Knudson_tiwanaku Influence in the South Central Andes Strontium Isotope Analysis and MiddleHorizon...

8/14/2019 Knudson_tiwanaku Influence in the South Central Andes Strontium Isotope Analysis and MiddleHorizon Migration

1/22

Society for American Archaeology

Tiwanaku Influence in the South Central Andes: Strontium Isotope Analysis and MiddleHorizon MigrationAuthor(s): Kelly J. KnudsonSource: Latin American Antiquity, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Mar., 2008), pp. 3-23Published by: Society for American ArchaeologyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25478206.

Accessed: 03/03/2011 12:40

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at.http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless

you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you

may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.

Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at .http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=sam..

Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed

page of such transmission.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of

content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms

of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Society for American Archaeologyis collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access toLatin

American Antiquity.

http://www.jstor.org
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=samhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/25478206?origin=JSTOR-pdfhttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=samhttp://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=samhttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/stable/25478206?origin=JSTOR-pdfhttp://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=sam


2/22

TIWANAKU INFLUENCE INTHE SOUTH CENTRAL ANDES:STRONTIUM ISOTOPE ANALYSISANDMIDDLE HORIZON MIGRATIONKelly J.Knudson

Although thepresence of Tiwanaku-style material culture throughout southern Peru, northern Chile, and western Boliviaiswell documented, thenature of Tiwanaku influence during theMiddle horizon (A.D. 500-1100) is variously attributed toimperial expansion or economic and/or religious relationships. Strontium isotope data from archaeological human remains

from Tiwanaku-affiliated sites identifiedfirst-generation immigrants from theLake Titicaca basin outside of theTiwanakuheartland at thePeruvian site ofChen Chen. These data provide an important component to studies thatdemonstrated closebiological relationships during theMiddle horizon but could not demonstrate the direction ofpopulation movement. However, no immigrantsfrom theLake Titicaca basin were identified at the San Pedro de Atacama cemeteries of Coyo Oriental,Coyo-3, and Solcor-3. At the sites of Tiwanaku, Tilata, Iwawe, and Kirawi, strontium isotope ratios were also variable,and demonstrate movement within theLake Titicaca basin. This demonstrates that Tiwanaku influence involved direct colonization in theMoquegua Valley but that inother regions, likeSan Pedro de Atacama, local inhabitants adopted Tiwanakustylematerial culture. This elucidates the complex and highly variable relationships between the Tiwanaku heartland andperipheral sites during theMiddle horizon.Aun cuando lapresencia del estilo Tiwanaku esta bien documentada en el sur de Peru, norte de Chile y el oeste de Bolivia, lanaturaleza de esta influencia durante el horizonte Medio (500-1000 d.C) ha sido atribuida a la expansion imperial o a lasrelaciones economical y/o religiosas. Los datos obtenidos de los isotopos del estroncio de restos humanos arqueologicosprocedentes de sitios defiliacion Tiwanaku identifcaron una primera generacion de migrantes de la cuenca del Titicaca, fuera delnucleo Tiwanaku en el sitio de Chen Chen. Estos analisis muestran una cercania biologica entre laspoblaciones del horizonteMedio aunque no la direccion del flujo poblacional Sin embargo, ningun migrante de la cuenca del lago Titicaca fue identificado en las muestras de los cementerios de Coyo Oriental, Coyo-3, y Solcor-3 en San Pedro de Atacama. En los sitios deTiwanaku, Tilata, Iwawe, yKirawi, los datos isotopicos^ son tambien diversos e indican unmovimiento interno en la cuencadel lago Titicaca. Esto demuestra que Tiwanaku influencio de manera directa la colonizacion del valle deMoquegua pero queen otras regiones,como San Pedro de Atacama, los habitantes locales adoptaron el estilo Tiwanaku en su cultura material.Esto aclara la compleja y altamente variable relacion entre el nucleo de Tiwanaku y los sitios perifericos durante el horizonteMedio.

Despite the clear importance of theTiwanaku polity during theMiddle horizon (A.D. 500-1100), the nature ofTiwanaku influence in theSouth Central Andes isstilldebated. Based on thespreadofTiwanaku-stylematerial culture throughoutsouthernPeru, northernChile andwestern Bolivia, Tiwanaku alternatively has been called an expansionist state, areligious phenomenon, and a center for caravantrade(e.g.,Browman 1984;Dillehay andNunez A.1988; Kolata 1993a; Mujica et al. 1983). Here,strontiumisotope analysis is used to examine thenature ofTiwanaku influenceand its relationship

toTiwanaku residentialmobility by identifyingfirst-generationmigrants from theLake Titicacabasin in otherregions in theSouthCentral Andes.Using strontiumisotope signatures inhuman teethand bone fromvarious Tiwanaku-affiliated sites, Idemonstrate thatthe iwanaku polityutilized bothdirectcolonization at sites such as Chen Chen andmore ephemeral forms f influence n the an Pedrode Atacama oasis.I beginwith a briefdiscussion of thepreviousresearchonTiwanaku residentialmobility and theevidence for iwanaku influencein theSouth Central ndes. I then ntroduce trontiumisotopeanaly

Kelly J.Knudson Center forBioarchaeological Research, School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona StateUniversity, PO Box 872402, Tempe, AZ 85287 ([email protected])

Latin American Antiquity 19(1), 2008, pp. 3-23Copyright ?2008 by the Society forAmerican Archaeology

3


3/22

4 ATIN AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 19, No. 1,2008

PERU IBOLIVIA

'mt^3KKSCHILE\ ARGENTINAFigure 1.Map of the South Central Andes with Tiwanaku-afhTiated sites included in this study.

sis before presenting strontiumisotope data fromarchaeological human tooth namel and bone fromthe following sites: Chen Chen, Coyo Oriental,Coyo-3, Solcor-3, Tiwanaku, Tilata, Kirawi, andIwawe (Figure 1). I conclude with a discussion ofTiwanaku residentialmobility, and the nature ofTiwanaku influence.

The Tiwanaku Polity: Models andMobilityThe widespread distribution fTiwanaku-style artifacts in theSouth Central Andes and therelation

ship between theTiwanaku polity and Tiwanakuaffiliatedperipheral sites have been explained inanumber of ways. Tiwanaku may have been anexpansionist stateor centralized bureaucracy thatestablished colonies throughouttheSouthCentralAndes (Kolata 1982; Kolata 1992, 1993a, 1993b;Ponce Sangines 1972; Stanish 2003). Ifruling litesat thesiteofTiwanaku established colonies togainaccess to valuable resources, first-generationmigrants atTiwanaku-affiliated siteswere colonistssentby the iwanaku polity.This would implythattheTiwanaku politywas an expansionist stateor


4/22

Knudson] TIWANAKU INFLUENCE INTHE SOUTH CENTRAL ANDES 5empire,although the stablishmentof state-directedcolonies is certainly not the only attribute ofempires (e.g., Alcock et al. 2001; Doyle 1986;Sinopoli 1994; Smith andMontiel 2001; Smith andSchreiber 2005).The establishment of colonies and imperialexpansion is,of course, only one ofmyriad waysinwhich groups interact e.g.,Alcock et al. 2001;Given 2004; Gosden 2004; Lightfoot 1995;Lightfoot ndMartinez 1995;Renfrew andCherry 1986;Stein 1999,2005). Some scholars have argued thatthe spread of Tiwanaku material culture is bestexplained by economic and/orreligious influence(Browman 1980, 1984; Dillehay and Nunez A.1988).Here, themovement ofmaterial culturedidnot involve thesettlement fdistantzones by individuals from theTiwanaku heartland.

Inmodels ofTiwanaku political integration hatemphasize therole of theayllu, a self-definedkingroup that sa basic political and social unit in theAndes, residentialmobility andmovement outsideof the ake Titicaca basinwould have notbeen controlledby theTiwanaku polity.For example, JuanAlbarracin-Jordan (1992, 1996, 2003) argues thatthe iwanaku politywas a loosely centralized segmentary state or integratednested hierarchy thatreliedupon ayllu organization, reciprocity, nd ideology rather han irectcontrolof local elites.Otherscholars have similarly mphasized the roleof localcommunities while deemphasizing the role ofTiwanaku state ontrol,particularly inthevast agricultural systems of theLake Titicaca basin (e.g.,Erickson 1988, 1998;Graffam 1990, 1992). If theTiwanaku polity did not utilize direct control bylocal elites,Tiwanaku influence utside of the akeTiticaca basinmay have been characterized by theestablishment of a "vertical archipelago" ofmultiethnic productive colonies (Mujica et al. 1983)based on JohnMurra's (1972,1985a, 1985b) seminal work.

More recently, ome scholars have continued tomove away from globalist or "top-down" perspectives of the expansion of theTiwanaku polity toagency-oriented or "bottom-up" perspectives (e.g.,Goldstein 2000a, 2005; Janusek 1999,2002,2003a,2004a, 2004b, 2005a, 2005b). For example, excavations atmajor Tiwanaku-affiliated sitecomplexesin theMoquegua Valley of southernPeru ledPaulGoldstein (1989,1992,1993) toconclude that hesesiteswere part of a centrallygoverned provincial

system thatprovidedmaize toLake Titicaca basininhabitants. More recently, extensive regional surveys and new data on the development of

Moquegua Valley Tiwanaku enclaves have led totheuse of a diasporic archipelagomodel toexplainthe heterarchical and segmentary nature of theTiwanaku stateand thedevelopment ofTiwanakuaffiliated sites outside of theLake Titicaca basin(Goldstein 2000a, 2005). Owen (2005) has alsoused a two-stage diasporic model to elucidateTiwanaku expansion in theMoquegua and IloValleys. According to these models, first-generation

migrants from theLake Titicaca basin were present in theMoquegua Valley, butwere not sentbytheTiwanaku rulingelites tocolonize thearea.Strontium isotope analysis has great potentialto testthevarious hypotheses regarding thenatureof Tiwanaku influence by identifying firstgenerationmigrants from theTiwanaku heartlandin the southeasternLake Titicaca basin who wereburied in iwanaku-affiliated sites. Iused strontiumisotope analysis to test thehypotheses that individuals buried in theTiwanaku-afflliated sites ofChen Chen, Coyo-Oriental, Coyo-3, and Solcor-3lived in the southeasternLake Titicaca basin duringenamel formation in thefirstyears of life. hepresence offirst-generation igrants fromthe akeTiticaca basin inTiwanaku-affiliated siteswouldsupport the models of Tiwanaku as an expansioniststatewith colonies, a vertical archipelago, or adiasporic archipelago. Only when combined withother lines of evidence can the strontiumisotopeevidence help to distinguish thesemodels of thenature of Tiwanaku influence. Finally, strontiumisotope analysis of individuals buried atTiwanakuand Tiwanaku-affiliated siteswithin theLake Titicaca basin isused to testthehypothesis that iversity ingeographic originswas an important spectofTiwanaku ritual activityatTiwanaku.

Previous Research onTiwanaku Residential Mobility

Multiple lines of evidence have been used to testmodels ofTiwanaku influence. or example, inthemid-altitudeMoquegua Valley, domestic and publicarchitectureaswell as residential andmortuaryartifactassemblages suggest thatthe inhabitants fChen Chen were from or affiliated with theTiwanaku heartland in the Lake Titicaca basin


5/22

6LATIN AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 19, No. 1,2008(Goldstein 1989,1990,1992,1993,2000a, 2000b,2003, 2005; Goldstein andOwen 2001; Moseleyet al. 1991; Owen 2005; Owen and Goldstein2001). This diaspora communityspecialized inproducingmaize forexport to the ake Titicaca basin(Goldstein 2000a, 2005). Similarly, genetic analyses, including biodistance analysis using cranialnonmetric traits and aDNA of human skeletalremains fromChen Chen, shows that thegeneticdistance between the inhabitants fChen Chen andTiwanaku was smallestduring theMiddle horizon(Blom 1999,2005; Blom et al. 1998; Lewis 2005;Lewis et al. 2007; Lewis et al. 2005; Lewis andStone 2005).However, thedirectionofpopulationmovementhas notbeen determined. Inotherwords, decreasedgeneticdistance betweenTiwanaku and Chen Chenmay be the result of individuals fromTiwanakumoving toChen Chen. This would supportamodelofChen Chen as eithera colony or diaspora community of the iwanaku polity.However, as analysisof the ranialmodification stylessuggests (Blom1999, 2005; Blom et al. 1998), decreased geneticdistance could also be theresult f individualsmovingfromChen Chen toTiwanaku.There is also evidence forTiwanaku influencein other regions thatcould have provided midaltitude crops toLake Titicaca basin populations.For example, theCochabamba region of eastern

Bolivia may have been colonized by Tiwanaku,although a cultural,butnotbiological, relationshipmay have existedbetween thetwoareas (Caballero1984; Higueras-Hare 1996, 2001; IbarraGrassoandQuerejazu Lewis 1986;Kolata 1993a;O'Brien2003; Stanish 2003). In addition, there re at leastthreecemeteries in theAzapa Valley of northernChile thatcontain individuals buried with exclusively Tiwanaku-style artifacts, and scholars areusing various lines to evidence to examine theTiwanaku presence, or lack thereof, n thisregion(Goldstein 1996, 2005; Rothhammer et al. 2006;Rothhammer and Santoro 2001; Sutter2000,2005,2006; Sutter andMertz 2003). Current and futureresearch in these regionswill undoubtedly elucidate Tiwanaku influence in these regions.When compared tothearchaeological and bioarchaeological evidence fromtheMoquegua, Azapa,and Cochabamba Valleys, the evidence forTiwanaku influence in theSan Pedro de Atacamaoasis of northernChile is verydifferent. here is

much more evidence that substantial local population coexisted with individuals buried withTiwanaku material culture in San Pedro de Atacama.At cemeteries such as Coyo Oriental, Coyo3, and Solcor-3, there s evidence ofTiwanaku-stylematerial culture suchas snuff ablets, eramics, andtextilesaswell as local artifacts nd foreigngoodsfrom northernChile and northwesternArgentina(Berenguer 1978;Berenguer etal. 1980;Costa Junqueira and Llagostera 1994; Llagostera 1996;Llagostera et al. 1988; Oakland 1986; OaklandRodman 1992, 1994; Oakland Rodman and Fernandez 2000; Stovel 2001, 2002; Torres 1985,1987, 2001, 2005; Torres andConklin 1995). Thetypes of Tiwanaku-style artifacts found in SanPedro de Atacama cemeteries mainly consist ofsmall, portable, and ritually importantartifacts.Given the long caravan trip etween the ake Titicaca basin and San Pedro deAtacama, it sunlikelythat the San Pedro de Atacama region ever contained agricultural colonies affiliated with theTiwanaku polity. Instead, it ismore likely that theimportant mineral resources near the oasis, such asturquoise, lapis lazuli, andmetal ores,were traded,and that he asis was an important

ource forwaterand food on longcaravan trips Stanish 2003; Torres andConklin 1995).

Interpretations f therelationshipbetween SanPedro and Tiwanaku arehighly variable. Based onbiodistance analysis of cranial nonmetric traits,which showed the greatest genetic variability inthe oasis during theMiddle horizon, a Tiwanakupopulationmay have been physically presentat theoasis (Varela 1997; Varela and Cocilovo 2000),while Amy Oakland Rodman (1992) came to thesame conclusion based on her excellent analysis ofmortuary textiles. However, based on mortuaryceramics and cranial modification styles, otherresearchers have argued that there was not aTiwanaku population at the oasis (Stovel 2002;Torres-Rouff2002). It ispossible that he increasedgeneticvariability t thesite resultedfrom ncreasedcaravan traffic and contacts with other regions, notTiwanaku colonization.

In conclusion, previous research on Tiwanakuresidentialmobility has demonstrated close biological and cultural ties between theTiwanakuheartland and other regions in the South Central

Andes. However, Tiwanaku-style artifacts couldbe adopted by local populations and genetic analy


6/22

Knudson] TIWANAKU INFLUENCE IN HE SOUTH CENTRAL ANDES 7ses cannot determine the direction of population

movement. In contrast, strontium isotope analysisprovides complementary informationby identifying irst-generation igrantsfrom the ake Titicacabasin.

Strontium Isotope Analysis: An IntroductionStrontiumisotope analysis can elucidate thenatureofTiwanaku influence in theSouthCentral Andesby identifying ndividualswho lived inor near thesiteofTiwanaku duringchildhood and thenmovedtoand/orwere buried inTiwanaku-affiliated sitesoutside of theLake Titicaca basin. While archaeologists and bioarchaeologists have traditionallyused proxymeasures formigration such as artifactor biodistance analyses, strontium isotope analysis is increasinglyused to identify igrationwithinthehuman skeleton (e.g., Knudson et al. 2005;Montgomery et al. 2005; Price et al. 2006;Wright2005a).

Although strontium oncentrations inbone andtoothenamel vary according to trophic level, thestrontiumisotope ratios in n individual's teeth ndboneswill reflect hestrontiumisotope ratios of thegeologic region or regions thatprovided that ndividual's diet.The strontiumisotoperatios in givengeologic region aredependent on the ge and composition of the bedrock as 87Sr is formed fromradioactive decay of rubidium (87Rb,t]/2= 4.88 X1010years) (Faure 1986a). Because the relativemass differences etween thefourisotopesof strontium (86Sr, 87Sr, 88Sr, and 90Sr) are small, the isotopic composition of strontium snot appreciablyfractionatedduring transportthroughtheecosystem(Aberg 1995;Blum et al. 2000; Faure 1986b).

During the development of teeth and bones,strontium ubstitutesfor alcium inhydroxy patite(Carr et al. 1962; Hodges et al. 1950; Kulp andSchulert 1962). Because strontium scontinuouslyincorporated intobone as itremodels, bone strontium isotope ratios reflectwhere that individuallivedduringbone formation. ortical bone turnoverratesvarywidely and are dependent on the skeletalelement involvedaswell as the ge, sex,health,and activity levels on an individual (e.g., BrancaandRobins 1992;Mulhern 2000;Mulhern andVanGerven 1997). For femora and ribs, the skeletalelements most commonly used in this study, cortical bone turnover rates are approximately 2 per

cent per year and 3.5^4 percent per year, respectively (Carr et al. 1962; Kulp and Schulert 1962;Parfitt1983).On the therhand, tooth namel doesnot incorporate strontium after formation. Forexample, strontium isotope ratios in firstmolartooth namel reflect thegeologic regionor regionsthatsupplied an individual's strontium or thefirst3-4 years of life (Hillson 1986, 1996). Therefore,differences in strontiumisotope ratios inhumantooth enamel and bone can be used to identifymigration and thegeologic origins of immigrants(Ericson 1985,1989; Price et al. 1994; Sealy et al.1991;Sillenetal. 1989).Strontium isotope ratios inhuman tooth nameland bone reflectplace of residence during enameland bone formationonly ifthegeologic region inwhich an individual's high-strontium food wasgrown or raisedwas also theregion inwhich theylived.Therefore, understanding thefood sourcesofthe individuals analyzed is imperative.Nonlocalfood sources can have a variable effect on an individual 's isotopic signature (Bentley 2006). Forexample, relatively small quantities of highstrontiumproducts importedfroma regionwith adramatically different trontiumisotope ratiomaychange the strontiumisotope signature inan individual's tooth namel and bone substantially. lternatively, large quantities of high-strontiumfoodsfrom regionwith a very similar strontiumisotopesignaturewill not substantiallychange her or hisstrontium isotope signature.

Finally, it is necessary to ensure that the boneor tooth enamel was not changed by postdepositional contamination.While bone is susceptible todiagenetic contamination from the burialenvironment, tooth enamel is remarkably resistantto contamination (e.g., Budd et al. 2000; Chiaradia et al. 2003; Ericson 1993;Hedges 2002; LeeThorp 2002; Montgomery et al. 1999; Shellis andDibdin 2000; Sillen 1989).Mechanical and chemical cleaning of archaeological toothenamel andbone can eliminate some of the diagenetic contamination that ccurs (Hoppe et al. 2003; Lambertetal. 1991;Nielsen-Marsh andHedges 2000; Priceet al. 1992; Price et al. 1994; Sillen and LeGros1991; Sillen and Sealy 1995). In addition, severaldifferenttechniques, includingmonitoringuraniumconcentrations and the ratio of calcium tophosphorus (Ca/P), can identify ontaminated samples(Edward and Benfer 1993;Knudson 2004; Kohn


7/22

8LATIN AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 19, No. 1,2008Table 1. Strontium Isotope Data forArchaeological and Modern Fauna Samples.

Laboratory SpecimenorrectedRegion(Site)_Number_Number_Material_87Sr/86Sr

Moquegua Valley (Moquegua) F1027 MOQ-005A guinea pig bone (modern) .706184Moquegua Valley (Moquegua) F1028 MOQ-009A guinea pig bone (modern) .706452Moquegua Valley (Moquegua) F1029 MOQ-014A guinea pig bone (modern) .706121San Pedro de Atacama (Quitor-6) F1635 QT6-0018 mouse bone (archaeological) .707659San Pedro de Atacama (Quitor-6) F1636 QT6-0033 dog bone (archaeological) .707762San Pedro de Atacama (Quitor-6) F1714 SPA-0001 guinea pig bone (modern) .707511Titicaca Basin (Achuta) F1912IW-005A guinea pig bone (modern) .709877Titicaca Basin (Achuta) F1717IW-006A guinea pig bone (modern) .709304Titicaca Basin (Chiripa) F1024HIR-001A guinea pig bone (modern) .709291Titicaca Basin (Lukurmata) F1025KM-002A guinea pig bone (modern) .710561Titicaca Basin (Tiwanaku) F1026IW-001A guinea pig bone (modern) .709368Titicaca Basin (Tiwanaku) F1718IW-0007 guinea pig bone (modern) .709545Titicaca Basin (Yanarico)_F1715_TIW-003A_guinea pig bone (modern)_.709562

et al. 1999;Nielsen-Marsh andHedges 2000; Priceet al. 2002).Strontium Isotope Analysis: Field

Methodology and Sampling StrategyFor each individual included in this study, t leastone toothenamel sample, preferablya firstmolar,was collected. When available, a rib or femoralfragmentwas also collected. At each site, 10-15percentof the ndividualswho were included inprevious biodistance and cranialmodification studieswere included in thisstudy (Blom 1999; Cocilovoand Zavattieri 1994; Costa Junqueira andLlagostera 1994; Neves et al. 1999;Varela 1997;Varela and Cocilovo 2000). Individualswere chosen for inclusion in this study througha randomsampling strategy esigned to reflect thecemeteries' age and sex compositions. Although this strategywas designed toaccurately reflect hemortuarypopulation at each site, it is expected thatfirstgeneration migrants will be underrepresented inthisstudy. his studycan identify nly individualswho migrated froma geologic zone with a different strontiumisotope signature than the zone inwhich theywere buried during enamel formation.In addition, individualswhose ancestorsmigratedfrom the Lake Titicaca basin may have selfidentifiedas Tiwanaku-affiliated butwill not beidentified s first-generation igrants according totheirstrontiumisotope signatures.Modern and archaeological smallmammal samples, mostly guinea pigs, from the study regionswere also analyzed toprovide thebiologically avail

able strontiumisotope signaturesfrom ach region(Table 1).The animals' owners provided information about the animals' life histories and foodsources.When possible, animals raised on foodsgrown in thesame or similaragriculturalfield systemsthat ere used in the iddle horizonwere collected. When modern guinea pigs were notavailable, archaeological small mammals were ana

lyzed.Strontium Isotope Analysis:Laboratory Methods

Tooth and bone samples were mechanically andchemically cleaned and prepared for analysis intheLaboratory forArchaeological Chemistry at theUniversity ofWisconsin atMadison byK.J. Knudson, as described elsewhere (Knudson and Price2007; Knudson et al. 2004; Knudson et al. 2005).K.J. Knudson and P.D. Fullagar obtained the strontium isotope ratios using aVG Sector 54 thermalionizationmass spectrometer TIMS) at theIsotopeGeochemistry Laboratory in theDepartment ofGeological Sciences at theUniversity ofNorthCarolina at Chapel Hill.1 Diagenetic contaminationwas monitored through uranium concentrations andCa/P ratiosobtainedbyK.J.Knudson and J.H.Burtonusing a Finnegan Element inductively coupledplasma?mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) and anApplied Research Labs Model 3520 inductivelycoupled plasma?atomic emission spectrometer(ICP-AES) in theLaboratory forArchaeologicalChemistry at theUniversity ofWisconsin atMadison.2The tooth namel data presentedhere did not


8/22

Knudson] TIWANAKUNFLUENCEN HE SOUTHCENTRAL NDES 9exhibit evidence of diagenetic contamination,although some bone samples did, as will be discussed below.

Baseline Strontium Isotope Datafrom the South Central Andes

Geologic Data from theSouth Central AndesThe SouthCentralAndes exhibit broad patternsofgeologic variability thatmake strontium isotopeanalysis feasible.The Tiwanaku heartland is locatedin the southeasternLake Titicaca basin and is bordered by theCordillera Blanca and theCordilleraReal, which are composed ofPaleozoic andesites,sandstones,and redmudstones (Argollo etal. 1996;Binford and Kolata 1996; Lavenu 1991; RodrigoandWirrmann 1991).The bedrock in the iwanakuRiver basin,where thesitesofTiwanaku andTilataare located, is composed of igneous basalts andandesites and isoverlain byup to 10-20m ofQuaternary luvial and lacustrinesediments (Argollo etal. 1996; Binford and Kolata 1996; Lavenu 1991;Rodrigo andWirrmann 1991). Surfacewater fromLake Titicaca exhibited 87Sr/86Sr .7082-.7085(Grove et al. 2003). Similarly, 20 samples fromfoursedimentcores takenfrom ake Titicaca werecharacterized by 87Sr/86Sr .7083-.7087 (Grove etal. 2003).

In contrast, the Cenozoic volcanic rocks, predominately andesites,where Chen Chen and SanPedro de Atacama are located, exhibit strontiumisotope signatures that re lower than those foundin thealluvial deposits of theLake Titicaca basin(Figure 2) (Argollo et al. 1996;Grove et al. 2003;Hawkesworth etal. 1982; James 1982;Rogers andHawkesworth 1989). Samples of exposed bedrocksamples from the an Pedro de Atacama regionare87Sr/86Sr .7062-.7068 (Rogers andHawkesworth1989). Farther north in theMoquegua Valley ofsouthernPeru, exposed bedrock range exhibits87Sr/86Sr .7055-.7068 (Hawkesworth etal. 1982;James 1982; Rogers and Hawkesworth 1989).

Finally, thestrontiumisotope signature inseawater is 87Sr/86Sr .7092 (Veizer 1989). Therefore,populations consuming large quantities ofmarine products will have strontium isotoperatios thatreflectthisvalue instead of or incombination with a terrestrialstrontium isotope signature.

Faunal Data from theSouth Central AndesThe strontium isotope values found in geologicanalyses of exposed bedrock and groundwaterresemble the strontiumisotope ratios inmodernfauna fromtheregions included inthisstudy Priceet al. 2002). Analysis ofmodern and archaeological small mammal bones from the southeasternLake Titicaca basin, theMoquegua Valley and theSan Pedro deAtacama oasis supportthestrontiumisotope ratios from thegeologic literature(Figure2,Table 1) (Knudson 2004; Knudson et al. 2004).By taking themean of theguinea pig bone strontium isotope data and adding and subtractingtwostandard deviations (Price et al. 2002), the localrangesof thestrontiumisotope isotopes signaturesfor theregions included inthisstudy reas follows:87Sr/86Sr = .7087-.7105 for the southeastern LakeTiticaca basin, 87Sr/86Sr .7074-.7079 for theSanPedro deAtacama region, and 87Sr/86Sr .7059.7066 for theMoquegua Valley. The strontium sotope signatures for the southeasternLake Titicacabasin, theSan Pedro deAtacama region, and the

Moquegua Valley aredistinct ndnon-overlapping,and are similar to thepublished geologic values.The comparison of archaeological and modernfaunal strontium isotope data with data from thegeologic literatures themost commonway to iden

tify mmigrants in the strontiumisotope archaeological literature.owever, one of thekeyquestionsinstrontiumisotope analysis involves thedetermination of local signatures (Bentley 2006; Price etal. 2002;Wright 2005b). Although mean archaeological human bone values have been used, theprevalence ofdiagenetic contamination could causean artificiallynarrow "local" signature (Bentley etal. 2004). When available, archaeological toothenamel from small mammals will provide an average of thebiologically available strontiumisotoperatios in theirdiet catchment area (Bentley et al.2004). In theAndes, the lack of a largenumber ofmammals with large teeth and relatively smallranges, like the sheep and pigs used in studies ofGerman Neolithic sites,make thismore difficult.Ingeneral, thedeterminationof local signaturesfora given population iscomplex and requires severalindependent linesof evidence.Although themeanof themodern and archaeological faunalvalues arepredominately used in this study, lternativedefinitions of localwill be discussed for each population in the sections thatfollow.


9/22

10 ATIN AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 19, No. 1, 2008

,;'-.''v^^^Slir-~I-^K^v^w;iv^*>_ / 87 c? _^___________H_1______H_B^_____(l

"''"' ' _^y_^HJ^^H_îî-i-^^?^ ^___________________________________k

>-;->c'-'-k?\^Sfî%iA-s^^^Sl?^^^^^^^^\ ^________________8_HH____HI__boiLro Paaiia ll^Slia,-.,?--:r$fi ;|:;:vft#4|^^^^S^P^*\ ^_____Hfl___HH____________B-<


10/22

Knudson] TIWANAKU INFLUENCE INTHE SOUTH CENTRAL ANDES 11marine subsistencebase (Sandness 1992;Tomczak2001, 2003). In addition, the botanical remainsexcavated from Chen Chen are predominatelymaize with smaller amounts ofhigh-altitudecropssuch as tubers, while faunal remains are predominately terrestrial ith little vidence ofmarine foodsources (Goldstein 1995). Therefore, it sunlikelythathigh strontium isotope ratios at Chen Chenwould be the result fhigh amounts ofmarine foodconsumption. In addition, because themid-valleyregion contains prime agricultural land formidaltitude crops such asmaize, it ishighly unlikelythat maize was imported. Maize kernels are relatively ow incalcium, and hence strontium, o it ismost likelythat hemajority of strontium n thedietof individuals at Chen Chen came from locallygrownplants other thanmaize. It isunlikely, therefore, that significantamounts of strontiumcamefrom foods traded in from regions outside theMoquegua Valley.InSan Pedro deAtacama, thelongdistance fromSan Pedro toother iwanaku-affiliated sitesand theideal agricultural conditions in theoasis make ithighly unlikely that significantamounts of foodwere being traded into the oasis. Paleodiet reconstructions can test this hypothesis. Botanicalmacroremains found in San Pedro de Atacamatombs show the presence of maize and algarroba,which were most likely locally grown, as well ascamelid bones and freshwater hells from theeastern slopes of theAndes or thePacific (Costa Junqueira and Llagostera 1994; Oakland Rodman1992).Although theanimal products could introduce nonlocal strontium isotope signatures, it ismost likelythatthemajority of the strontium amefrom local food sources.

Finally, in theLake Titicaca basin there is evidence for theconsumption of both lower altitudecrops, including maize and far-ranging camelids aswell as local plant foods such as tubers nd quinoa(Berrymanet al. 2006;Webster 1993;Webster andJanusek 2003; Wright et al. 2003). Because thecamelids consumed at Basin siteswere typicallyyoung (Webster 1993;Webster and Janusek2003),they re unlikely tohave been specialized caravanllamas from the eastern orwestern slopes of theAndes. As previously discussed, althoughmaize ispresent, its ernels have little trontium. herefore,themost likely sources for strontiumin theLakeTiticaca basin are locally grown foods.

Archaeological Strontium IsotopeData from the South Central AndesStrontium isotope analysis was performed onarchaeological human toothenamel from individuals buried at theMoquegua Valley site ofChenChen and from theSan Pedro de Atacama cemeteriesofCoyo Oriental, Coyo-3, and Solcor-3 totestthehypothesis that these siteswere inhabitedinpart by individuals who immigratedfrom theLake Titicaca basin. As previously discussed,10-15 percent of the individuals included inprevious biodistance and cranialmodification studieswere included in thisstudy (Blom 1999;Cocilovoand Zavattieri 1994; Costa Junqueira andLlagostera 1994;Neves et al. 1999;Varela 1997;Varela andCocilovo 2000).StrontiumResults ofArchaeological HumanRemains from Chen ChenAs defined throughmodern fauna, the local rangeis 87Sr/86Sr .7059-.7066 for theMoquegua Valley. Strontium isotope ratios in archaeologicalhuman toothenamel from theTiwanaku-affiliatedsite of Chen Chen show four individuals, allfemales, of the25 individuals analyzed with strontium isotope ratios that re clearly outside of thislocal range (Ml-3840 [87Sr/86Sr .708843],MlS/NB092 [87Sr/86Sr .709995],Ml-0036 [87Sr/86Sr= .714404], andMl-2947, [87Sr/86Sr .719211])(Figure 3,Table 2).A subset of 10 archaeological bone sampleswere analyzed inorder to test thehypothesis thatthe individuals buried at Chen Chen lived thereduring the lastyears of their ives (Figure4). Onlyone of the 10 individuals sampled had a bone strontium isotope signature that was clearly outside ofthe local range as defined by modern fauna(87Sr/86Sr .7059-.7066). This male had a bonestrontiumisotope signature higher than the localMoquegua Valley signature (M1 -1600 (87Sr/86Sr.708850). Given the xcellent preservationatChenChen, it is not surprisingthat these bone samplesdid not exhibit thehighuranium concentrationsoranomalous Ca/P ratios indicative fdiagenetic contamination.StrontiumResults ofArchaeological HumanRemains from San Pedro de AtacamaEnamel strontiumisotope signaturesfromtheSan


11/22

12 ATIN AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 19, No. 1, 2008

87Sr^6Srfrom Archaeological Tooth Enamel from Tiwanaku-Affiliated Sites in the South Central AndesTiwanaku Tilata, Coyo riental Coyo-3 Solcor-3henhenKirawi,0719 Iwawe

0.7180.7170.7160.7150.714

? 0.713&? 0.712

0.711_____P_^____ ___?,__?__

0.709 __ H IH I 11^ -^ :.| ?..


12/22

Knudson] TIWANAKU INFLUENCE INTHE SOUTH CENTRAL ANDES 13Table 2. Strontium Isotope Data forArchaeological Human Remains Sampled.

Laboratory Specimen Age CorrectedSite(Sector)_Number_Number_(years)a_Sexa Material 87Sr/86SrcMoquegua Valley Chen hen1015 Ml-0681 50-80 MRC706786

Chen hen1700 Ml-0681 50-80 Memur .706985ChenChen1016 Ml-1600 40-45 MLM1706932Chen hen1701 Ml-1600 40-45 Memur .708850

Chen hen1017 Ml-3660-1 30-44 FRM1706726ChenChen1702 Ml-3660-1 30-44 Fib .707004Chen hen1018 Ml-3718 50-80 FRC706992Chen hen1703 Ml-3718 50-80 Fib .706861ChenChen1019 Ml-3840 35-39 FLM1708843

Chen hen1704 Ml-3840 35-39 F ulna .707004Chen Chen1020 M1-S/NB092 25-35 FRM1709995ChenChen1705 M1-S/NB092 25-35 Fib .707165

ChenChen1201 Ml-0016 50-70 FLM1706562ChenChen1205 Ml-2947 50-80 FRM1719211Chen hen1204 Ml-2947 50-80 Fib .707688ChenChen1207 Ml-3154 40-59 MRM1706921Chen hen1206 Ml-3154 40-59 Mib706642

Chen Chen1209 M1-S/NK380 40-50 FLM1 .707422Chen Chen1208 M1-S/NK380 40-50 Fib .707109

ChenChen1203 Ml-2115 35-49 Fl707128Chen hen1966 Ml-2622-1 30-70 MLM1707362

Chen Chen1968 Ml-3472 19-24 MRM1707031ChenChen1970 Ml-3527 15-18 SALM1 .706702

Chen Chen1972 Ml-0036 40-50 FLM1714404Chen hen1974 Ml-2762 19-21 PFLM1708186

Chen Chen1976 Ml-2068 18-21 FLM1707136ChenChen1978 Ml-2296 40-50 MLM1707810ChenChen1980 Ml-1370 35-45 MRM1706785ChenChen1982 Ml-3833 30-35 Ml707048ChenChen1984 Ml-3768 20-34 FLM1707191

Chen hen1986 Ml-3536 19-22 PFRM1 .706700ChenChen1988 Ml-3747 12-17 SARM1706844ChenChen1990 Ml-0086 40-60 FRM1706887Chen Chen1998 Ml-0572 35-39 FRM1707087San Pedro de Atacama Oasis

Coyo-31652 CO3-0001 40-44 MRM1707608Coyo-31654 CO3-0005 30-34 MRM1707704Coyo-31656 CO3-0016 45-49 MRM1707526

Coyo-31658 CO3-0023 (13363) 40-44 FLM1 .707712Coyo-31661 CO3-0032 (13576) 25-29 F LLM2707653

Coyo-31662 CO3-0035 (13608) 30-34 MLM1 .707782Coyo-31664 CO3-0035 (13611) 30-34 FM1707641

Coyo-31666 CO3-0045 19-20 FLM1 .707667Coyo-31668 CO3-0046 40-44 MRM2 .706845

Coyo Oriental F1637 CO-3978 40-44 MLM2707773Coyo Oriental F1638 CO-3981 45-49 MLM1707628Coyo Oriental F1639 CO-3996 35-39 FRM2707825Coyo Oriental F1641 CO-4049 35-39 MRM1707023Coyo Oriental F1642 CO-4064 35-39 MLM2707690Coyo Oriental F1643 CO4090 35-39 MRM1708171Coyo Oriental F1644 CO-4093 40-44 MLM1707713Coyo Oriental F1645 CO4150 40-44 FRM2707862Coyo Oriental F1649 CO-5377 35-39 FRP2707879Coyo Oriental F1651 CO-5383 40-44 MRM1707684Solcor-31670 SC3-0005 35-39 MRM1708206


13/22

14 ATIN AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 19,No. 1, 2008Table 2 (continued). Strontium Isotope Data forArchaeological Human Remains Sampled.

Laboratory Specimen AgeorrectedSite(Sector)_Number_Number_(years)a Sexa Material 87Sr/86SrcSolcor-31671 SC3-0006 (1078) 25-29 MLM1 .707892Solcor-31673 SC3-0006 (1080) 50-54 FLM1 .707663Solcor-31675 SC3-0008 40-44 FRM2707725

Solcor-31677 SC3-0012 20-24 MLM1708015Solcor-31678 SC3-0016 20-24 FLM1707823

Solcor-31679 SC3-0020 30-34 MRM1707975Solcor-31680 SC3-0027 40^4 FLM1707580Solcor-31681 SC3-0050 40-44 MRM1712522Solcor-31684 SC3-0052 30-34 MLM1708204Solcor-31686 SC3-0055 30-34 MLM1708118Solcor-31688 SC3-0067 30-34 MRM1707699

Solcor-31690 SC3-0069 30-34 MRM2708072Solcor-31692 SC3-0078 40-44 MLM1707837

Solcor-31694 SC3-0106 fardo fardo LLM1708093Solcor-31695 SC3-0117 25-29 MRM1708052

Lake Titicaca BasinIwawe1199 LVIW-0001 44-49 FRI1 .708850

Kirawi1195 CK65-1130 20-30 MRM1 .712800Kirawi1191 CK65-1027 20-25 FRM1 .707800Kirawil 193 CK65-1100 12-15 PM LLM1709462

Kirawi1197 CK65-1691 35-45 FLM1710790Tilata1217 TMV101-0392 20-34 FRM1 .708223

Tilata1216 TMV101-0392 20-34 Flongbone .709684 cTiwanaku (Akapana East) F1012 AKE-20727 18-21 FRM1710334Tiwanaku (Akapana East) F1013 AKE-8908 18-21 PMRM1 .710907Tiwanaku (Akapana) F1189 AK-4931 17-30 PFRI2 .716256Tiwanaku (Akapana) F1188 AK-4931 17-30 PFib709595Tiwanaku (Akapana) F1187 AK-12149 50-59 MRM1709513Tiwanaku (Ch'iji Jawira) F1014 CJ-35250 30-39 FRI1 .709674Tiwanaku (Mollu Kontu) F1021 MK-29412 22-24 FLM1708320Tiwanaku (Mollu Kontu) F1213 MK-39788 40-60 FLM1708478Tiwanaku (Putuni) F1215 PUT-20995 20-24 FLM1709523Tiwanaku (Putuni) F1022 PUT-24106 20-29 MRM1711303Tiwanaku (Putuni) F1707 PUT-24106 20-29 Mib709891 cTiwanaku (Putuni) F1023 PUT-25785-1 18-21 FLM1711758Tiwanaku (Putuni)_F1708_PUT-25785-1_18-21_F_rib_.709731aThe age and sex of the individuals included in this studywere determined by Drs. Deborah E. Blom and Maria AntoniettaCosta Junqueira (Blom 1999; Costa Junqueira and Llagostera 1994). Here, the following abbreviations are used: F=female,M=male, PF=probable female, PM= probable male, SA=subadult, and fardo=unsexed and unwrapped mummy bundle.bTooth enamel samples are identified by the location in themandible ormaxilla (L or U), side (R or L), tooth type, andposition, so thatLRM1 identifies a lower right firstmolar.cThese bone samples exhibited signs of diagenetic contamination through either high uranium concentrations and/or anomalous Ca/P ratios, as discussed in the text.Therefore, it is possible thatbiogenic strontium isotope ratios in these bone samples were higher or lower than the diagenetic signature here.

Finally, enamel and bone strontiumisotope signatureswere obtained from the ake Titicaca basinsites ofKirawi (CK-65), Iwawe, and Tilata. At theKatari Valley siteofKirawi, twoof four individuals analyzed had enamel strontiumisotope ratiosoutside of the southernLake Titicaca basin localrange (CK65-1100 [87Sr/86Sr .709462], andCK65-1691 [87Sr/86Sr=710790]). In the iwanaku

Valley, theenamel strontiumisotope signature inone individual buried at Iwawe was within thesoutheastern ake Titicaca basin signature LVIW1 [^Sr/^Sr = .708850]). At theTiwanaku Valleysite ofTilata, the enamel strontiumisotope signaturewas justbelow thesoutheastern ake Titicacabasin signature (TMV101-392 [87Sr/86Sr =.708223]), while the strontiumisotope signature


14/22

Knudson] TIWANAKU INFLUENCE INTHE SOUTH CENTRAL ANDES 15

7Sr/8 r from Archaeological Human Tooth Enamel and Bone from Tiwanaku-AffiliatedSites in the South Central Andes0.720 |- -?- -iTiwanaku ilata Chen Chen0.7190.7180.7170.7160.7150.714

? 0.713ST 0.712

Figure 4. Strontium isotope ratios from archaeological bone-human tooth enamel samples from Tiwanaku-affiliated sitesin the South Central Andes; for each bone-tooth pair, the enamel value is dark grey and the bone value is striped. Thehorizontal bar represents the local range in the southeastern Lake Titicaca basin as determined by themean ofmodernfaunal strontium isotope ratios plus and minus two standard deviations.

from rib fragmentwas within the local signature(TMV101-392 [87Sr/86Sr .709684]). Althoughthe uranium concentration in this sample was belowthedetection limits f the ICP-MS, Ca/P = 2.19 sosome diagenetic strontium may be present.

Interpretations of Strontium Isotope DatafromTiwanaku-Affiliated SitesAny individualwith enamel strontiumisotope signatures thatmatch theLake Titicaca basin signature, as defined by modern fauna (87Sr/86Sr.7087-7105), most likely lived inthe southeasternLake Titicaca basin duringenamel formation in thefirstyears of life.Two of the 25 individuals analyzed from Chen Chen (Ml-3840 [87Sr/86Sr.708843],andMl-S/NB092[87Sr/86Sr=.709995])clearlyexhibit strontiumisotope ratios that re nonlocal forChen Chen but local for the southeastern

Lake Titicaca basin (Figure 3,Table 2). The presence of first-generation migrants supports thehypothesis that hen Chen was inhabitedby indi

viduals from the Lake Titicaca basin. There arealso two individuals (Ml-2762 [87Sr/86Sr=.708186], and Ml-2296 [87Sr/86Sr .707810])whose values are high enough thattheymay represent an average of the two areas. These two individuals may have moved between the two zoneson the

regular basis,or may have consumed largeamounts of imported,high-strontiumfoods fromthe ake Titicaca basin in ddition to locallygrown

foods.The twofemales whose tooth namel strontium

isotope values were within the local range of theLake Titicaca basin (Ml-3840 [87Sr/86Sr=.708843], andMl-S/NB092 [87Sr/86Sr= 709995])have bone strontium isotope signatures that weremuch lower (Ml-3840 [87Sr/86Sr .707004], andM1-S/NB092 [87Sr/86Sr .707165]). Interestingly,onemale had enamel strontiumisotope ratios (M1 -1600 [87Sr/86Sr .706932]) that ndicated a childhood spent inor nearChen Chen, thoughhis bonestrontium isotope ratios (Ml-1600 [87Sr/86Sr.708850]) were within thelocal rangefor the south


15/22

16LATIN AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 19, No. 1, 2008easternLake Titicaca basin. It is likely,then, thatthisman spenthis adulthood in the southeasternLake Titicaca basin and thenreturned o hen Chenshortlybefore or afterdeath.

Finally, althoughnone of the individualsburiedatChen Chen have strontiumisotope ratioswithinthe local value, as determined bymodern guineapig, or cuy (87Sr/86Sr .7059-.7066) (see alsoKnudson etal. 2004), it shighly unlikely that heseindividualswere allmigrants to the site. It ismorelikely that the range of local terrestrialsignaturesin theMoquegua mid-valley region is larger thanthe small rangerepresentedby theguinea pigs here,and that thehuman bone and enamel fromChenChen more accurately representsthe diet ofChenChen inhabitants. n fact,themean of all strontiumisotope tooth enamel values, excluding the fourobvious nonlocal signatures,is 87Sr/86Sr .707059? .000385 (la, n = 21). This is slightlyhigherthan themean of themodern guinea pig strontiumisotope signatures,which is Sr/^Sr = .706252 ?.000175 (la, n = 3), although both are withinexpected and observed strontium isotope signatures in the lateCenozoic volcanic rocks of southernPeru and northern hile (e.g.,Hawkesworth etal. 1982; James 1982; Rogers and Hawkesworth1989). In thiscase, it ismost likely that themeanhuman strontium isotope signature better represents the local signature, nd thedietary strontiumsources, of Chen Chen inhabitants. As such, onlythe ive individualspreviouslydiscussed as outliersinthe hen Chen dataset should be considered nonlocal.

Therefore, there are at least three individualswho spent thefirst r lastyears of their ives in thesoutheasternLake Titicaca basin yetwere buriedatChen Chen. However, these individuals cannotbe distinguished fromother individuals buried atChen Chen based on cranial modification style,mortuary artifacts,tomb type, r tomb location. Inotherwords, only strontiumisotope ratios distinguish first-generationmigrants from the ake Titicaca basin who were buried at Chen Chen. Inaddition, even though strontiumisotope analysisshould underestimate ratesofmigration, thenumber of individuals atChen Chen who are identifiedasmigrants from theLake Titicaca basin is small.Because Chen Chen was not inhabited by largenumbers of first-generation migrants, it appearsthat hen Chen was notpopulated by a largeor con

stantflow of people from the ake Titicaca basin.Instead,Chen Chen was likely sustained over thegenerations throughlocal population growthwitha smaller influx of Tiwanaku migrants. Larger sample sizes are necessary to test thehypothesis thatChen Chen maintained or strengthened ties toTiwanaku through regular influx f femalemarriage partnersfromthe ake Titicaca basin. However, it is clear thatTiwanaku influence in theMoquegua Valley involvedmigration fromthe akeTiticaca basin,which would supportthemodels oftheTiwanaku polity as an expansionist state,vertical archipelago, or a diasporic archipelago.In contrast,strontiumisotope ratios fromtoothenamel from an Pedro deAtacama cemeteries donot show any individualswith Lake Titicaca basinsignatures (Figure 3,Table 2). In fact, inadditionto the lack ofLake Titicaca basin signatures, thispopulation also exhibits very homogenous strontiumisotope signatures,which rangefrom87Sr/86Sr= .706845-.708171 with theexception of theoutlierSC3-0050 (87Sr/*6Sr .7172522) (see TorresRouff and Knudson 2007). This suggests thatthevastmajority of individuals buried in thecemeteries ofCoyo Oriental, Coyo-3, and Solcor-3 sharethe same geographic origin. Because individualsburied withTiwanaku material culturearenotfirstgeneration migrants from the southeastern LakeTiticaca basin, thisweakens the argument thatasubstantialpopulation fromthe ake Titicaca basincoexisted with a local population at San Pedro deAtacama and insteadsupportsmodels ofTiwanakuinfluence thatrely on religious and/or economicinfluence rather than direct colonization.

In the an Pedro deAtacama cemeteriesofCoyoOriental, Coyo-3, and Solcor-3, Tiwanaku-stylemortuary artifacts annot be used to identify irstgenerationmigrants from the southeasternLakeTiticaca basin. For example,while a 40-44 yearoldmale atCoyo-Oriental was buriedwith aTiwanakustyle snuff tablet,he was not a first-generation

migrant fromthesoutheasternLake Titicaca basin(CO-4093 (87Sr/86Sr .707713)) (Torres 1987).Instead, inhabitants f theoasis may have utilizedTiwanaku-style mortuary artifacts s they doptedTiwanaku ethnicor religious identity ithout biological ties to theTiwanaku heartland (see alsoKnudson 2004, 2007).

Finally, themortuarypopulation atTiwanaku isnot a typical cemetery population, and therefore


16/22

Knudson] TIWANAKU INFLUENCE IN HE SOUTH CENTRAL ANDES 17cannot be used to compare thegeographic originof Tiwanaku inhabitants to other Tiwanakuaffiliatedsites,although continuing excavations atTiwanaku may providemore individualswho werenot buried as offerings. In contrast to the largecemeteries at Chen Chen and in San Pedro, theindividuals interredat Tiwanaku include humansacrifices on theAkapana pyramid, dedicatoryofferings in areas such as the Putuni sector andpatio orhousehold burials found inresidentialareasliketheAkapana East (Coutureand Sampeck 2003;Janusek 2003a; Manzanilla 1992). Interestingly,one nonlocal individualwas sacrificed in a verypublic and violent eventon theAkapana (AK-4931[87Sr/86SrJ16256]) (Blom et al. 2003; Knudsonet al. 2004). Two other individuals whose toothenamel strontium isotope signatures are outside ofthe southeastern ake Titicaca basin signaturewereburied in thePutuniComplex, andwere identifiedas dedicatory offerings PUT-25785-1 [87Sr/86Sr.711758] and PUT-24106 [87Sr/86Sr .711303])(Couture and Sampeck 2003). The one individualsampled from the hi' ijiJawirasectoratTiwanakuhad a local southeastern Lake Titicaca basin signature,despite ceramic evidence of a potential relationshipwith the eastern yungas (Janusek 1994,2003a, 2003b; Rivera Casanovas 2003). In addition,residentialmobilitywas higher thanexpectedat the southern ake Titicaca basin sites ofKirawi(CK-65), Iwawe and Tilata (Figure 3,Table 2); thisimplies a high amount of residentialmobility atLake Titicaca basin sites during theMiddle horizon and earlier Formative periods.

ConclusionBy identifying irst-generationmigrants from thesoutheastern ake Titicaca basin who were buriedinTiwanaku-affiliated sites throughouttheSouthCentral Andes, it is possible to use these data toreconstructthehighlyvariable natureofTiwanakuinfluenceduring the iddle horizon.At Chen Chenthere s clear evidence thatmigrants fromthe southernLake Titicaca basin lived andwere buried at thesite.However, thepresence of at least two firstgenerationTiwanaku migrants atChen Chen doesnot suggest a largeor constant flowofpeople fromthe ake Titicaca basin, and it smore likely thatsmall Tiwanaku-derived population migrated toChen Chen. The presence of first-generation

migrants fromthe ake Titicaca basin atChen Chensupportsmodels of theTiwanaku polity as anexpansionist state or empire, a vertical archipelago,or a diasporic archipelago.However, multiple linesof evidence, including the strontiumisotope data,increasingly support the diasporic model ofTiwanaku influence ntheMoquegua Valley (Goldstein2005).In contrast,thenatureofTiwanaku influence intheoasis of San Pedro deAtacama did not includedirect colonization. Strontium isotope analysis didnot identify ny individuals who had lived in theLake Titicaca basin as children and thenmigratedtoSan Pedro. This implies that local atacamenosadopted Tiwanaku material culture in order tostrengthen economic and/or religious ties. Giventhe prevalence of portable, ritually importantTiwanaku-style artifacts nSan Pedro de Atacama(e.g., Llagostera et al. 1988; Oakland Rodman1992;Torres 1987; Torres andConklin 1995), thestrontiumisotope andmaterial culturedata supportamodel ofTiwanaku influence n an Pedro deAtacama that nvolves shared ideologies butnotmigration.

Finally, strontiumisotoperesultsfromthesouthernLake Titicaca basin demonstrate a higher thanexpected degree of residentialmobility at smallerTiwanaku-affiliated sites.These data also illustratethepotential of strontiumisotope analysis to elucidate Tiwanaku ritual activityby identifying hegeographic originof individuals interred s humansacrifices.

In conclusion, strontium isotope analysis hasdemonstrated thecomplex and variable nature ofTiwanaku influence throughoutthe South CentralAndes. Strontium isotope analysis supports thedirect colonization of theMoquegua Valley by theTiwanaku polity, either through imperial expansion or,more likely,throughtheestablishment ofa diasporic archipelago. However, inthe an Pedrode Atacama oasis, Tiwanaku religious influencewas not accompanied by themigration of individuals fromtheLake Titicaca basin. Future isotopicanalyses ofarchaeological human remainswill continue to elucidate Tiwanaku residentialmobilityand political integration.Acknowledgments. This project was funded by theNationalScience Foundation (BCS-0202329 and SBR-9708001),Geological Society ofAmerica, American Chemical SocietyWomen Chemists Committee, and the University of


17/22

18LATIN AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 19, No. 1, 2008Wisconsin at Madison Latin American Studies andAnthropology Departments. Archaeological human remainsfrom Tiwanaku were excavated through the Proyecto WilaJawira and grants awarded to Alan L. Kolata (NationalScience Foundation BNS-8607541, BNS-8805490, DEB9212641; National Oceanic andAtmospheric AdministrationGC-95-174; National Endowment for theHumanities RO21806-88, RO-21368-86). Bioarchaeological analyses atTiwanaku and Chen Chen was funded by aWenner-GrenFoundation forAnthropological Research Grant (grant number 5863) toDeborah E. Blom. Finally, Iwould like to thankthe following individuals and institutions forproviding contextual information, laboratory and museum access, and/orlogistical support: Deborah E. Blom, JaneE. Buikstra, JamesH. Burton, Centro de Investigaciones Arqueologicas de

Arequipa, Cerro Verde, Jose Cocilovo, Maria AntoniettaCosta Junqueira, Nicole Couture, Paul Fullagar, AgustinLlagostera, Amy Oakland Rodman, T. Douglas Price,Proyecto Arqueologico Pumapunku-Akapana, PaulaTomczak, Christina Torres-Rouff, Hugo Varela and BerthaVargas. Thank you to Luis Melodelgado for translating theabstract and to four anonymous reviewers for thoughtfulcomments. All errors or emissions are the responsibility ofthe author.

References CitedAberg, Goran1995 The Use ofNatural Strontium Isotopes as Tracers inEnvironmental Studies. Water, Air and Soil Pollution79:309-322.Albarracin-Jordan, Juan1992 Prehispanic and Early Colonial Settlement Patternsin theLower Tiwanaku Valley,Bolivia. Ph.D. dissertation,Southern Methodist University. University Microfilms,Ann Arbor.

1996 Tiwanaku Settlement System: The Integration ofNested Hierarchies in the Lower Tiwanaku Valley. LatinAmerican Antiquity 7:183-210.2003 Tiwanaku: A Pre-Inka, Segmentary State inthe ndes.In Tiwanaku and its interland: Archaeological and Paleoecological Investigations ofanAndean Civilization: Volume 2, Urban and Rural Archaeology, edited byAlan L.Kolata, pp. 95-111.2 vols. Smithsonian InstitutionPress,Washington, D.C.Alcock, Susan, Terence N. D' Altroy,Kathleen D. Morrison, andCarla M. Sinopoli (editors)2001 Empires: Archaeological andHistorical Approaches.Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Argollo, Jaime,Leocadio Ticcla, Alan L. Kolata, and OswaldoRivera1996 Geology, Geomorphology, and Soils of the iwanakuand Catari River Basins. InTiwanaku and ItsHinterland:Archaeology and Paleoecology of anAndean Civilization,Volume I, edited byAlan L. Kolata, pp. 57-88. SmithsonianInstitutionPress,Washington, D.C.

Bentley, R. Alexander2006 Strontium Isotopes from the Earth to theArchaeological Skeleton: A Review. Journal ofArchaeologicalMethod and Theory 13:135-187.

Bentley, R. Alexander, T. Douglas Price, and Elisabeth Stephan2004 Determining the Local" 87Sr/86SrRange for rchaeological Skeletons: A Case Study fromNeolithic Europe.

Journal ofArchaeological Science 31:365-375.Berenguer, Jose1978 La problematica Tiwanaku en Chile: vision retrospectiva. Revista Chilena de Antropologia 1:17^40.Berenguer, Jose,Victoria Castro, and Osvaldo Silva1980 Reflexiones acerca de lapresencia de Tiwanaku en elnorte de Chile. Estudios Arqueologicos 5:81-92.Berryman, Carrie Anne, Paula Tomczak, Deborah E. Blom, andRobert H. Tykot2006 Paleodiet and theTiwanaku State: A BioarchaeologicalAssessment ofExchange Networks and State Formation Processes. Paper presented at the71 stAnnual Societyfor merican Archaeology Meeting, San Juan,Puerto Rico.Binford, Michael W., and Alan L. Kolata1996 The Natural and Human Setting. InTiwanaku and ItsHinterland: Archaeology and Paleoecology of an AndeanCivilization, Volume 1,edited byAlan L. Kolata, pp. 23-56.Smithsonian InstitutionPress,Washington, D.C.Blom, Deborah E.1999 Tiwanaku Regional Interaction and Social Identity:A Bioarchaeological Approach. Ph.D. dissertation, Uni

versity ofChicago. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.2005 A Bioarchaeological Approach toTiwanaku GroupDynamics. In Us and Them: Archaeology and Ethnicity intheAndes, edited by Richard M. Reycraft, pp. 153-182.The Cotsen Institute ofArchaeology, University of California atLos Angeles, Los Angeles.Blom, Deborah E., Benedikt Hallgrimsson, Linda Keng, MariaC. Lozada Cerna, and JaneE. Buikstra1998 Tiwanaku 'Colonization': Bioarchaeological Implications forMigration in theMoquegua Valley, Peru. WorldArchaeology 30:238-261.Blom, Deborah E., JohnW. Janusek, and JaneE. Buikstra

2003 A Reevaluation of Human Remains fromTiwanaku.InTiwanaku and its interland: Archaeological and Paleoecological Investigations ofan Andean Civilization: Volume 2, Urban and Rural Archaeology, edited by AlanKolata, pp. 435-448. Smithsonian InstitutionPress,Washington,D.C.Blum, JoelD., E. Hank Taliaferro,Marie T.Weisse, and RichardT. Holmes2000 Changes inSr/Ca,Ba/Ca, and ^Sr/^Sr Ratios between

Trophic Levels in Two Forest Ecosystems in theNortheasternUSA. Biogeochemistry 49:87-101.Branca, Francesco, and Simon P. Robins1992 Bone Turnover inMalnourished Children. Lancet340:1493-1497.Browman, David L.1980 Tiwanaku Expansion and Altiplano Economic Patterns.Estudios Arqueologicos 5:107-120.1984 Tiwanaku: Development of Interzonal Trade and Economic Expansion in theAltiplano. InSocial and EconomicOrganization in thePrehispanic Andes, edited by DavidL. Browman, Richard L. Burger, andMario A. Rivera, pp.117-142. BAR International Series 194. BritishArchaeo

logical Reports, Oxford.Budd, Paul, JanetMontgomery, Barbara Barreiro, and RichardG. Thomas2000 Differential Diagenesis of Strontium inArchaeological Human Dental Tissues. Applied Geochemistry15:687^694.

Burton, James H., T. Douglas Price, Laura Cahue, and LoriWright2003 The Use of Barium and Strontium Abundances inHuman Skeletal Tissues toDetermine theirGeographicOrigins. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology13:88-195.


18/22

Knudson] TIWANAKU INFLUENCE INTHE SOUTH CENTRAL ANDES 19Caballero, Geraldine B.1984 El Tiwanaku enCochabamba. A rqueologia Boliviana1:67-72.Carr, T. E. F, G. E. Harrison, J.F. Loutit, andAlice Sutton1962 Movement of Strontium in theHuman Body. BritishMedical Journal 2:773-775.Chiaradia, Massimo, A. Gallay, andW. Todt2003 Different Contamination Styles of Prehistoric HumanTeeth at a Swiss Necropolis (Sion, Valais) Inferred fromLead and Strontium isotopes. Applied Geochemistry18:353-370.Cocilovo, JoseA., andMaria V. Zavattieri1994 Biologia del grupo prehistorico de Coyo Oriental (SanPedro de Atacama, Norte de Chile): II Deformacioncraneana artificial.Estudios Atacamehos 11:135-143.Costa Junqueira,Maria Antonietta, andAgustin Llagostera1994 Coyo-3: Momentos finales del periodo medio en SanPedro de Atacama. Estudios Atacamehos 11:73-143.Couture, Nicole, and Kathryn Sampeck2003 Putuni: A History of Palace Architecture atTiwanaku.

In Tiwanaku and itsHinterland: Archaeology and Paleoecology of anAndean Civilization: Volume 2, Urban andRural Archaeology, edited byAlan Kolata, pp. 226-263.Smithsonian InstitutionPress,Washington, D.C.Dillehay, Tom D., and Lautaro Nunez A.1988 Camelids, Caravans, and Complex Societies in theSouth-Central Andes. In Recent Studies inPrecolumbianArchaeology, edited by Nicholas Sanders and Olivier deMontmollin, pp. 603-634. BritishArchaeological Reports,Oxford.

Doyle, Michael W.1986 Empires. Cornell University Press, Ithaca.Edward, JeremyB., and Robert A. Benfer1993 The Effects of Diagenesis on the Paloma SkeletalMaterial. In Investigations of Ancient Human Tissue:Chemical Analyses inAnthropology, edited byMary K.Sandford, pp. 183-268. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers,New York.

Erickson, Clark L.1988 Raised Field Agriculture in theLake Titicaca Basin:Putting Ancient Agriculture Back toWork. Expedition30(3):8-16.1998 Applied Archaeology and Rural Development:Archaeology's Potential Contribution to the Future. InCrossing Currents: Continuity and Change in atin America, edited byMichael B.Whiteford and ScottWhiteford,pp. 34-45, Vol. 73. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River.Ericson, Jonathan E.1985 Strontium Isotope Characterization in the Study ofPrehistoric Human Ecology. Journal ofHuman Evolution14:503-514.1989 Some Problems and Potentials of Strontium IsotopeAnalysis forHuman and Animal Ecology. In Stable Isotopes inEcological Research, edited by PhilipW. Rundel,James R. Ehleringer, and Kenneth A. Nagy, pp. 254-269.Springer-Verlag, New York.1993 Ba/Ca as aDiagenetic Indicator forEvaluating BuriedBone Tissues: Advances inTissue Selection, ReducingContamination, and Data Evaluation. In PrehistoricHuman Bone: Archaeology at theMolecular Level, editedby Joseph B. Lambert and Gisela Grupe, pp. 157-171.Springer-Verlag, New York.Faure, Gunter1986a Principles of Isotope Geology. JohnWiley, NewYork.

1986b Principles and Applications of Inorganic Geochemistry.JohnWiley, New York.

Given, Michael2004 The Archaeology of theColonized. Routledge, London.Goldstein, Paul S.1989 Omo, A Tiwanaku Provincial Center inMoquegua,Peru. Ph.D. dissertation, University ofChicago. Univer

sityMicrofilms, Ann Arbor.1990 La ocupacion Tiwanaku enMoquegua. Gaceta Arqueologico Andina V(18/19):75-104.1992 Tiwanaku Temples and State Expansion. Latin AmericanAntiquity A:22-A1.1993 House, Community and State in the arliest TiwanakuColony: Domestic Patterns and State Integration atOmoMl 2,Moquegua. InDomestic Architecture, Ethnicity, andComplementarity in the South Central-Andes, edited byMark S. Aldenderfer, pp. 25-41. University of Iowa Press,Iowa City.1995 Informe de campo: investigaciones de los sectoreshabitacionales. Manuscript on file,Museo Contisuyo,Moquegua, Peru.

1996 Tiwanaku Settlement Patterns of theAzapa Valley,Chile: New Data, and theLegacy of Percy Dauelsberg.Didlogo Andino 14/15:57-73.2000a Communities Without Borders: The Vertical Archipelago andDiaspora Communities in theSouthern Andes.In The Archaeology of Communities: A New World Perspective, edited byMarcello A. Canuto and JasonYaeger,pp. 182-209. Routledge, London.2000b Exotic Goods and Everyday Chiefs: Long-DistanceExchange and Indigenous Sociopolitical Development inthe South Central Andes. Latin American Antiquity11:335-362.2003 From Stew-Eaters toMaize-Drinkers: The ChichaEconomy and theTiwanaku Expansion. In The Archaeology and Politics ofFood and Feasting inEarly States andEmpires, edited byTamara L. Bray, pp. 143-172. KluwerAcademic/ Plenum Publishers, New York.2005 Andean Diaspora: The Tiwanaku Colonies and theOrigins of South America Empire. University Press ofFlorida, Gainesville.

Goldstein, Paul S., and Bruce Owen2001 Tiwanaku enMoquegua: Las colonias altiplanicas.Boletin de Arqueologia PUCP 5:139-168.Gosden, Chris2004 A rchaeology and Colonialism: Cultural Contact from5000 BC to the resent. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Graff am,Gray1990 Raised Fields Without Bureaucracy: An Archaeological Examination of Intensive Wetland Cultivation in thePampa Koani Zone, Lake Titicaca, Bolivia. Ph.D. dissertation,University ofToronto. University Microfilms, AnnArbor.

1992 Beyond State Collapse: Rural History, Raised Fields,and Pastoralism in the South Andes. American Anthropologist 94:882-904.Grove, Matthew J.,Paul A. Baker, Scott L. Cross, Catherine A.Rigsby, and Geoffrey O. Seltzer2003 Application of Strontium Isotopes toUnderstandingtheHydrology and Paleohydrology of theAltiplano,Bolivia-Peru. Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology 194:281-297.Hawkesworth, Christopher J.,M. Hammill, A. R. Gledhill, P.van Calsteren, and Graeme Rogers1982 Isotope and Trace Element Evidence forLate-StageIntra-CrustalMelting in theHigh Andes. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 58:240-254.


19/22

20LATIN AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 19, No. 1, 2008Hedges, Robert E.2002 Bone Diagenesis: An Overview of Progress.

Archaeometry 44:319-328.Higueras-Hare, Alvaro1996 Prehispanic Settlement and Land Use inCochabamba, Bolivia. Ph.D. dissertation, University of

Pittsburgh. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.2001 El Perfodo Intermedio (Horizonte Medio) en losvallesdel Cochabamba: Una perspectiva del analisis de asentamientos humanos y uso de tierras.Boletin de Arqueologia PUCP 5:25-646.Hillson, Simon1986 Teeth. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.1996 Dental Anthropology. Cambridge University Press,Cambridge.

Hodges, Robert M., Norman S.MacDonald, Ralph Nusbaum,Richard Stearns, Florita Ezmirlian, Patricia Spain, andClare MacArthur1950 The Strontium Content ofHuman Bones. Journal ofBiological Chemistry 185:519-524.

Hoppe, Kathryn A., Paul L. Koch, and T. T. Furutani2003 Assessing thePreservation ofBiogenic Strontium inFossil Bones and Tooth Enamel. International Journal ofOsteoarchaeology 13:20-28.IbarraGrasso, Dick Edgar, and Roy Querejazu Lewis1986 30,000 Ahos de Prehistoria en Bolivia. Editorial LosAmigos del Libro, La Paz.James,David E.1982 A Combined O, Sr, Nd, and Pb Isotopic and TraceElement Study of Crustal Contamination in CentralAndean Lavas, I. Local Geochemical Variations. Earthand Planetary Science Letters 57:47-62.Janusek, JohnW.

1994 State and Local Power in Prehispanic Andean Polity:Changing Patterns ofUrban Residence inTiwanaku andLukurmata, Bolivia. Ph.D. dissertation, University ofChicago. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.1999 Craft and Local Power: Embedded Specialization inTiwanaku Cities. Latin American Antiquity 10:107-131.2002 Out ofMany, One: Style and Social Boundaries inTiwanaku. Latin American Antiquity 13:35-62.2003a The Changing Face of Tiwanaku Residential Life:State and Local Identity in anAndean City. InTiwanakuand itsHinterland: Archaeological and PaleoecologicalInvestigations ofanAndean Civilization: Volume 2,Urbanand Rural Archaeology, edited by Alan L. Kolata, pp.264-295. Smithsonian InstitutionPress,Washington, D.C.2003b Vessels, Time, and Society: Toward a CeramicChronology in theTiwanaku Heartland. InTiwanaku andits interland: Archaeological and Paleoecological Investigations of anAndean Civilization: Volume 2, Urban andRural Archaeology, edited byAlan L. Kolata, pp. 30-94.2 vols. Smithsonian InstitutionPress,Washington, D.C.2004a Collapse as Cultural Revolution: Power and Identityin theTiwanaku toPacajes Tradition. In Foundations ofPower inthePrehispanic Andes, edited byKevin J.Vaughn,Dennis Ogburn, andChristinaA. Conlee, pp. 175-210, Vol.14.Archaeological Papers of theAmerican AnthropologicalAssociation, Arlington.2004b Identityand Power in theAncient Andes: TiwanakuCities throughTime. Routledge, London.2005a Of Pots and People: Ceramic Style and Social Identity n theTiwanaku State. InUs and Them: Archaeologyand Ethnicity in the ndes, edited byRichard M. Reycraft,pp. 34-53. The Cotsen Institute ofArchaeology, Universityof California atLos Angeles, Los Angeles.2005b Residential Diversity and theRise ofComplexity in

Tiwanaku. InAdvances inTiticaca Basin Archaeology -1,edited by Charles Stanish, Amanda B. Cohen, and MarkS. Aldenderfer, pp. 143-172. Regents of theUniversity ofCalifornia, Los Angeles.Knudson, Kelly J.2004 Tiwanaku Residential Mobility in theSouth CentralAndes: Identifying Archaeological Human Migrationthrough Strontium Isotope Analysis. Ph.D. dissertation,University ofWisconsin atMadison. University Microfilms,Ann Arbor.2007 La influencia de Tiwanaku en San Pedro deAtacama:Una investigation por los isotopos del estroncio. EstudiosAtacamenos 33:7-24.

Knudson, Kelly J.,and T. Douglas Price2007 The Utility ofMultiple Chemical Techniques inArchaeological Residential Mobility Studies: Case Studies from Tiwanaku- and Chiribaya-Affiliated Sites in theAndes. American Journal of Physical Anthropology132:25-39.

Knudson, Kelly J., . Douglas Price, Jane E. Buikstra, andDeborah E. Blom2004 The Use of Strontium Isotope Analysis to InvestigateTiwanaku Migration andMortuary Ritual inBolivia andPeru. Archaeometry 46:5-18.Knudson, Kelly J.,TiffinyA. Tung, Kenneth C. Nystrom, T.Douglas Price, and Paul D. Fullagar2005 The Origin of the Juch'uypampa Cave Mummies:Strontium Isotope Analysis ofArchaeological HumanRemains fromBolivia. Journal ofArchaeological Science32:903-913.Kohn, Matthew J.,Margaret J. Schoeninger, andWilliam W.Barker

1999 Altered States: Effects ofDiagenesis on Fossil ToothChemistry. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta63:2737-2747.

Kolata, Alan L.1982 Tiwanaku: Portrait of anAndean Civilization. FieldMuseum ofNatural History Bulletin 53:13-18, 23-28.1992 Economy, Ideology, and Imperialism in the SouthCentral Andes. In Ideology and Pre-Columbian Civilizations, edited by Arthur A. Demerest and Geoffrey W.Conrad, pp. 65-86. School of American Research Press,Santa Fe.1993a The Tiwanaku: Portrait of an Andean Civilization.Blackwell, Oxford.1993b Understanding Tiwanaku: Conquest, Colonizationand Clientage in the South Central Andes. In Latin AmericanHorizons, edited by Donald S. Rice, pp. 193-224.Dumbarton Oaks Research Library andCollections, Wash

ington,D.C.Kulp, J.Laurence, andArthur R. Schulert1962 Strontium-90 inMan V. Science 136:619-632.Lambert, Joseph B., JaneM. Weydert, Sloan R. Williams, andJaneE. Buikstra

1991 Inorganic Analysis of Excavated Human Bone afterSurface Removal. Journal of Archaeological Science18:363-383.Lavenu, Alain1991 Formation geologica y evolution. InEl Lago Titicaca:Sintesis del conocimiento limnologico actual, edited byClaude Dejoux andAndre litis, pp. 19-27. ORSTOM, LaPaz.Lee-Thorp, Julia2002 Two Decades ofProgress towardsUnderstanding Fossilization Processes and Isotopic Signals inCalcified TissueMinerals. Archaeometry 44:435^146.Lewis, Cecil M., Jr.


20/22

Knudson] TIWANAKU INFLUENCE INTHE SOUTH CENTRAL ANDES 212005 Intercontinental to Intrasite Genetic Analyses ofAncient and Contemporary Native American Communities. Ph.D. dissertation, University ofNew Mexico. Uni

versityMicrofilms, Ann Arbor.Lewis, Cecil M., Jr.,JaneE. Buikstra, and Anne C. Stone2007 Ancient DNA and Genetic Continuity in the SouthCentral Andes. Latin American Antiquity 18:145-160.Lewis, Cecil M., Jr., aul Y. Tito, Beatriz Lizarraga, and AnneC. Stone2005 Land, Language, and Loci: mtDNA inNative Americans and theGenetic History of Peru. American Journalof Physical Anthropology 127:351-360.Lewis, Cecil M., and Anne C. Stone2005 MtDNA Diversity at theArchaeological Site ofChenChen in Peru. In Biomolecular Archaeology: GeneticApproaches to the ast: Proceedings from the19thAnnualVisiting Scholar Conference, edited by David M. Reed.Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale.Lightfoot, Kent1995 Culture Contact Studies: Redefining theRelationship

between Prehistoric and Historical Archaeology. American Antiquity 60:199-217.Lightfoot, Kent, and Antoinette Martinez1995 Frontiers and Boundaries inArchaeological Perspective.Annual Review ofAnthropology 24:471-492.Llagostera, Agustin1996 San Pedro deAtacama: Nodo de complementariedadreticular. In La Integracion Sur Andina Cinco SiglosDespues, edited byXavier Albo, Maria InesAnatia, JorgeHidalgo, Lautaro Nunez, Agustin Llagostera, Maria IsabelRemy, and Bruno Revesz, pp. 17-42. Universidad Catolicadel Norte de Antofagasta, Chile, Antofagasta, Chile.Llagostera, Agustin, Constantino M. Torres, andMaria Antoni

ettaCosta1988 El complejo psicotropico en Solcor-3 (San Pedro deAtacama). Estudios Atacamehos 9:61-98.Manzanilla, Linda1992 Akapana: una pirdmide en el centro del mundo. Universidad Nacional Autonoma deMexico, Mexico, D.F.Montgomery, Janet,Paul Budd, Alan Cox, Petra Krause, andRichard G. Thomas

1999 LA-ICP-MS Evidence for the istribution ofLead andStrontium inRomano-British, Medieval and ModernHuman Teeth: Implications forLife History and ExposureReconstruction. InMetals inAntiquity, edited by SuzanneM. M. Young, A. Mark Pollard, Paul Budd, and Robert A.Ixer, pp. 290-296. BAR International Series 792. BritishArchaeological Reports, Oxford.Montgomery, Janet,JaneA. Evans, Dominic Powlesland, andCharlotte A. Roberts2005 Continuity orColonization inAnglo-Saxon England?Isotope Evidence forMobility, Subsistence Practice, andStatus atWest Heslerton. American Journal of PhysicalAnthropology 126:123-138.

Moseley, Michael B., Robert A. Feldman, Paul S. Goldstein,and Luis Watanabe1991 Colonies and Conquest: Tiahuanaco and Huari inMoquegua. In uari Administrative Structure: PrehistoricMonumental Architecture and State Government, editedbyWilliam H. Isbell andGordon F.McEwan, pp. 121 140.Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C.Mujica, Elias J.,Mario A. Rivera, and Thomas F. Lynch1983 Proyecto de estudio sobre la complementariedadeconomica Tiwanaku en los valles occidentales del CentroSurAndino. Chungara 11:85-109.Mulhern, Dawn M.2000 Rib Remodeling Dynamics in a Skeletal Population

fromKulubnarti, Nubia. American Journal of PhysicalAnthropology 111:519-530.Mulhern, Dawn M., and Dennis P. Van Gerven1997 Patterns of Femoral Bone Remodeling Dynamics inaMedieval Nubian Population. American Journal ofPhysicalAnthropology 104:133-146.Murra, JohnV.1972 El 'control vertical' de unmaximo de pisos ecologicos en la economia de las sociedades Andinas. InVisita dela Provincia de Leon deHuanuco en 1562, edited by JohnV.Murra, pp. 429^76, Vol. 2.Universidad Nacional Hermilio Valdizan, Huanuco.1985a "ElArchipelago Vertical" Revisted. InAndean Ecology and Civilization, edited by Shozo Masuda, Izumi Shimada, and Craig Morris, pp. 3-14. University ofTokyo,Tokyo.1985b The Limits and Limitations of the "Vertical Archipelago" in theAndes. In Andean Ecology and Complementarity, edited by Shozo Masuda, Izumi Shimada, andCraig Morris, pp. 15-20. University ofTokyo Press, Tokyo.

Neves, Walter A., A. M. Barros, and Maria Antonietta Costa1999 Incidence andDistribution ofPostcranial Fractures inthePrehistoric Population of San Pedro deAtacama, Northern Chile. American Journal of Physical Anthropology109:253-258.Nielsen-Marsh, Christina M., and Robert E. Hedges2000 Patterns ofDiagenesis inBone II: Effects ofAceticAcid Treatment and theRemoval ofDiagenetic C03. Journal ofArchaeological Science 27:1151-1159.O'Brien, Tyler G.2003 Cranial Microvariation inPrehistoric South CentralAndean Populations: An Assessment ofMorphology in theCochabamba Collection, Bolivia. Ph.D. dissertation,Bing

hamton University. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Oakland, Amy1986 Tiahuanaco Tapestry Tunics and Mantles from SanPedro de Atacama, Chile. In The Junius B. Bird Conference on Andean Textiles, edited byAnne Pollard Rowe,pp. 101-121. The Textile Museum, Washington, D.C.Oakland Rodman, Amy1992 Textiles and Ethnicity: Tiwanaku inSan Pedro deAtacama, North Chile. Latin American Antiquity 3:316-340.1994 Tradition e innovation en laprehistoria andina de SanPedro de Atacama. Estudios Atacamehos 11:109-120.Oakland Rodman, Amy, andArabel Fernandez2000 Los tejidos huari y tiwanaku: Comparaciones y contextos. Boletin de Arqueologia Pontifcia UniversidadCatolica del Peru 4:119-130.Owen, Bruce2005 Distant Colonies and Explosive Collapse: The TwoStages of the iwanaku Diaspora in theOsmore Drainage.Latin American Antiquity 16:45-80.Owen, Bruce, and Paul Goldstein2001 Tiwanaku enMoquegua: Interacciones regionales ycolapso. Boletin de Arqueologia PUCPNo. 5 5:169-188.Parfitt,A. M.1983 The Physiologic and Clinical Significance of BoneHistomorphometric Data. In Bone Histomorphometry:Techniques and Interpretation, edited byRobert R. Recker,pp. 143-223. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton.Ponce Sangines, Carlos1972 Tiwanaku: espacio, tiempo, y cultura. AcademiaNacional de Ciencias de Bolivia, La Paz.Price, T Douglas, JenniferBlitz, James H. Burton, and JosephEzzo

1992 Diagenesis inPrehistoric Human Bone: Problems andSolutions. Journal ofArchaeological Science 19:513-529.


21/22

22LATIN AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 19, No. 1, 2008Price, T. Douglas, JamesH. Burton, and R. Alexander Bentley2002 The Characterization ofBiologically Available Strontium Isotope Ratios for theStudy ofPrehistoricMigration.

Archaeometry 44:117-136.Price, T. Douglas, Clark M. Johnson, JosephA. Ezzo, JonathanEricson, and James H. Burton1994 Residential Mobility in the Prehistoric SouthwestUnited States: A Preliminary Study Using Strontium Isotope Analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science21:315-330.Price, T. Douglas, Vera Tiesler, and JamesH. Burton2006 Early African Diaspora inColonial Campeche, Mexico: Strontium Isotopic Evidence. American Journal ofPhysical Anthropology 130:485-490.Renfrew, Colin, and JohnF. Cherry1986 Peer Polity Interaction and Socio-Political Change.

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Rivera Casanovas, Claudia2003 Ch' ijiJawira:A Case of Ceramic Specialization in theTiwanaku Urban Periphery. InTiwanaku and itsHinterland: Archaeological and Paleoecological Investigationsof an Andean Civilization: Volume 2, Urban and RuralArchaeology, edited by Alan L. Kolata, pp. 296-315.Smithsonian InstitutionPress,Washington, D.C.

Rodrigo, Luis A., and Denis Wirrmann1991 Aspecto general de la sedimentation general. InElLago Titicaca: Sintesis del conocimiento limnologicoactual, edited by Claude Dejoux, and Andre litis, pp.39-45. ORSTOM, La Paz.Rogers, Graeme, and Christopher J.Hawkesworth1989 A Geochemical Traverse across theNorth Chilean

Andes: Evidence for Crust Generation from theMantleWedge. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 91:271-285.

Rothhammer, Francisco, JoseA. Cocilovo, and Claudio Silva2006 Craniometric Variation in theAzapa Valley: Reply toSutter and Mertz (2004). American Journal of PhysicalAnthropology 131456-457.Rothhammer, Francisco, and Calogero M. Santoro2001 El desarrollo cultural en el valle de Azapa, extremonorte de Chile y su vinculacion con los desplazamientospoblacionales altiplanicos. Latin American Antiquity12:59-66.

Sandness, Karin1992 Temporal and Spatial Dietary Variability in theOsmore Drainage, Southern Peru: The Isotope Evidence.Unpublished Master's thesis,University of Nebraska atLincoln Department ofAnthropology.Sealy, Judith , Nikolaas J.van derMerwe, Andrew Sillen, F.J.Kruger, and Harold W. Krueger1991 87Sr/86Sr as a Dietary Indicator inModern andArchaeological Bone. Journal ofArchaeological Science18:399-416.

Shellis, R. P., and G. H. Dibdin2000 Enamel Microporosity and itsFunctional Implications. InDevelopment, Function and Evolution ofTeeth,edited byMark F. Teaford, Moya Meredith Smith, andMark W. J.Ferguson, pp. 242-251. Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge.Sillen, Andrew1989 Diagenesis of the Inorganic Phase of Cortical Bone.In The Chemistry ofPrehistoric Human Bone, edited byT. Douglas Price, pp. 211-228. Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge.Sillen, Andrew, and R. LeGros1991 Solubility Profiles of SyntheticApatites and ofModern and Fossil Bone. Journal ofArchaeological Science16:661-672.

Sillen, Andrew, and JudithC. Sealy1995 Diagenesis of Strontium in Fossil Bone: A Reconsideration ofNelson et al. (1986). Journal ofArchaeological Science 22:313-320.Sillen, Andrew, JudithC. Sealy, andNikolaas J.van derMerwe1989 Chemistry and Paleodietary Research: No More EasyAnswers. American Antiquity 54:504-512.Sinopoli, Carla M.1994 The Archaeology of Empires. Annual Review ofAnthropology 23:159-180.Smith,Michael E., and Lisa Montiel2001 The Archaeological Study of Empires and Imperialism inPre-Hispanic Central Mexico. Journal ofAnthro

pological Archaeology 20:245-284.Smith,Michael E., and Katharina Schreiber2005 New World States and Empires: Economic and SocialOrganization. Journal of Archaeological Research13:129-229.

Stanish, Charles2003 Ancient Titicaca: The Evolution ofComplex SocietyinSouthern Peru and Northern Bolivia. University ofCaliforniaPress, Berkeley.Stein, Gil J.1999 RethinkingWorld Systems. Diasporas, Colonies, andInteraction inUrukMesopotamia. University of ArizonaPress, Tucson.2005 The A rchaeology ofColonial Encounters: ComparativePerspectives. School of American Research Press,Santa Fe.Stovel, Emily M.2001 Patrones funerarios de San Pedro de Atacama y el

problema de lapresencia de los contextos tiwanaku.Boletinde Arqueologia PUCP 5:375-398.2002 The Importance ofBeing Atacameho: Political Identity ndMortuary Ceramics in orthern Chile. Ph.D. dissertation, State University of New York at Binghamton.

University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Sutter,Richard C.2000 Prehistoric Genetic and Cultural Change: A Bioarchaeological Search for the Pre-Inka Altiplano Coloniesinthe oastal Valleys ofMoquegua, Peru andAzapa, Chile.Latin American Antiquity 1143-70.2005 A Bioarchaeological Assessment of Prehistoric Ethnicity among Early Late Intermediate Period Populationsof theAzapa Valley, Chile. In Us and Them: Archaeologyand Ethnicity in theAndes, edited byRichard M. Reycraft,pp. 183-205. The Cotsen Institute ofArchaeology, University of California atLos Angeles, Los Angeles.2006 Colonization vs. Demic Expansion inAzapa Valley,Chile: Reply toRothhammer et al. American Journal ofPhysical Anthropology 131457^59.Sutter,Richard C, and Lisa Mertz2003 Nonmetric Cranial Trait Variation and Prehistoric BioculturalChange in theAzapa Valley, Chile. American Journal ofPhysical Anthropology 123:130-145.Tomczak, Paula2001 Prehistoric Socio-Economic Relations and PopulationOrganization in the Lower Osmore Valley of SouthernPeru. Ph.D. dissertation, University ofNew Mexico. UniversityMicrofilms, Ann Arbor.2003 Prehistoric Diet and Socio-Economic Relationshipswithin the Osmore Valley of Southern Peru. Journal ofAnthropological Archaeology 22:262-278.Torres-Rouff, Christina2002 Cranial Vault Modification and Ethnicity inMiddleHorizon San Pedro de Atacama, Chile. Current Anthropology 43:163-17'1.


22/22

Knudson] TIWANAKU INFLUENCE IN HE SOUTH CENTRAL ANDES 23Torres-Rouff, Christina, and Kelly J.Knudson2007 Examining the ife History of an Individual from Solcor 3, San Pedro deAtacama: Combining BioarchaeologyandArchaeological Chemistry. Chungara 39:235-257.Torres, Constantino M.1985 Estilo e iconografia Tiwanaku en las tabletas parainhalar substantias psicoactivas. Didlogo Andino4:223-245.

1987 The Iconography of thePrehispanic SnuffTrays fromSan Pedro de Atacama, Northern Chile. Andean Past1:191-245.2001 Iconografia Tiwanaku en la parafernalia inhalatoriade los Andes centro-sur. Boletin de Arqueologia PUCP5:427-154.2005 Tiwanaku SnuffingParaphenalia. InTiwanaku: Ancestors of the Inka, edited byMargaret Young-Sanchez, pp.114-135. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Torres, Constantino M., andWilliam J.Conklin1995 Exploring theSan Pedro de Atacama/ Tiwanaku Rela

tionship. In Andean Art: Visual Expression and Its Relation toAndean Beliefs and Values, edited by PennyDransart, pp. 78-108. Avebury, Aldershot.Varela, Hector Hugo1997 La Poblacion Prehistorica de San Pedro de Atacama:Composition, Estructura yRelaciones Biologicas. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Universidad Nacional de RioCuarto, Argentina, Departamento de Ciencias Naturales.Varela, Hector Hugo, and JoseA. Cocilovo2000 Structure of the Prehistoric Population of San Pedrode Atacama. Current Anthropology 41:125-132.Veizer, Jan1989 Strontium Isotopes in eawater throughTime. AnnualReview ofEarth and Planetary Science 1:141-167.

Webster, Ann D.1993 The Role of theCamelid in theDevelopment of theTiwanaku State. Ph.D. dissertation,University ofChicago.UniversityMicrofilms, Ann Arbor.Webster, Ann D., and JohnW. Janusek2003 Tiwanaku Camelids: Subsistence, Sacrifice, andSocial Reproduction. In Tiwanaku and itsHinterland:Archaeological and Paleoecological Investigations of anAndean Civilization: Volume 2, Urban and Rural Archaeology, edited byAlan L. Kolata, pp. 343-362. Smithsonian InstitutionPress,Washington, D.C.Wright, Lori E.2005a In Search ofYax Nuun Ayiin I:Revisiting theTikalProject's Burial 10.Ancient Mesoamerica 16:89-100.

2005b Identifying Immigrants toTikal, Guatemala: Defining ocal Variability inStrontium Isotope Ratios ofHumanTooth Enamel. Journal of Archaeological Science32:555-566.

Wright, Melanie F., Christine A. Hastorf, and Heidi A.Lennstrom2003 Pre-Hispanic Agriculture and Plant Use atTiwanaku:Social and Political Implications. InTiwanaku and its interland:Archaeology and Paleoecology ofanAndean Civilization: Volume 2,Urban and Rural Archaeology, edited

byAlan L. Kolata, pp. 384-403. Smithsonian InstitutionPress,Washington, D.C.

Notes1. The TIMS instrument was in quintuple-collector

dynamic mode using the internal ratio 86Sr/88Sr .1194 tocorrect formass fractionation. Recent analyses of strontiumcarbonate standard SRM 987 yielded 87Sr/?6Sr .710245 ?.000018 (2a). Long-term analyses over approximately 24months of SRM 987 yielded an average of 87Sr/86Sr=.710242. Internal precision for strontium carbonate runs istypically .0006-.0009 percent standard error, based on 100dynamic cycles of data collection.2. The presence of diagenetic contamination was monitored through uranium concentrations in26 tooth enamel and25 bone samples included in this study. Total proceduralblanks for uranium were below the levels of ICP-MS detection, and strontium carbonate standardNIST 1400 yielded U= .024 ? .31 ppm (2a, n = 11). Trace element analysis of 42archaeological human bone samples provided Ca/P ratiosused for identifying contaminated samples. Analyses ofLaboratory forArchaeological Chemistry standard reference9511 yielded Ca = 3.12 X 104? 1.42 X 103ppm (2a, n = 7)and P = 5.39 X 103? 2.24 X 102ppm (2a, n = 7). Long-termanalyses of laboratory standards and international bone standard referencematerial have determined accuracy of ? 5 percent and precision of ? 2 percent (Burton, et al. 2003).

Received May 5, 2006; revised September 11, 2006;accepted December 17, 2006. No conflicts declared byreviewers.

Date post:	04-Jun-2018
Category:	Documents
Upload:	nilton-rios-palomino
View:	216 times
Download:	0 times

Knudson_tiwanaku Influence in the South Central Andes Strontium Isotope Analysis and MiddleHorizon...

Documents