, one third girls

and proportionately to the SC and ST population of the particular district. The Central

Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) curriculum and strong academic performance in

Class X and Class XII board exams of over 90 per cent pass rates make these sought-

after schools, yet these have not been evaluated in terms of retention of girls or impact

on outcomes for them. Moreover, the claim to be benefitting girls from disadvantaged

backgrounds is suspect, given that the entrance exams pose a barrier at the entry level

itself.


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2.2 Questions of impact and effectiveness

A preliminary perusal of the literature on how these government-sponsored schemes as

well as NGO interventions have played out on the ground throw up several findings that

have a bearing on questions that need to be asked to investigate both their impact and

effectiveness.

The findings from review of literature1, as well as the gaps, indicate that a

comprehensive review of the impact and effectiveness of residential schooling

facilities for girls from disadvantaged communities would be beneficial. It is possible

to postulate several comparative as well as basic research questions such as:

1. What are the minimum quality parameters for built and social environments of

residential facilities for adolescent girls? How do existing schemes compare in

relation to these?

2. What are the implications of a single sex educational space attached to a residential

facility, as compared to a co-educational space?

3. What are the forward (say to secondary or higher or vocational choices) and

backward (say in terms of community support for girls education) linkages being

made in each of the government schemes for residential education?

4. Does residential setting offer greater opportunities for ‘empowerment’ from a

gender-equality perspective as compared to non-residential setting? Does the

additionality of living together provide space for creating learning opportunities

during beyond normal schooling hours and contribute to the empowerment of

girls?

5. What is the role of size, scale and management of the programme in terms of

determining efficiency and effectiveness of a residential schooling programme

6. Is residential schooling a cost-effective strategy for schooling and empowerment of

girls coming from disadvantaged and vulnerable sections of the Indian society?

1 The first draft of the review of literature is attached in Annexure I. This review will be further revised and re-organised based on the Framework for Review and Analysis (described in Section 3).


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2. Framework for Review and Analysis

The mapping and review of government schemes and programmes run by non-state

actors will be based on the following framework. The extensive desk review conducted

so far has informed the choice of criteria. The same framework will be used for

identification of good practices. These indicators need to be viewed in conjunction with

the research questions outlined earlier.

Tentative Framework for Review and Analysis

Criterion Indicators for the criteria

1.

Reaching girls

from

marginlaised

sections

a. Representation (e.g. SC, ST, Muslim, OBC, other forms of

disadvantage, i.e., working children, married early, etc.)

b. Identification, Enrollment / Selection processes of students

2. Curriculum/Tea

ching Learning

a. Emphasis on empowerment

b. Methods used for teaching-learning and evaluation

(classroom and outside classroom)

c. Use of residential space for increasing the time and

enhancing the variety in learning experiences

d. Teacher selection process, profile and development process

3. Management

a. Security and safety aspects

b. Basic infrastructure for living, dining, bathing, studying,

play/sports and leisure

c. management practices in tandem with teaching learning

approach

4. Influence

a. policy (whether the programme/ scheme has influenced

wider policy)

b. construct of education for adolescent girls (whether the

programme has influenced curriculum design and delivery,

especially for girls) in any particular context

c. targeting and reach (whether the programme has reached a

large number or/and most marginalised girls)

d. transforming influence on girls, families, communities

(continuing further education, postponing marriage,

questioning injustice in various forms and so on)

5.

Cost

effectiveness (if

possible)

a. the application of cost effectiveness technique is not possible

but an analysis of costs / expenditure vis-à-vis delivery would

be attempted.


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The review at its present stage, attached as an annexure, has used some of these

indicators mentioned in the framework. At the same time, the review has also informed

the development of the framework. At next level, we will reorganise the review based

on the framework and the research questions. The reorganisation of the review will be

carried out after the field validation. Field visits may also provide some pointers for the

framework and if that happens, the framework will be modified accordingly. In other

words, though we have developed the framework based on a-priori knowledge, and

though we are going to the field primarily for validation, we are open to the visits

adding to the framework itself by providing newer insights.

An important point to note at this stage is that information on all indicators are not

available / accessible for all schemes / programmes. While conducting the review and

analysis, we will also point out to and document the gaps. This will help in

understanding the limitations of this review-based analysis, and provide critical

pointers for planning next level of field based research.

3. Activities, Progress and Updates

Activity Progress/Plan (All 2014)

April to June July August September

Desk Review of existing literature on residential schools

Completed Re-organising the review based on framework

Field visits to add more info

reorganising at the time of consolidation

Mapping of schemes / programmes

Completed Field visits to add more info

Field visits to add more info

reorganising at the time of consolidation

Consultation (1st round)

One round done but it became more of an information collection exercise

See the activity titled key informant interview / consultations

Identifying good practices

Criteria identified based on review

Reorganising info for this purpose

More insights added based on field visits

Identification of good practices: either based on all criteria or specific criterion

Scoping to identify cross-learning

Web-based review of similar models in Asia and Africa

Identifying aspects for cross-learning


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Sampling for sites (Rationale and plan outlined in the next section)

Identified 5 states (Bihar, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Karnataka).

Identified four specific sites in Bihar, Karnataka and Jharkhand

Specific sites in Gujarat and Rajasthan

Tools for site validation

Draft tools based on desk review analysis

Finalisation of tools

Site Visits Bihar and Jharkhand in end-July

Gujarat, Rajasthan and Karnataka

Key Informant Interviews / consultation

MHRD, Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Social Justice and Empowerment, NUEPA, Deeptha Bhog (Nirantar), Sharada Jain, Shobita Rajgopal, Vandana Mahajan, Vimala Ramachandran (proposed names)

Draft Report

Consolidation of review, site visits and interviews

National level Workshop

One month from receiving the comments on the draft report

National Workshop Report

Two weeks after the workshop

4. Rationale for the site selection and plan for site visits

As against six sites committed to in our proposal, we have identified nine sites for

validation visits. The identification of these nine sites was done keeping in mind the

spread of different schemes and programmes, run by both government and non-

government organisations. The target population aimed at and the nature of the

programme was also kept in mind while deciding the final sites. The number of states if

limited to four; this number and choice was determined by both the possibility of

covering diverse kinds of sites and ease of access.

The following matrix gives details of the sites, the state where we will visit the site, and

the travel plan. It includes six residential schools, two sites of accelerated learning and

one standalone hostel for girls. The rationale for including accelerated learning

programmes in the review as well as in the field visit is manifold: (i) they are not school

but they aim at completing one level of schooling, i.e., primary, by providing accelerated

learning experiences, (ii) they have played a major role in evolution of residential

schooling as a strategy for girls’ education and empowerment, (iii) they can act as a


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comparator in certain cases. Hostels are also included in the analysis as well as in the

site visit as they have the potential to enhance the learning experiences and act as a

residential school to an extent.

Site selection for validation visits

Scheme Scheme Type

Funded by

Target Population on the site

State Timeframe for site visit

1. KGBV (MS-run)

Formal Residential School

Govt. Muslim Bihar

20th – 22nd July

2. KGBV (SSA-run)

Formal Residential School

Govt. ST Jharkhand

23rd – 25th July

3. Aashram Shala

Formal Residential

Govt. ST Gujarat

August last week

4. Aashram Shala

Formal Residential

Govt. SC Rajasthan

August last week

5. Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya

Formal Residential

Govt. Rural Karnataka

August

6.

Vivekananda Tribal Learning Centre

Formal Residential

NGO ST

Karnataka August

7

Doosra Dashak/ Adarshshila/ Urmul (at least one)

Accelerated Learning Progrrame

NGO Muslim/SC

Rajasthan

August last week

8. Mahila Shikshan Kendra

Accelerated Learning Progrrame

Govt. SC / Muslim

Bihar

20th – 22nd July

9.

Eklavya Girls Residential School

Hostel attached to formal schools

Govt. ST

Gujarat August last week


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Schemes such as Aashram Shalas which target both SC and ST children will be visited in

SC as well as ST concentrated areas. Rajasthan and Gujarat have the second and third

highest number of KGBVs and therefore these two states are selected. Unlike

Chattisgarh which has the highest number of Ashram shalas, these two states also house

other examples and hence we selected these. Rajasthan has programmes like Doosra

Dashak/Urmul/Aadrashila which though small in number, are very crucial for the

“Influence”. Gujarat is the only state where the government scheme to enhance

education among tribal students through hostels attached to formal schools was found.

EGRS is another unique set-up which provides hostel facilities for tribal children

attending formal schools, ensuring that inaccessibility of schools does not mean that

children have to drop-out. This site visit will add another dimension to the analysis.

KGBV evaluations have pointed out difference in the quality of education due to

different managements. Hence KGBV schools under the managements of both Mahila

Samakhya (MS) and SSA) are included. Bihar and Jharkhand have the highest number of

KGBVs, and hence the choice. Although Jharkhand has a very high tribal population, the

state has relied heavily upon KGBVs as compared to Aashram Shalas.

JNV is completely run by the government with fixed norms and guidelines. It is open to

all rural boys and girls and is only example of a co-educational full time residential

school, and that explains the inclusion. VTLC in Karnataka, an NGO initiative for tribal

children, is one of the rare s of an NGO run full time residential school.

5. List of tools to be used for site validation and consultation

Seven different tools are being developed for site validation visits and key informant

interviews. These include:

(i) Block-level profile: This tool would help in developing the block-level profile of the

school visited with respect to population (social category, BPL, age and sex wise break-

up), literacy rates (age, sex, social category wise), number of residential schools, etc.

This will help in analysing the reach and representation aspects.

(ii) School profile: This tool will be used to map infrastructure, teachers profile,

students profile, living/dining/security arrangements and enrolment. This will help

assess the adequacy, quality, suitability and use of space and infrastructure.

(iii) Budget and Expenditure: Source of funds, process of receiving payments, expenses

against different aspects like food, library etc., delays in release of payments, audit

process will be explored. Last two years budget/expenditure accounts and audited

reports will also be collected. This tool will provide information for cost/expenditure

analysis as well as give pointers for analysis the management aspects.


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(iv) Principal’s interview: Questions relating to selection and training of teachers,

interaction with parents, performance of students from different backgrounds,

grievance redressal (for teachers and students), special provisions for children with

special needs, teaching-learning materials and methods, assessments, expenditures on

different heads, improvements in the students, governance, security and safety of

students will be asked. This also goes into the difference between residential and non-

residential schools, and the potential and challenges this leads to.

(v) Teachers’ group discussion: A group discussion with teachers will be conducted to

examine their teaching and non-teaching roles in the school, their interactions with

parents, safety of girls, changes in attitude of girls, their aspirations for the students and

challenges they face. This will also provide an idea about their understanding of

empowerment issues and how they view girls’ education.

(vi) Learner’s experience: Using activities and discussions, their motive and choice in

enrolling in this residential school, relationship with teachers and other students, food

and living experiences, sports/playtime/entertainment, duties in the school, safety and

security issues and future plans will be explored. Some activities will be aimed at

understanding their language and mathematical skills, and to get an idea about their

critical thinking and reflective skills.

(vii) Key Informant Interviews: This would include the questions related to (i) the

background of the scheme, major issues/challenges faced, rationale for budget

allocations, impact of the programme/schemes, (ii) the views on residential; schooling

as a means of schooling and empowerment of adolescent girls from marginalised

sections, (iii) the gaps in the present approach and ways to resolve those.


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ANNEXURE I: Draft Desk Review (WORK IN PROGRESS)

1. Spectrum of documents reviewed

For an extensive desk-review, five types of documents were reviewed. This included:

a) Policy and Programme Documents: Policy and Programme frameworks that include

residential schools as one of their components were reviewed. Residential Schools as an

access option for girls from marginalized communities has been part of Department of

Education policies. Apart from these, residential schools are included in policies under

the (1) Department of Social Welfare, (2) Department of Tribal Welfare, and (3)

Department of Women and Child Development). Hostels (attached to government

schools for few students) and residential schools (boarding facilities for all students)

under these departments were seen as an important strategy for improving educational

indicators, and addressing inequity in education for marginalized groups like

SC/ST/OBC groups. Apart from the formal residential schools and the hostels attached

to these, short-term condensed courses organised by NGOs have ensured empowerment

of girls and acted as bridge courses for the girls, especially those who were never

enrolled in formal schools, to continue their education. Documents related to these

individual initiatives were also reviewed and presented below.

b) Review Missions of Programmes: Multi-stakeholder, periodic Joint Review Missions

(JRM) as a ‘review or monitoring mechanisms’ were introduced under large

programmes, mostly multi-donor programmes like District Primary Education

Programme (DPEP). The tradition continued under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA),

Government of India’s flagship programme for universalisation of elementary

education. The JRMs based their observations on the reports and documents provided

by the states, interactions with wide-ranging stake-holders and visits to schools,

communities, teacher support and administrative structures. Observations made by

JRMs were taken as valid and recommendations considered for action. Although

relevant, JRM observations remain subjective and are unable to give any trends or

deeper insights. These reports have been reviewed to get an insight about different

schemes.

c) Articles and Narratives: Articles reviewed are based on a study of small sample or

follow the JRM mode, where authors base their observations on short visits to

residential schools, which involve short interactions with the stake-holders, including

girls in the residential schools. Again, although meaningful these narratives are

anecdotal and subjective, often drawing generic inferences from these short visits.

d) Research Studies: It is observed that in the Indian context researches on residential

schools that are based on robust research methods, both quantitative and qualitative


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are few. Most of the studies reviewed had limited scope and small sample size. Most

were small surveys on a specific theme like infrastructure, pedagogy or profile of

children in residential schools. Research tools range from observation forms, interviews

of select people or Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). In this, research by Ranganathan N

and Jandhyala K stand out for their deeper probing on girls’ empowerment and psycho–

social development. Rangnathan has attempted to understand the impact of residential

school by using innovative semi-projective techniques like picture analysis, situational

analysis, gender sorting checklist etc.

(e) Budget Documents: Budget, cost and expenditure documents of selected

government schemes and few NGO-led schemes were also reviewed to understand their

per-child costs and other expenditure related aspects. The budget/expenditure for

government schemes is available through their evaluation reports and websites, budget

details for only three NGO schemes could be included due to unavailability of these

documents in the public domain. Detailed expenditure/budget analysis of one of the

NGO-led schemes, Udaan (CARE) was only possible as they shared the concerned

documents on request.

Table 1: Research Methods and Tools Used

JRMs Evaluation Studies Qualitative Studies

(Articles and Narratives)

Budget Documents

Review of reports Discussions and Interview Field Visits One time Observations Anecdotal

Review of Reports Discussion, Interview, FGDs Unstructured Observations Field Visits Anecdotal

Case Studies, In-depth Interviews Focus Group Discussions Projective and Semi-Projective Techniques Structured Observations Theme Based Analysis Ethnographic Study Narratives

Evaluation reports, Budget details shared by specific organisations, Information available on different websites,

Institutionalized, Periodic, Actions taken on recommendations Focus- Monitoring

Some are institutionalized , Some are commissioned Periodic – with no determined time gap. One time evaluations Focus – Impact, Out-reach, Cost Analysis, Recommendations

Often one time studies Focus – research and knowledge building,


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1.1 Limitations of the review conducted

The following enlist the limitations of the review conducted:

(a) Limited Research: Lack of documented research in the area proved to be a challenge.

Review of JRM reports, information on websites and studies do indicate a trend, so also

the information available on the official websites of most of the NGOs covered in the

study remains inconsistent. The documents have raised a number of issues related to

quality, access, infrastructural facilities, psycho–social development, teacher

recruitment and attendance, in different residential schools.

(b) Scale and Trends: The researchers did not come across any large scale quantitative

research studies on either status or impact of residential schools. Even the national U-

DISE data does not present segregated data on residential schools. It clubs all

government non-Ashram/KGBV residential schools together. This is a matter of concern

as substantial investments are made in Residential Schools under various departments,

but evidence of their performance and impact at macro-level is not captured by

researches. So also innovative work of NGO remains as documentation of good

practices, these have not coalesced in a accepted model for residential schools.

(c) Longitudinal Studies: The researchers did not come across any long term studies

tracking cohort of girls through their stay at residential schools and beyond. Tracking of

girls and impact on their education and life is not evident as a concern for the both

NGOs and Government programmes. Large data around enrolment and transition

somehow subsumes all other elements of change.

(d) Knowledge Building: It is observed that the four sources provide information on

some common parameters like – enrolment, infra-structure, community participation,

quality education and obvious change in girls. But these do not knit together into a

theory of change for girls’ education and empowerment. Also the diversity of emerging

good practices needs to be integrated in this knowledge building.


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2. Policies leading to Residential Schooling for girls in India

Education is the backbone of every societal development; however, the importance of

girl-child education to sustainable development cannot be over-emphasized. Despite the

continued efforts of governments, individuals, groups and organizations to bring about

world understanding and commitment to the increase access and participation as a

necessary and indispensable condition for over all societal development, women still

occupy very low scores in the educational indices of access, participation and

empowerment. Therefore, the challenges that surrounds girl-child education calls for

radical functional strategies and a committed government to move the course of the

girl-child education from paper to practice (Little, Kohm et al. 2005).

As such, different policies and programs have been designed to tackle the issue of

empowerment and inclusion of the girl child, but in varying ways. Because of the

diversity of people and the nation-states in which they are situated, it is impossible to

address all the many residential schooling policies both historically and contemporary,

with a one-size-fits-all approach. Residential schooling has had varying impacts on

different societal groups. Consequently, the demands made by civil society activists,

minority groups, the media and other non-state actors alike, concerning residential

school education have differed widely. At the same time, however, there are some

common themes that emerge among diverse residential schooling practices in the

global south. This comparative analysis explores the development and implementation

strategies of residential/ boarding education for the poor, both by national

governments and NGOs; its effectiveness in providing education and empowerment,

especially for the girl child.

Historically, there were two basic kinds of residential schools in India. One was the

‘ashram or gurukuls’ that were part of ancient India’s narrative. Children of kings and

other gentry went to stay with a ‘guru’ in ashram to learn various skills and

philosophical perspectives. However, these were only-boys ashrams. The second kind

was that of elite ‘residential schools’ of colonial times, also called the boarding schools.

Structured on lines of British boarding schools, these schools essentially catered to the

elite Indians, both boys and girls. Neither was aimed at girls from disadvantaged

sections (economically and socially backward classes). The lack of access to residential

schooling facilities (in absence of formal schools in the vicinity of their habitation) and

the traditional beliefs and practices against educating girls was a major problem for

independent India.

Motivated by political thinkers and social reformers, civil society organizations initiated

residential schools for dalit and tribal children. These, however, were few and dispersed

in different region and states of India. Residential schools as a strategy for


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universalization emerged not so much from the gender perspective but from reaching

education to socially backward groups like dalits and tribals.

A definitive national vision for girls’ education was first articulated in 1968’s National

Policy of Education, almost after 20 years of Independence. The National Policy on

Education, 1986 (GoI 1986) and the Program of Action (GoI 1992) brought the issue of

gender and girls education to the centre stage. Moving away from the narrow focus of

basic education and literacy skill, NPE for the first time linked education of women and

girls to their empowerment. NPE envisioned education to be a transformative force

which would build women’s self-confidence, improve their position in society and

enable them to challenge inequalities that are prevalent in Indian society. The policy

stated that “Education shall be used as an agent of basic change in the status of women.

In order to neutralize accumulated distortions of the past, there will be a well-conceived

edge in favour of women. The policy committed that the national education system

would play a positive, interventionist role in the empowerment of women”. NPE became

the key framework for all the subsequent programmes and policies of the state. The

women empowerment Mahila Samakhya Programme which influenced a number of

girls education programme framework was an outcome of the NPE policy.

Residential schools for the girls from disadvantaged sections are essentially viewed as

an access strategy for the unreached whereby children, especially girls from remote

areas, scattered hamlets, socially excluded groups and poor households get an

opportunity to formal schooling. Secondly, residential schooling is viewed as a welfare

approach with residential schools becoming a means of provisioning food, shelter and

incentives. In a way residential schools become an environment that compensates and

overcomes factors that do not allow girls to participate in schools like poverty, poor

nutrition and domestic work etc.


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2.1 Impetus to Residential Schooling

2.1.1 Education for All (EFA): The EFA Goals brought the spot light on girls’ education

with emphasis on gender parity and equality. There are six internationally agreed upon

goals of EFA. One of the goals aims at ensuring that by 2015 all children and especially

girls, children living in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities

gain access to free and compulsory primary education of good quality. It also aims at

eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and

achieving gender equality in education by 2015 with a focus on full and equal access to

quality education for girls.

The Dakar Framework for Action called on the world community to find appropriate

strategies for educating underprivileged groups and those children who live under

difficult circumstances. Wide ranging access options emerged in the post EFA scenario

– community schools, alternative schools, flexi timing and bridge courses. Experiments

with residential schools as a strategy for girls’ education and empowerment emerged in

the decade of nineties, the post EFA phase. Some of these initiatives were Lok

Jhumbish’s Balika Shikshan Shivirs, M.V.Foundation’s bridge courses and District

Primary Education Programme (DPEP)2.

2.1.2 Right to Education Act 2009: In August 2009, the Indian Parliament passed the

Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009 which made access

to free and compulsory elementary education a fundamental right of every child. The

Act provides a justiciable legal framework that entitles every child between the ages of

6-14 years to free and compulsory elementary education of comparable quality, based

on principles of equity and non-discrimination.

Under RTE 2009, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), India’s flagship programmes for

universalizing elementary education, ensures: (a) universal access and retention (b)

bridging of gender and social category gaps in elementary education; and (c)

enhancement in learning levels of children. SSA provides for a variety of interventions

including opening of new schools and alternate schooling facilities, construction of

schools and additional classrooms, toilets and drinking water, provisioning for teachers,

periodic in-service teacher training and academic resource support, textbooks and

support for learning achievement.

Residential Schools are seen as a strategy for wide-spectrum of vulnerable children,

including girls. It is important to accommodate the special needs of children living in

desert areas or remote tribal areas. Residential facilities is viewed as a solution in

2 DPEP was a pilot scheme with special emphasis on teacher training and management in selected districts. This was incorporated into Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan in 2000-01.


17 | P a g e

making education accessible to children from dispersed, remote and difficult locales like

desert areas, mountainous region or tribal children in dense forests, or children living in

internal strife situations.

The RTE 2009 also mandates enrolment of out-of school children (OoSC) into age-

appropriate classes. This calls for accelerated bridge courses called ‘special training’ in

SSA to enable older OoSC children join their age appropriate grades. The previous

experiences of SSA and other government programmes have been used to develop

strategies for bridging the educational gap and mainstreaming of OOSC. For this

purpose, both residential as well as non-residential bridge courses (accelerated

curricula) were started. It was found that residential bridge courses were more effective

than non-residential as they have enabled the creation of intensive teaching learning

environments that is conducive to accelerated learning. Residential facilities have also

been effective for preventing dropout amongst girls, children with special needs and

children living in difficult circumstances.

The RTE in its different sections makes reference to gender and girl’s education both

explicitly and implicitly. Some of the relevant provisions are: (a) No discrimination

against children from ‘disadvantaged groups and `weaker sections’ on any grounds; (b)

Inclusion of women in school monitoring committees; and (c) Provision of good quality

education that includes equity issues, curriculum development in conformity with

constitutional stipulations, training and enrolment in age appropriated classes.

One of the major goals of SSA is to bridge the existing gender and social gap. The

programme has undertaken several measures to improve girls’ access to schooling and

retention and addressing issues of quality and equity. Improving the school

infrastructure, providing support (e.g. scholarships, free textbooks, uniforms etc.) to

girls coming from disadvantaged communities, appointment of female teachers,

sensitisation of teachers on gender issues and assigning gender focal points are some of

the ways in which the programme aims to ensure enabling environment to the girls.

Regular monitoring and reporting of the progress being made on gender and girls

education is also undertaken.

As per the 10th SSA-Joint Review Mission (SSA 2009), there are around 89 million girls

attending elementary schools (64 million in primary and 25 million in upper primary

grades) compared to 96 million boys. Girls constitute 48.4 per cent of primary

enrolment and 47.6 per cent of the upper primary enrolments. The mission noted that

nationally, gender parity in gross enrolment rates in government schools was reported.

The Gender Parity Index (GPI) has shown improvements from 0.90 at primary in 2005

to 0.94 in 2009 while at upper primary levels the GPI has improved from 0.84 to 0.91

during the same period.


18 | P a g e

The fact that girls still constitute half of the out of school children (OoSC) – three

percentage points more than their share in the population – points towards the still

existing gaps in gender wise provision of education. Two notable interventions to

improve girls’ education have been the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas (KGBV) and

National Program for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL). The formulation

and implementation of NPEGEL and KGBV are among the important measures taken up

by the programme to reach out to the girls from marginalised social groups in over

3,282 educationally backward blocks in the country.


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3. Schemes and Programmes related to Residential Schools for girls

Table 2: Different Schemes and Programmes for Residential Schooling

Type of Scheme/Programme

Government funded NGO run

Full Time Formal Residential Schools

1. Kasturba Gandhi Ballika Vidyalaya (KGBV) (O)

2. Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas (JNV) (C)

3. Aashram Schools (AS) (C)

4. Eklavaya Model Residential Schools (ERMS) (C)

a) Spruthi b) Eklavya Parivartan

Vidyalaya c) Adivasi Ashram

Shala d) Kedi Residential

School e) Schools run by

Navsarjan f) Aadarshila

Residential School g) Viveka Tribal Centre

for Learning

Hostels attached to formal schools

i. Babu Jagjivan Ram Chhatrawas Yojana (C)

ii. Scheme of Strengthening Education among Scheduled Tribe (ST) Girls in Low Literacy Districts (O)

Accelerated Learning Courses

1. Mahila Shikshan Kendras (C)

a) Balika Shivirs (Urmul)

b) Udaan (CARE)

Bridge Courses

i. SSA run residential bridge courses (12 month, 6 month and 3 month Residential Special Training) (O)

I. Doosra Dashak

II. Nari Gunjan

III. M.V.Foundation

IV. Seva Mandir

C: denotes ‘closed’ implying that these schemes are funded, managed and run completely by the government; O: denoted ‘open’ implying that these schemes receive government funding while management/implementation can be done by both government and NGO.

There are different schemes and programmes managed/run/funded by Government

and/or non-state actors. These schemes/programmes can be classified as following:

(i) Formal residential schools: Government formal residential schools include Kasturba

Gandhi Ballika Vidyalaya (KGBV), Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas (JNV), Aashram Schools

(AS) and Eklavaya Model Residential Schools (ERMS). These are formal schools with

residential facilities for the students. NGO-run formal residential schools are Spurthi,


20 | P a g e

Eklavya Parivartan Vidyalaya, Adivasi Ashram Shala, Kedi Residential School, schools

run by Navsarjan and Aadarshila Residential School. Swami Vivekananda Youth

Movement (SVYM) runs Viveka Tribal Centre for Learning (VTCL) a semi-residential

school, provides benefits of basic education to 450 children (primarily first generation

learners) from surrounding tribal colonies.

(ii) Hostels attached to formal schools: These schemes ensure hostel facilities for

girls/boys from disadvantaged sections so that they can attend formal schools. Babu

Jagjivan Ram Chhatrawas Yojana and Scheme of Strengthening Education among

Scheduled Tribe (ST) Girls in Low Literacy Districts are two government schemes under

this category. The second one is funded by the government but can be managed/run by

NGOs as well.

(iii) Accelerated Learning Programmes (ALP): These courses aim at completion of

certain specific education levels (e.g. class 5, class 8) in a condensed manner. Mahila

Shikshan Kendra, run by Mahila Samakhya (Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, MHRD) is an eleven-

month condensed course for girls from disadvantaged sections. This course aims at

accelerated learning for OoSC and never enrolled girls. Post-completion of this course, it

is expected that at least some of the girls, if not all, will enrol in formal schools. NGO run

accelerated programmes includes Balika Shivirs (Urmul) and Udaan (CARE).

(iv) Bridge Courses: These are short-term camps for mainstreaming OoSC and never

enrolled children into age-appropriate classes in formal schools. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan

(SSA) runs 12-month, 6-month and 3-month residential special training for enrolment

of OoSC and never enrolled in elementary classes. NGO run bridge courses include

Doosra Dashak, Nari Gunjan, M.V.Foundation and Seva Mandir.


21 | P a g e

3.1 Introducing the schemes and programmes

Table 3: Basic parameters of schemes under Govt. of India

Formal Residential School Hostels with formal

schools ALP

JNV AS EMRS KGBV BJRCY EGRS^ MSK

Year of initiation

1985-1986

1990-1991;

revised in 2008-2009

1997-1998

2004 2008^^ 2008 MS* - 1988

Girls/Boys Both Both Both Girls only Separate for boys and girls

Girls only

Girls only

Ministry concerned

MHRD MTA*** MTA MHRD** MSJE& MTA MHRD

Funding

Completely financed by Dept. of School Education, MHRD

100 per cent for AS (girls) by Centre#

Funding by Centre upto 12 crore@ (non-recurring cost) and Rs 42,000 per child (recurring cost)

Centre: 65 per cent; State: 35 per cent

100 per cent assistance to state/UTs, 90 per cent assistance to NGOs/Deemed universities for expansion

Fully funded by Centre

Fully funded by the National Programme

Strength per school

560

Depends upon the

layout plan

480

Three types:

I:100; II: 50; III:50

100 (primary

) 150 (upper

primary and high school)

30 trainees per MSK

Source: Compiled from different sources listed in the Bibliography;

^ Scheme of Strengthening Education among Scheduled Tribe (ST) Girls in Low Literacy Districts

^^ In operation since 1989-90 but revised and renamed in 2008

*Mahila Samakhya;

** Ministry of Human Resource Development;

*** Ministry of Tribal Affairs & Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment

# 100 per cent funding for all AS in Union Territories and Construction of AS for boys in naxal areas while

50:50 share for other AS for boys. @ upto 16 crore in hilly areas/desert/islands


22 | P a g e

3.1.1 Formal Residential School Schemes:

(a) Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalays (JNV): JNVs were one of the first residential schools to

be established for talented girls and boys from rural areas (at least 75 per cent of

students enrolled must be from rural areas). At least one JNV was established in each

district, leading to sanctioning of 576 JNVs across the country. Additionally, 10 JNVs

were sanctioned in districts with large populations of SC and ST respectively. The total

number of JNVs sanctioned is 596 (Sharma 2012). Selection test is conducted for

enrolling students in these schools. These schools were fully-funded by the Department

of School Education and Literacy, MHRD.

(b) Ashram Shalas: These were started by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs (MTA) in 1990-

91 (revised in 2008-09) to provide residential schools for tribal children (girls and

boys) in an environment that is conducive for learning. The main idea behind the

scheme was to increase the literacy rates among the tribal students and bring them at

par with non-ST population. This scheme is implemented in twenty-two states and two

union territories that have been identified under the Tribal Sub-Plan by the MTA.

Currently, there are 862 sanctioned and 616 completed Ashram Schools across the

country (GoI 2013-2014). However, there seems to be some discrepancy in the number

of Ashram Shalas operating the in the country. District Information System for

Education (DISE) 2012-13 data (DISE 2012-13) lists 7,753 Ashram Shalas wherein Uttar

Pradesh, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh have the highest number of ASs.

(c) Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS): MTA also initiated Eklavya Model

Residential Schools (EMRS) along the same lines as JNV. These co-educational schools

were set up to enable ST students to avail reservation in high and professional

education courses as well as jobs in government sectors. Admission to these schools is

done through competition with preference given to children belonging to Primitive

Tribal Groups and first generation learners. An upper limit for capital (non-recurring)

and recurring costs have been set by the Centre, beyond which state/UT governments

need to contribute. Currently, there are 153 EMRS operational across 22 states

(Jagranjosh 2013).

(d) Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya: KGBVs were established under the Sarva Shiksha

Abhiyan (SSA) by MHRD in 2004 to enhance the enrolment and completion of upper

primary education amongst girls from disadvantaged sections. These were set up in

Educationally Backward Blocks (EBBs) with rural female literacy below national

average as per Census 2001. Enrolment was targeted towards girls from SC, ST, OBC and

other minority communities. There are more than three thousand operational KGBVs in

the country with an enrolment of 3.49 lakh girls (GoI 2013). Three basic models of

KGBV exist: Model I included hostels for 100 girls and Model II included hostels for 50


23 | P a g e

girls. Both Model I and II indicated setting-up of new schools. Model III hostels for 50

girls in existing schools (GoI 2010).

(e) Spruthi: This is a residential school for mild and moderately mentally challenged

children in Bangalore, Karnataka. With an intake capacity of 75 children at a time,

Spruthi ensures that the teachers and other personnel in the school are duly trained to

handle these children. Additionally, regular medical assessment of the children and

guided nutrition programmes are also carried out. There is no fee charged for the

services provided at Spruthi. (Vidyaranya not-dated)

(f) Eklavya Parivartan Vidyalaya: This residential school was started by Vidhayak

Sansad, an organisation that works for the socio economic development of tribals,

women and other deprived sections in the society. This school reaches out to girls from

the Katkari tribe, largely the children of migrant workers. (VidhayakSansad not-dated)

(g) Adivasi Ashram Shala is a regular residential school that runs classes 1 to 9 for girls

and boys from the tribal families in Kamshet near Pune. Plans are on to ensure that girls

can complete class 10 also from the same school.

(h) Kedi Residential School for tribal girls in South Gujarat focuses on slow learning

girls, who need extra help and facilitation to comprehend concepts/lessons. The girls

are provided middle level schooling with residential facilities to prepare them for high

school. With multiple reasons that are likely to hinder their higher studies, a vocational

training system is inbuilt wherein the inmates get equipped with skills required to work

and live in their own villages. Alternative methods used for teaching are further

supported by workshops, educational trips and seminars, allowing the girls to

experience learning at different levels. (Kedi not-dated)

(i) There are also three residential schools run by Navsarjan in Katariya, Rayka, and

Sami, Gujarat to provide primary education for dalit children, who prefer to be drop

outs, rather than meeting the humiliation from teachers and students from upper

castes. These schools by Navsarjan are an effort to retain dalit children in mainstream

education. (Navsarjan not-dated)

(j) Aadarshila Residential School: in Rajasthan caters to girls who had been married

very young. These girls falling in the age group of 8-13 years are provided education

from pre-primary up to middle school education, using alternative teaching methods.

(Prayas--PratirodhSansthan not-dated)

(k) Viveka Tribal Centre for Learning (VTCL): is a semi-residential school, based in

Mysore district of Karnataka that aims to bring benefits of basic education to 450

children (primarily first generation learners) from surrounding tribal colonies. The


24 | P a g e

school is affiliated with the State education department and has thus adopted Kannada

as the medium of instruction. (SVYM various years)

3.1.2 Hostels attached to formal schools:

(a) Scheme of Strengthening Education among Scheduled Tribe (ST) Girls in Low

Literacy Districts: MTA introduced a special scheme to strengthen education among

tribal girls in low literacy districts in 2008. This scheme gave preference to naxal

affected areas as well as those inhabited by Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) (GoI 2008).

The scheme primarily envisages the running and maintenance of hostels linked with

schools running under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan or other schemes of Education

Department. Where such schooling facilities are not available within a 5km radius, the

scheme has provision for establishing a complete educational complex with residential

and schooling facility. The scheme has provision for tuitions, incentives and periodical

awards after passing class VIII, X and XII to encourage the ST girls. The scheme does not

provide construction cost and prescribes fixed financial norms. The scheme also

envisages the establishment of District Education Support Agency (DESA), which would

be a non-government organization or a federation of non-governmental organizations,

for varied functions like ensuring 100 per cent enrolment, reducing drops outs,

arrangement of preventive health education, monitoring the performance of NGOs, etc.

54 districts and 21 blocks (outside the districts) have been identified, based on the ST

population (at least 25 per cent) and ST female literacy rate (below 35 per cent)

criteria, for setting up hostels for ST girls (upper limit: 100 girls for primary and 150

girls for upper primary and secondary classes) (GoI 2008). Although the scheme is

funded by the Centre, it is implemented by Voluntary Organisations or/and NGOs

(based on approval on criterion laid out) (GoI 2008). In Gujarat, the hostels sanctioned

for tribal girls under this plan are called Eklavya Girls Residential Schools (EGRS).

Currently, there are 35 functional EGRS in Gujarat, run by the Gujarat State Tribal

Development Residential Educational Institutions Society (GSTDREIS) (GoG 2014)3.

(b) Babu Jagjivan Ram Chhatrawas Yojana (BJRCY): BJRCY is implemented by the

Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment with primary objective of attracting the

implementing agencies for undertaking hostel construction programme, especially for

SC girls towards the broader vision of containment and reduction of their dropout rate.

The Scheme aims to provide residential accommodation facilities to SC boys and girls

studying in middle schools, higher secondary schools, colleges and Universities. The

Scheme is implemented through the State Governments/Union Territory

Administrations and the Central & State Universities/institutions. They are provided

3 We tried to map the existence of hostels under this scheme across states but only found details in

Gujarat. It is possible that they have been re-named at state levels (like in Gujarat, they are called EGRS).


25 | P a g e

central assistance for fresh construction of hostel buildings and for expansion of the

existing hostel facilities (GoI 2008).

3.1.3 Accelerated Learning Programmes (ALP)

(a) Mahila Shiksha Kendra (MSK): The Mahila Samakhya (MS) programme was launched

in 1988 in order to pursue the goals of the New Education Policy (1986) and the

Programme of Action (1992) as a concrete programme for the education and

empowerment of women in rural areas, particularly of women from socially and

economically marginalised groups. MS programme, fully funded by the Department of

Education and Literacy, MHRD was initially implemented as a pilot in 10 districts in the

states of UP, Karnataka and Gujarat (representing three regions of the country). The

selected districts were low on female literacy, enrolment and retention of girls in

schools. The project was later extended to Andhra Pradesh at the end of 1992 and in

two districts in Kerala in 1998. The effectiveness of the MS strategy in mobilising

women for education has resulted in it being adopted by other basic education projects

in Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Assam. MSK was started as an eleven-month

bridge course for dropped-out/never enrolled girls and older women in the age-group

16-35 years. Currently, 95 MSK are functional in 121 districts (563 blocks) in the ten

states where MS is functional (GoI 2013).

(b) Balika Shivirs: in Rajasthan (run by Urmul Jyoti Sansthan) offer an accelerated

learning programme with residential facility, where girls from marginalised groups,

who were either drop outs or had never attended school, are readied for class 5 exams

in a span of 7 months. If the students do not get to enrol in a government school after

passing this exam, for different reasons, they attend another residential camp that

prepares them for class 8 exams. Although the girls are not charged any fees, parents

pay one rupee per day for the 210 days of the camp or donate kitchen groceries and

provisions to help Urmul meet the costs of the camp. (URMUL not-dated)

(c) Udaan (CARE): in Uttar Pradesh also run residential accelerated learning camps that

help out of school/never enrolled girls aged 9-14 years, complete their primary

education in 11 months. Every year a batch of 100 girls go through this programme and

almost 90 per cent of them are then absorbed in mainstream schools. The success of this

model also saw its replication in Bihar, Orissa and Haryana, with teachers being trained

in participatory approaches. (CARE not-dated)

With Udaan, these girls get an opportunity to break the vicious circle of illiteracy and

complete class 5 level primary education in a period of 10 months. The camp was

designed after visits to camps run by inspiring programs of MV Foundation and Lok

Jumbish. The curriculum and transaction approach was unique to Udaan which were


26 | P a g e

developed keeping in mind the concerns of equity, social justice and quality of education

as the central core of the program. The strong bond that existed between Sarvodaya

Ashram and the community in running a residential school provided a strong base for

Udaan.

3.1.4 Bridge Courses

(a) SSA run Residential Special Training: Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan organises three types of

residential special training/courses to mainstream out-of-school-children and those

never enrolled in age-appropriate classes in formal schools. There are 12-month, 6-

month and 3-month special training courses organised, in association with different

NGOs, usually during the summer months. (MHRD--GoI 2013)

(b) Seva Mandir (SevaMandir not-dated) in Rajasthan has also adopted learning camps

as a strategy to impart literacy to never enrolled children, who can then enrol in the

formal schools. Three camps of 60 days each are organised during a year for 200

children in the 6-12 years age group, from the outskirts of Udaipur (largely from tribal

families). 57 per cent of children, who had never been enrolled in regular schools

before, were enrolled after attending a learning camp. (Philipose March 2012)

(c) M V Foundation in Andhra Pradesh runs residential bridge course for 9-14 year olds

who are rescued child labourers. These orientation camps equip them with the ability to

read and write, readying them for age appropriate admission in the nearby government

schools. Once the children are enrolled in the formal schools, they also get admitted to

the Social Welfare Hostels. (M.V.Foundation not-dated)

(d) Doosra Dashak in Rajasthan also runs residential bridge courses for 11-13 year olds

who then get admitted to government schools. Respecting the pace of learning of the

children, Doosra Dashak goes to the extent of organising additional camps to finish

curriculum in case it is not completed in the planned period of four months. Students for

the following batch are usually selected by the older participants. (DoosraDashak not-

dated)

(e) A similar approach can be seen in Bihar, but the girls are housed at the

organisation’s residential facility itself. Nari Gunjan runs 50 educational centres where

girls from the Musahar (rat eaters) community are educated on basic subjects like

personal hygiene, health care and also taught simple skills. 100 girls from these centres

are then selected to avail the Prerana Residential facility for further studies, while

regularly attending government school. The Prerana School runs programmes using

activity based teaching and personality development, to compliment what is learnt from

the government schools. (Narigunjan not-dated)


27 | P a g e

Below is a table comparing different features of the schemes and programmes explained

in this section:

Table 4: Comparative Review of schemes

Free of cost

Special training for personnel

Vocational courses inbuilt

Medical assessment

Alternative teaching learning methods

Single sex (S)/ Co-ed (C)

Formal Residential schools

KGBV √ ? √ √ ? S

JNV √ √ x √ ? C

EMRS √ ? x √ ? C

Ashram Shala √ ? ? ? ? C

Spruthi √ √ x √ ? C

Eklavya Parivartan Vidyalaya

√ ? x ? ? S

Adivasi Ashram Shala

? ? x ? ? C

Kedi ? √ √ ? √ S

Navsarjan ? ? x ? ? C

Aadarshila ? ? x ? √ S

Accelerated Learning Programme

MSK √ √ x ? √ S

Balika Shivir √ ? x ? ? S

Udaan ? √ x ? √ S

Bridge Courses SSA Special Training

√ x x x √ C

Seva Mandir ? ? x ? √ C

M V Foundation

? ? x ? ? S

Doosra Dashak

? ? x ? ? C

Nari Gunjan ? ? √ ? √ S

√: Yes; x: No; ?: Not specified Source: Compiled from different scheme related documents;


28 | P a g e

3.2 Budgets and costs for different schemes

A basic cost-expenditure analysis of different government schemes depicted that the

JNVs, meant for students based on selection, has highest budget allocations and per-

child expenditure norms. Kumar and Gupta (2008) undertook the exercise of comparing

per capita costs for target groups under KGBV and JNV, and found the former to be

much less under each budget head, a systemic exercise to compare inputs between the

various arrangements intended to benefit girls from disadvantaged communities seems

not to have been undertaken yet. Such disparities in budget allocations do have some

degree of impact on the quality of education imparted in these schools.

(a) Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas: JNVs are completely financed by the Department of

School Education, Ministry of Human Resources Development. Trends in Expenditure

show that the plan component has always been higher the non-plan component (refer

table below).

Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas : Trends in expenditure (Rs in Crore)

Year Plan Non-Plan Total

2007-08 920.7 197.2 1,117.9

2008-09 1,208.36 273.39 1,481.75

2009-10 1,311.32 362.94 1,674.26

2010-11 1,311.04 387.72 1,698.76

2011-12 1,141.6 431.76 1,573.36

The above table depicts that the non-plan component has increased in the 2011-12 but

the plan component has decreased for the same financial year.

(b) Ashram Schools in Tribal Sub Plan Areas: Ashram Schools draw their funds from the

Ministry of Tribal Affairs, also partly from the State Governments as detailed below:

Criteria Funding norm Girls’ Ashram Schools in the States 100 per cent Central assistance Boys’ Ashram Schools in naxal affected areas

100 per cent Central assistance

Boys’ Ashram Schools in other areas 50:50 sharing pattern between Centre and the respective State

Ashram Schools in Union Territories (irrespective of being girls’ or boys’)

100 per cent Central assistance provided

It has also been provided that if any State is unable to meet its share for the

establishment of Ashram Schools, ‘any MP/MLA can provide the State's share from

his/her MPLADS/MLALADS fund’.


29 | P a g e

Budget for Establishment of Ashram Schools (Rs in crores)

Year BE* RE** Expenditure

per cent

spent

2008-09 30 30 30 100

2009-10 41 41 41 100

2010-11 75 65 65 100

2011-12 75 75 75 100

2012-13 75 61 61 100

2013-14 75 - -

Source: GoI (2013-2014) *BE: Budgeted Estimate; **RE: Revised Estimate

Trends in expenditure for establishing Ashram Schools in Tribal Sub Plan Areas does

display a neat picture, while there are other concerns in the funding pattern as

enumerated in many evaluation reports. However, the revised estimates for 2012-13

depicted a reduction than the budgeted estimate. This is a concern as budget cuts

impact the quality of education and overall experience in the Ashram Schools. Currently,

the recurring cost of Rs. 22,000 per child per annum for managing these schools is being

borne by the respective state governments. Studies have recommended that the Centre

should finance the recurring costs, as the burden on the States has led to poor

management, lack of basic facilities and acute shortage of teachers among others.

(c) Eklavya Model Residential Schools: Ministry of Tribal Affairs finance EMRS in the

States under Article 275(1) of the Indian Constitution. The funds under this Article are

allocated to States to assist their efforts in promoting the welfare of STs in that State or

improving the level of administration of Scheduled Areas in the said State.

Since implementation of the RTE, EMRS have been required to follow the prescribed

norms for establishing the school buildings. Other specifics in terms of layout and

structure are provided in the guidelines updated in 2010 (GoI 2010).

Budget figures provide only the total sum allocated under this Article, while the break

up for the schemes that are supported through these funds is not available. The

guidelines estimate the non-recurring cost for a school complex at Rs 12 crores (can go

up to Rs 16 crores in hilly areas; additional expenses must be borne by the State

Governments) and recurring cost per child at Rs 42,000.

(d) Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya: KGBV is a centrally sponsored scheme with 65:35

sharing pattern between Centre and states. KGBV, a part of the SSA programme, is

directly influenced by the changes in allocation/releases for SSA. In fact, a 32 per cent

decline was observed in the total allocations for SSA between 2012-13 and 2013-14.


30 | P a g e

Although overall allocations remain a concern, the proportion of funds that was being

utilised raised questions of efficiency on the other hand.

Funds Released for KGBV 2008-09 to 2013-14

Year GoI Release (Rs. in lakhs) State Release (Rs. in lakhs)

2008-09 60,819.37 25,479.07

2009-10 25,126.22 17,048.49

2010-11 24,246.33 16,091.97

2011-12 46,939.79 13,179.74

2012-13 31,544.92 15,937.61

2013-14 13,558.31 8,876.26

Source: GoI (2013)

State Governments in some of the states have been able to allocate more funds to ensure

a wider reach of this scheme. In Jharkhand, the state government has upgraded all

KGBVs to class 12 by allocating more funds and also by utilising funds from RMSA. In

Gujarat, KGBVs have been opened even in the non-Educationally Backward Blocks

under the scheme Gujarat KGBV, completely financed by the State.

(e) Mahila Shikshan Kendras: MSKs are managed and monitored by the Mahila Sanghas,

with finances flowing from the Department of School Education and Literacy, MHRD.

Budget figures can be tracked for Mahila Samakhya Programme as a whole from the

Demand for Grants for this Department. However, the figures of the constituents like

MSK are not available. According to the guidelines, an MSK caters to 30 trainees at a

time with non-recurring and recurring costs per centre budgeted at Rs 3.00 lakhs and

Rs 6.72 lakhs respectively.

(f) Others: So far, we have been able to collect budgetary information only for the

following NGO run residential school programmes. Of these, Spruthi is a full time

residential school that caters to 75 children presently, training them on daily living

skills and other basics. Spruthi also offers regular medical checkups and related

facilities, which also add up to the cost component. From their website, it can be learnt

that the cost per month is Rs 2,500. (Vidyaranya not-dated)

Seva Mandir, on the other hand, runs three learning camps in a year covering 200

children, preparing them to be mainstreamed in formal schools. Although disaggregated

budget figures could not be traced, cost per student per month was found to be Rs 141.

(SevaMandir not-dated)

Udaan provides accelerated learning programmes using alternative teaching methods

and participatory approaches. With 100 girls getting trained every year in primary


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education, cost per student per month works out to be Rs 1,390.85 (operational costs)

from the budget for 20144.

Unique from all these, is Mitraniketan in Kerala that focuses on the integrated education

and training needs of children from the tribal families in Wayanad district. Completely

dependent on donations, cost per child per month runs up to Rs 1,250 (converted from

USD considering USD 1 = INR 60) including tuition, educational materials, room and

board, clothing.

4 Udaan had shared their budget documents with CBPS. From the budget prepared for 2013-2014, Rs.16,69,020 was the amount estimated for operational costs for 100 girls, for 12 months. This works out to be Rs.1,390.85 per child per month.


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3.3 Quality parameters for schemes and programmes5

Quality parameters pertinent to non-residential schools are equally relevant to

residential schools. In general terms these include quality learning material, progressive

curriculum, teacher pupil ratio, teacher child relationship child-centred teaching

learning and assessment. A UNICEF paper lists the following as key

indicators/determinants of quality in education (UNICEF 2000):

a) Healthy, well-nourished learners with supportive families and communities

b) Safe, protective and gender-sensitive environments with adequate resources and

facilities

c) Relevant curricula and materials for acquisition of basic skills

d) Trained teachers using child-centric teaching approaches

e) Well-managed classrooms and schools

f) Skilful assessment to facilitate learning and reduce disparities

g) Outcomes linked with national goals for education and positive participation.

Enactment of RTE makes residential schools accountable to quality norms specified in

the Act. Further, RTE is very explicit in its norms on infrastructure and facilities at

school. However the Act does not have any such specified norms for residential schools.

Infrastructure related norms are very scheme specific. Infrastructure, safety and water-

sanitation facilities in residential schools are important and integral to quality.

5 This sub-section will be revised and re-organised based on the framework for analysis and review explained in Table 1.


33 | P a g e

3.3.1 Infrastructure and other facilities

Most of the government schemes have clear norms and specifications for infrastructure

facilities (See Table 5 below). However, norms do not necessarily translate in reality

according to the specifications. A number of factors determine the quality of the

infrastructure that is actually available to the girls. The research scan unfortunately

shows that most review/evaluation studies have not paid much attention to this aspect

of the program. Information on infrastructure and facilities is largely anecdotal and

descriptive around specific visits and observations. Quantitative information on quality

and adequacy of infrastructure remains confined to small geographic scale. It is difficult

to build a pan India picture from these studies.

Table 5: Infrastructure norms for Government Residential Schools

Norms KGBV JNV ERMS AS

Building/Classrooms Building for 50/100 girls

Yes Sufficient number of classrooms

Yes

Boundary Wall √ √ √ √ Drinking Water √ √ √ √ Electric Installation √ √ √ √ Uniform √ √ Library (Books and Teaching-Learning Materials)

√ √ √ √

School Bag √ Bedding √ √ √ Teachers resource room

√ √

Laboratories √ √ Recreation Room √ √ Sick Room √ √ Housing for teachers and warden

√ √

Dormitories √ √ Warden Office √ √ Kitchen with storage √ √ √ √ Rainwater harvesting √ √ Reliable sewage system

√

Accessible infrastructure

√

Source: Compiled from different scheme documents

(a) Living in Residential Schools: Living space usually consists of dormitory (separate

for boys and girls in case of co-education residential school program) with wooden

planks, storage space and mirror at bedside. There is optimal living space for

girls/children in the form of dormitory. However the range is wide in terms of actual


34 | P a g e

per child allocation of space. In some programs a separate bed and a small storage space

is provided for children to keep their clothes and items for daily use.

KGBV Evaluation Study (GoI 2009) observed in many states, KGBVs were being run in

rented spaces. Out of six sample states, four had very poor infrastructural facilities. In

Assam, it was found, that the government had rented a building where there were

inadequate toilets and the insufficient space. The study also reported that budgets

provided for construction of building was insufficient in the states of Uttarakhand,

Tripura and Jammu and Kashmir.

Review committee for Ashram Schools also noted that there was “dangerous

overcrowding” of students in some schools with inadequate personal space, due to lack

of fixed norms on sharing rooms.

(b) Water, Sanitation and Cleanliness Matters: “The loudest message emanating is that

the overall environment of the camp - infrastructure, cleanliness, hygiene and nutrition

exerts a significant influence on cognitive as well as non-cognitive outcomes. Creating a

conducive learning environment is as important as the actual teaching-learning

process”(Ramachandran 2004).

Some of the earlier studies had observed considerable variation in the infrastructure

and facilities. A study based on visit to Ballika Shiksha Shivirs in Rajasthan observed

that in Pilu Kheda BSS were poorly endowed in terms of facilities and also the worst in

terms of security, cleanliness and overall environment for learning. For all practical

purposes this camp was not residential, students went home to sleep, to have a bath and

often for meals. Vas (Udaipur) was managed indifferently and the quality of hygiene was

poor. Conversely the quality of infrastructure, overall cleanliness, quality of food was

quite exceptional in six of the ten camps visited, notable among them being Pugal, Sam

and Tabiji. (Ramachandran 2004)

The issue of infrastructure and sanitation facilities in girls’ residential schools seems to

somewhat of a lingering issue. A 2007 KGBV Evaluation observed that ‘the condition of

the building, sanitation and availability of toilets and maintenance of buildings remain

big issues. The evaluation team found a number of design inadequacies in the new

buildings, for e.g.: kitchen not provided with storage facilities, platforms, chimney etc.

There is no provision of common room or activity room for girls, store, library, etc. in

the hostel buildings. The plans for the school buildings often do not include provisions

for Head Teachers’ room or teachers’ room, science laboratory, library, store room etc.’

(GoI 2007).


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The 2009 KGBV Evaluation Study conducted in 12 states of India reported that in their

study cleanliness/hygiene issues emerged significantly in Uttarakhand. They found out

that there was improper ventilation, cramped spaces, shortage of toilets and difficulties

in accessing water. It was observed that in one KGBV in Chhattisgarh, girls were going to

the nearby pond to bath and wash clothes and many girls had gastro-intestinal

problems. In West Bengal and Tripura sanitary towels were not being supplied to the

girls and menstrual hygiene was not given adequate attention (GoI 2009).

The availability of safe drinking water and toilet facilities seem to be hugely different in

each of the programs covered in the study. Sanitation units in KGBVs remain a big issue

in some states where girls go out into the field thereby affecting their security. Even

adequate water supply for bathrooms, kitchen and cleaning of premises is a concern in

some states like Bihar and Jharkhand. This may be due to the lack of budget or inability

in prioritizing provision of toilets in rented premises. In one KGBV, the girls went to a

nearby river to bathe and to answer the call of nature, because there were no

bathrooms in the hostel. The quality of construction is also a matter of concern as the

evaluation teams observed newly constructed buildings with severe seepages and

cracks (GoI 2013).

In contrast, there are also well-planned spacious and well-provisioned buildings in

some of the states. The kitchen and toilets are adequate, are kept clean and have

running water. The biggest advantage in some of the residential schools is the

availability of large playgrounds. In fact, in some of the states a minimum area of land

has been provided for establishing the Model I KGBVs, leaving adequate scope for

development. The provision of Rs 40,000 per annum for maintenance has been used for

repairs, procurement of generators etc. But this is inadequate for major repairs or

replacement of fittings, as is required in some older KGBV hostel buildings (GoI 2013).

In most cases the location and outreach of the program by the NGOs, play important

role in the provision of these facilities. For an example programs such as Udaan, MVF

and Doosara Dashak some efforts have been made to ensure safe toilet facilities for

girls. Types of toilet facilities in residential schools range from pit toilet, flush toilet, to

open field. Similarly the bathing facilities include from close door, temporary makeshift

space to open spaces. However in most of the programs there is substantial scope for

improvement for reinforcing desired personal hygiene behaviours. Although there is no

specific mention on the status of drinking water facilities, most of the programs seem to

have borewells and hand pumps as the key source of water including for drinking. In

some programs the running tap water is also available.

The 10th Joint Review Mission recommends revisiting and appropriate revision of the

norms and guidelines of KGBV - financial, physical and others including for design.


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(c) Cooking, Dining and Nutrition: An important requirement of the residential school

program is to provide balanced, nutritious and culturally appropriate food to children.

Some of the reviews have highlighted the adherence or lack of maintaining minimum

standards for the preparation of food. In some programs like Udaan, Kedi Residential

School for Tribal Girls, girls take turns in being on the kitchen management/monitoring

committees. The practice not only helps girls taking on managerial and leadership roles

but also ensures their nutrition awareness and ownership in the program.

The KGBV evaluation teams in 2013 came across students (most of whom are from

socially and economically disadvantaged sections of society) who complained of

persistent hunger and inadequacy of food. Many evaluation team members expressed

concern and shock at the situation they encountered in some of the KGBVs visited –

there was one instance where the girls were beaten for complaining they were hungry,

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