Kokan News كوكن نيوز

Volume 7, Issue 4 | October — December, 2015 www.kokannews.org Editor: Dr. Siraj Mohammed Bijle

IN THIS ISSUE

Eco-Tourism in Maharashtra... 12

Evolution of Malvan Coast 15

Farming Systems Diversification in North Konkan 22

Infrastructure Facilities for Tourism. 30

Girls of Rural Konkan Region... 34

Women of Konkan... 40

THE e-NEWSLETTER OF THE KOKANI DIASPORA COMMUNITY ISSN: 2278-5019

Foreword

The Konkan or Kokan region is the most beautiful and God gifted land between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea at western coastline of Maharashtra, India. Kokan region or the Kokan Coast includes Thane, Mumbai, Raigad, Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg; districts of Maharashtra. It is well famous for its long and narrow stretch of sparkling beaches with crystal blue waters and white-black sand, Forts, Hill stations, Waterfalls, Ghats, Rich forests, Lakes , Flora and fauna, Kokani food and fruits, Alphonso mango and finally for Konkan Railway.

The Konkan Railway runs along the Konkan coast of Maharashtra to Karnataka through Goa in the Western Ghats. Konkan Railway route is a single-line track and one of the most beautiful scenic train routes in India, passes through the mountain tunnels, sparking waterfalls, rivers and tall bridges. This is the story of the triumph of technology over terrain. It is the story of how Indian engineers battled against all odds to turn a hundred-year-old dream into reality, accomplishing their mission in just seven years. It is the story of will power, dedication and determination. The completion of the Konkan Railway is a gift to the people of Konkan region and it is playing very important role in the promotion of tourism and development of the region. It is pride in our hearts. Tourism is considered as a significant factor in the economy of many nations. Today tourism related infrastructure in various parts of the country has improved the quality of life of the local people and helped to promote local arts and crafts. Tourism has many potential to change the economic face of a Kokan region. The benefits of planned tourism development are manifold. Promotions of tourism would bring many direct and indirect benefits to the people.

However this region has been overlooked by all successive

governments for development and failed to bring about the much-needed change in the lives of the average Kokanis, who continue to depend on small, slaving jobs while ignoring their independent entrepreneurial skills. The region has given many national-level figures to the country, among them six Bharat Ratna awardees: Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, Lata Mangeshkar, Vinayak Narhari 'Vinoba' Bhave, Sachin Tendulkar, Pandurang Vaman Kane and Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve. Some other prominent names are: Bal Gangadhar Lokmanya Tilak, Sarkhel (admiral) Kanhoji Angre, scholar R.G. Bhandarkar, Sane Guruji, and renowned socialist leader Madhu Dandavate and former Chief Minister of Maharashtra, Barrister, A. R. Antuley and many others, who brought laurels in sports, the arts, culture, movies, music, academics and other fields in India and globally to Konkan.

We the people of the Kokan region specially the southern districts

of Raigad, Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg district humbly request our State and Central Governments to make more investments and facilities such as roads and transports, communication, healthcare, higher educational facilities, housing, agriculture and tourism. The region has suffered a lot. What we want to see is, if Kokani youth becomes an entrepreneur s/he can create at least five new jobs and the youth will not be driven to cities. They can work, learn and earn while living at home. It is the duty of the governments to change and prove the following proverb by providing bank loans and funding small scale projects: "Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day; teach a man to fish and you feed him for a lifetime".

Tourism has been identified as one of the pillars of the economic

growth and is contributing directly to poverty alleviation and economic development in the rural areas of the Kokan region.

Dr. Siraj Mohammed Bijle

Cultivation of Calocybe Indica (P & C)

Coastal Process and Port Development

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Coastal Process and Port Development: A Case Study of Port Development in North Konkan

By Sachin S Pendse

Tolani College of Commerce, 150-151, Sher E Punjab, Guru Gobind Singh Marg, Off Mahakali Caves Road, Andheri East Mumbai 40009

Source: International Journal of Geology, Earth and Environmental Science, Vol. 3 (1), 2013, P. 104-110

Abstract

The coast of Maharashtra has two major ports of Mumbai and Jawaharlal Nehru Port. Both these ports alone handle about 45% of the total maritime trade of India. These ports are presently reeling under pressure due to over congestion and increased turnaround time of ships and limited draft depths. With the idea of making Maharashtra a preferred destination for maritime trade, Maharashtra Maritime Board (MMB) was founded in 1996 with an aim to develop new ports to accommodate modern ships, which are bigger and need greater draft depths. The MMB has identified 43 sites to develop Multi Purpose Terminals and Captive Jetties to cater to the need of industries as well as reduce the burden on existing ports along the Konkan Coast of Maharashtra. The sites selected for port development by the MMB are located at or near the entrances of estuaries. The sedimentation pattern in these estuaries is dependent on the physical configuration of the coast, seasonal characteristics of monsoon, which bring changes in the hydro-dynamic conditions and produce complex pattern of sedimentation in tidal creeks and estuaries. The littoral drift along the shore and the tidal influence further contribute to the distribution of these sediments. The sediment deposits in form sand bars and sand banks block the estuary entrances. These sand bars and banks change their orientation seasonally and restrict the draft depths available for the larger ships as well as pose hazard to navigation. Therefore it becomes neces-sary to look into the coastal processes and their influence on the sand deposits and the searching for solutions to overcome this problem. This paper is an attempt to look into the coastal processes and their influence on the operational feasibility of these suggested port sites in terms of obtaining and maintaining draft depths needed to keep the ports operational.

Key Words: Ports, Congestion, Sedimentation, Coastal Processes

Introduction The changing economic scenario after liberalization has brought about substantial changes in the international trade of India. With 95% of India‘s foreign trade being sea-borne, ports become a crucial infrastructure to achieve these set targets. Ports are the dynamic nodes in the supply chain and are centers for integrated transport and logistics platforms in international trade (Ranade). Ports also stimulate trade and regional development. The major ports in India are operating at more than their saturation levels. The major ports have handled a record traffic of 383.75 million tones 2004-05. The net result was increasing pressure on port infrastructure, congestion and high transport cost due to high pre-berthing detention and turnaround time of vessels. To further compound the problems there is a question of increasing size of vessels and need for specialized cargo handling capabilities. Therefore, the ports should be geared up for deepening their draft for accommodating these larger vessels. In other words, if we have to compete with other ports of the region, ports must create handling facilities at par with the world standards. The two major ports of Maharashtra, Mumbai and Jawaharlal Nehru Port handle more than 45% of India‘s maritime trade. Both these ports are already reeling under pressure and have certain basic problems that have contributed to problems like traffic congestion and turnaround time. For example Mumbai port had a turnaround time of 8 days where as the JNP again in Mumbai has a turnaround time of 4.8 days. The Government of Maharashtra took initiative to develop ports in Maharashtra and formed the Maharashtra Maritime Board in 1996 with the purpose of developing minor ports. It aims at making Maharashtra into a preferred destination for maritime trade. It also aims at bringing in the development of ports with various facilities and aims to attain ensured balanced development along the coast with reference to industrial, social and human development by creating a world-class maritime infrastructure along the coast of Maharashtra. The MMB, for the purpose of developing minor ports, is all set to improve the existing 48 minor ports in the State. Over and above this, 35 creeks and rivers have been identified as having the potential for the construction of new ports. The choice of these sites leads to some serious questions that need to be addressed to. Study Area Konkan is a narrow coastal plain adjoining the Arabian Sea. It stretches between, the Damanganga River (20º 20‘ N) in the north and the Terekhol Creek (18 º 42‘ N) in the south over a length of 410 km as the crow flies. This is a long narrow coast along the western margins of Maharashtra, separated from the Deccan plateau by the Sahyadri escarpment with an average elevation of 1000 meters. The width of this coastal plain varies from 40 to 50 km. It is wider in the north as compared to its southern parts (Fig. 1).

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New Ports of Konkan The 43 identified by MMB sites along the Konkan coast of Maharashtra to develop alternate port sites will be of three types; Intermediate ports, Multi Purpose Terminals (MPT), minor ports and Captive Jetties (CJ) to cater to limited services. Most of the sites selected are at estuary mouths or inside the estuaries in protected bays. Therefore selection of these sites will have to be investigated carefully keeping in mind the difficulties in operational feasibility in terms of having the required draft depths as well as maintaining the draft depths to accommodate the ships. These depths are influenced by sedimentation. The sedimentation process is influenced by surface and sub-surface forces like geology and climate, the physical configuration of the coast, the seasonal characteristics of monsoon and the tidal influence on sedimentation. Sedimentation on River mouths and Coastal Littorals of Konkan Rivers of Konkan are short and swift and seasonal in nature. They follow a short straight course with steep gradients through middle Konkan to enter the Arabian Sea through estuarine heads. Due to the short length that these rivers possess the proportion of tidal length to the non-tidal freshwater length is as high as 1:1. The tidal range also increases from about 3 meters in the south to 5 meters towards the northern end of Konkan. There is also a reasonable ground to suspect that during the pre-historic and historic period the location of the tidal heads has shifted downstream, due to permanent blocking of the river mouths by sand banks and bars and partly by occasional spits protruding across the mouth almost to the mid-stream level (Table 1).

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Table 1: Konkan-River Mouths and associated Geomorphic Features

(Source: Gujar A.R. NIO 1995)

River Length (km) and Orientation

Drainage Area Ba-sin Km2

Associated Geomorphic Features

Vaitarna 146, E-W 3647 Estuarine with thick sediment accumulation at mouth

Ulhas 140, E-W 3804 Estuarine and Sand bar at mouth

Amba 69, NE-SW 907 Estuarine, with thick sediment accumulation at mouth

Kundalika 45, E-W 778 Thick Sediment accumulation at the mouth.

Savitri 97, E-W 2299 Thick layers of sediment at mouth old bars beat-en back into mouth and new bars constantly in formation

Vashisti 80, E-W 2215 Thick Sediment at mouth, thickness 8-26 m, silty sands

Shastri 65, E-W 2296 Sand bar at mouth

Kajvi 64, E-W 524 Sand bar at mouth

Muchkundi 62, E-W 825 Sand bar at mouth

Kodavli 54, E-W 588 Sediment accumulation at mouth

Vagotan 68, E-W 894 Sediment accumulation at mouth

Gad 74, E-W 973 Sand spit at mouth

Karli 75, E-W 816 Sand spit at mouth

The transport and trapping of sediments are controlled by tidal dynamics, river discharge and particle dynamics throughout the estuarine system. Sediment budget is a quantitative inventory of all the sediment inputs, outputs and storage within the system. Estuarine processes control the distribution and transportation of suspended sediments. These processes vary in a systematic manner within tidal and weather cycles. During a periodic event such as the monsoon season, estuaries can carry high amount of suspended sediment loads and this can drastically change the pattern of sediment transport and dispersion in the system (Nichols, 1977). The increased suspended sediment into the estuarine ecosystem is causing enormous economic burden by way of increased investment the infrastructures for navigation and flood mitigations. This poses two major problems; one that estuaries are navigable only at high tides and second the high tides submerge some of the bars at the estuary mouths thus posing a threat to safe navigation. It is therefore necessary to study the processes governing the sediment movement in order to understand contemporary problems in estuarine environment such as reclamation, harbor development and dispersal of pollutants. The factors that influence the sedimentation process include; Changing sea levels: Sea level is subject to short term changes either due to daily tides, or annually consistent with the latitudinal movement of the sun over the year. Apart from short term oscillations, long term oscillations are caused by worldwide changes that are global glacio-eustatic changes. There are also regional changes that are restricted to limited stretches of the coast due to tectonic movements. The two may at times coincide enhancing the rise or fall of sea level. Since the end of the last of the Ice ages, the sea level has been rising initially rapidly but later slowing down to reach a nearly stable level at or around the present sea level about 6000 BP (4000 BC). These changes leave their imprints on the shore landforms as well as near-shore underwater features. Geology: The predominant rock is solid basalt with variations like amygdular and vesicular basalts and intermediate basic–acidic rocks. The geology of Konkan undergoes a change as one goes from south to north. Except in the extreme south ( south of Malvan ), Konkan is dominated by the Upper Traps of the Tertiary period. As one proceeds north, the

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lowland trap landscape of the south gradually changes primarily due to the increasing occurrence of acidic traps. The underlying geology of North and Central Konkan rivers dominates erosion on a larger scale due to heavy monsoon and steep slopes and relatively wide river valleys as compared to shorter rivers of southern Central and South Konkan. Here the predominant lithological surface being laterite, the rain water seeps through it, thus reducing its surface run-off and erosional potentials. Near-Shore Circulation: One other important force that influences the sedimentation pattern is the coastal circulation of the south-west monsoon along the Konkan coast. The annual rhythm of monsoon cycle commences due to drastic change in the atmospheric pressure and wind distribution north of the equator during April with the setting in of stronger, moisture-laden southwest monsoon winds. The general circulation of the south-west monsoon and the northeast wind season sets off littoral drifts which are responsible for many coastal depositional features. The long-shore littoral drift contributes to coastal erosion and accretion along the west coast. Long shore net drift direction is known from various coastal landform indicators and off-shore turbidity distribution pattern. Studies of landform indicators suggest that during the south-west monsoon period, strong southerly currents and dominant south-western lies erode protruding headlands, and deposit eroded material, though partially, along varying sectors to the south of the headland. During the rest of the year, under the influence of the northerly currents, accretion takes place along retreating sectors as reflected in the development of beach ridges. The turbidity pattern distribution as exhibited by satellite imagery analysis suggests bi-directional shore drift depending upon the period of the season. Although sediment transport is bi-directional, net major sediment transport is southward, and is reflected in large spits along the southern part of the west coast. Climate, drainage and sediment budget: The prevalent seasonal rainy climate gives rise to perennial rivers, ubiquitous vegetal cover and deep chemical weathering which plays a significant role in detaching weathering resistant material from the outcrops. Konkan is drained by a dozen larger rivers, which originate in Sahyadri. There are 36 minor rivers and creeks which drain directly into the sea. Lithological differences govern the longitudinal profiles of the river and the erosion. The rivers in the central area are of medium length flowing in an east-west direction, showing control of topography and have steeper gradients with more fluvial erosion in scarp zone and greater weathering of basalts. However, the amount of erosion in the lateritic caps is less as the water tends to seep into the porous rocks and the overall sediment budgets remain low in this area. The rivers of north Konkan and southern Sindhudurg are long and show control of tectonic lineaments and have graded profiles. The basalts are well-eroded and therefore the sediment budget on them is high. Many of the rivers on north and central Konkan like Vaitarna, Ulhas, Kundalika, Savitri, and Shastri are bar-ridden at their sea-entrances. Most of these bars are formed on the northern deeper side of the estuary and leave a narrow passage to the south, which forms the entrance channel to the river estuary. Studies conducted by Victor Rajamanickam and Gujar (1984) on ―Effects of waves on redistribution of sediments along the Konkan coast‖, mention the bar on the mouth of Shastri river, that is generally parallel to the coast. This bar, they state, attains a change in its orientation during the months of Southwest monsoon. It becomes almost perpendicular to the coast. This is due to high wave activity of monsoon runoff. When an offshore bar has been built up sufficiently high, breakers sweeping over the crest of the bar transfer bar material from the seaward face causing migration of the bar landwards. Dean and Walton (1975), state that the seaward transport of sand is due to tidal currents, whereas the landward movement of sand is probably due to wave forces. Since the channel is close to the natural barrier, no material is transported inside strong erosion exposes a non-scouring hard rock bottom at the channel. Since the bar is formed in the wave divergence zones, it becomes a permanent feature and acts as a barrier for the mixing of river sediments with the bay sediments. Konkan estuaries have been formed after the rise of sea level post- Holocene and are therefore non-marine in origin (Karlekar, 2008). The sediment input gives rise to a variety of bed forms in the estuaries and creeks. These include tidal inlet dunes, sand waves, sand lenses, and sand bars. The bed forms in Konkan estuaries are associated with cuts and scoops in tidal channel. Sediments here range from fine to medium sand and gravel. In contrast, clay constitutes a major part of sediments in the northern estuaries, particularly to north of Mumbai, where tidal range is more than 4mts.The suspended sediments quantum is also equally high making these estuaries more turbid as compared to those in South Konkan (Karlekar,1993). In the estuaries of Raigad, Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg, the zonation of sediments is distinctly visible. Fine sediments are deposited in upper and middle reaches of the tidal sectors. Coarse fraction, gravel and pebbles usually are found at the tidal mouth. This variation in size is indicative of fluvial origin of bed in upper reaches and tidal origin in lower reaches. Sedimentation on river beds and banks take place immediately after floods. In a normal season with slow steady flow or still waters practically no sedimentation takes place. During heavy rains and consequential floods boulders are rolled or tumble down steep gradients. Coarse grains and sands are dragged along the bed of the river and the finer silts, mud and clay are carried in suspension in the water itself. Soon after the flood subsides, velocities and volume of flow come down drastically and material in suspension settles wherever it is on the stream path. During successive floods, the material in transport is carried downstream till it reaches the mouth, or enters the sea, where it is subject to different types of treatment, transport and assortment. The Konkan river mouths are active zones of constant redistribution of the sediment material in different depositional forms. Since heavy rains and floods take place only over a few days, about a dozen during the peak of the South-west monsoon season, heavy sedimentation is confined to a few days in the year, the rest of the year being devoted to dispersal and redistribution of the sediments in the mouth along the coast by littoral drift and rarely into deeper parts of the sea-floor.

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Sedimentation at the river mouth and the lower reaches of river basins depends on;

Annual discharge

Tidal inflow

Extent of blockade at and across the river mouths at the sea-entrance by long-shore drift and development of underwater bars and banks, occasionally rising above water level during the ebb tide

Development of sand spits extending from the beach on one or both the banks across the river in cases even directing the flow into the sea, either to one side of the river mouth or diversion.

Inspite of large annual flow drawn from larger catchments, North Konkan rivers both Vaitarna and Ulhas mouths, have bars at the mouth that rise above water level during ebb tide. What is even more distinctive is the fact that both these river mouths that were characterized by insular topography till late mediaeval time are now part of the mainland, partly due to reclamation processes. These mouths have a number of islands just upstream of the mouth reflecting the extent of sedimentation. In fact, the lower reaches of the both rivers have a large number of legal and illegal dredging operations over last few decades for building sand-reflecting the high rate of sedimentation. Spits at Kalbadevi, Achra, and Devbag characterize smaller river mouths, Achra being the longest. These spits have actually diverted the mouths southwards. North to South littoral drift along the shore contributes to this spit building. Bars and banks are noted in Kundalika, Savitri, Vashisti and Shastri valley mouths. Though the course is not diverted the flow in the river is on the south side, north side being exposed to inflow of high tides. Field-work in the Savitri mouth indicates bar development on the north side of the sea-entrance of the river. The bar as it develops is pushed inland by the flood tide on one hand, and eroded on the sea-face on the other to form yet another bar on the sea-front, ahead of the bar is that is pushed inland. Thus a series of parallel bars develop one behind the other. Conclusion The fact that the proposed port sites to be developed lie at or near the entrance of estuary mouths in Konkan poses some serious questions. The sedimentation processes undergo a change due to seasonally changing hydro-dynamic conditions and produce a complex pattern of sedimentation within the estuary, their mouths and along the coast. Therefore when the choices of sites for development of new ports in Konkan are being made there is a need to look carefully at the sedimentation processes which are influenced by numerous forces as discussed above. The new ports are expected to accommodate larger ships and keeping in mind the facts that these estuary entrances are blocked by sandbars and sand banks and face complex sedimentation pattern, it will be necessary to dredge the approach, navigational channels as well as the port in itself, in the initial stages as well as in subsequent stages to maintain the required draft depths. This will incur considerable costs and the basic question of operational feasibility will remain. References

Kumar Anil, Kumar Dinesh and Srinivas K (2005). Suspended Sediment Fluxes in a Tropical Estuary, West Coast of India, Available:

http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/895/2/Antarct_Geosci_Ocean-Atmos_Interact_Paleoclimatol_2005_318.pdf Bruun P (1986). Morphological and Navigational Aspects of Tidal Inlets on Littoral Shores, Journal of Coastal

Research 2(2) 123-145. Dean R.G and Walton T.L (1975). Sediment Transport Processes in the Vicinity of Inlets with Special Reference to

Sand Trapping. Estuarine Research Volume 2, New York, New York: Academic Press 125-149. Gujar A.R and Medimi V.S (No Date). Evidence of Climatic Change During Holocene in the near-shore regions of

Konkan. Giomale di Geologia Series, 355 (2), Bologna. Karlekar S. N (2008). Use of directional Derivatives in the Study of Estuarine Sedimentation Process of Konkan

Coast of Maharashtra, Transactions of Indian Institute of Geographers, 20 (2). Karlekar S. N (1996). The Hydrodynamics and Sedimentation of Konkan Estuaries, Geographical Review of India,

Calcutta. Karlekar S. N (1996). Sediment Control of Dharamter and Dabhol Creek, Maeer‘s. MIT Pune. Karlekar S. N (1993). Coastal Geomorphology of Konkan, Aparna Publication, Pune. Nicholas M. M (1996). Response and Recovery of an estuary flowing river flood. Journal of Sediment Petrology 47

1171-1186. Rajamanickam G. V and Vethamony P (1986). Effects of Waves in the redistribution of sediments along the

Konkan Coast. Proceedings Indian Academy of Science 95 (2). Rajamanickam G. V (1984). Sediment Depositional Environment in Some Bays in Central and West Coast of India.

Indian Journal of Marine Sciences 13 (6). Ranade Prabha Shastri (2009). Infrastructure Development and Its Environmental Impact: Study of Konkan

Railways. Concept Publishing Company (p) Ltd.

Volume 7, Issue 4 | October — December, 2015

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Cultivation of Calocybe Indica (P & C) in Konkan Region of Maharashtra, India

Sudhir Navathe, P. G. Borkar, J.J. Kadam

Department of Plant Pathology, Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli, Dist. Ratnagiri, Maharashtra India. Source: - World Journal of Agricultural Research, 2014, Vol. 2, No. 4, P. 187-191

Abstract: Considering suitability of climatic conditions and economic aspects in Konkan region of Maharashtra, cultivation of Calocybe indica was undertaken with locally available substrates viz. paddy straw, horse gram waste, wild grass (Themeda quadrivolvis), bamboo leaves and different casing materials such as vermicompost, sand + soil (1:1 v/v), dried biogas spent slurry and combination of sand +soil +dried biogas spent slurry (1:1:1 v/v). Among the four substrates evaluated for cultivation of milky mushroom, paddy straw was the best with 81.05 percent biological efficiency followed by horse gram waste (BE 50%) and bamboo leaves (BE 40.62 %), but wild grass (Themeda quadrivolvis) was the poorest substrate. The biological efficiency of Calocybe indica was doubled by using a combination of sand +soil +dried biogas spent slurry (BE 180.32%) or vermicompost (BE 176.28%) as casing material. Use of dried biogas spent slurry alone also recorded 130 per cent biological efficiency but combination of sand + soil (BE 79.94%) was inferior. From the present study it was concluded that the maximum biological efficiency of Calocybe indica (P & C) in Konkan conditions can be obtained by using paddy straw as a substrate encased with sand + soil +dried biogas spent slurry (1:1:1 v/v) or Vermicompost during summer season.

Keywords: Calocybe indica, Konkan, biological efficiency, substrates, casing

1. Introduction Mushroom consumption is getting popular day by day due to their high nutritional and medicinal values. Directorate of Mushroom Research Solan, different AICRP Mushroom centers, State agricultural universities and NGOs in different parts of the country have taken tremendous efforts to disseminate mushroom cultivation technology to the grass root level. As a result, the rural masses in remote areas have realized its importance as a source of lively hood. Mild tropical humid climate with the temperature in a range of 25-35

oC and relative humidity around 70-90 per

cent persists throughout the year in Konkan region of Maharashtra. Small and marginal farmers in Konkan are not in a position to take any summer season crop due to unavailability of sufficient irrigation water. Huge quantity of ligno-cellulosic crop residues such as paddy straw, horse gram waste, cowpea waste, weeds etc. is generated through cropping practices throughout the year, which can be efficiently utilized for the cultivation of mushrooms. First attempt for cultivation of Calocybe indica was made by Purkayastha and Nayak in 1981. But till today it is cultivated only in few parts of the country [13]. There is need to introduce the cultivation technology of this mushroom into new agro climatic zones of the country as the biological efficiency of this mushroom is much greater than that of oyster mushroom [17]. Milky white mushroom is basically a summer mushroom as it requires higher temperature (30-35

oC) and

relative humidity in a range of 85-90 per cent [17]. Therefore, cultivation of Calocybe indica (P & C) stands to be the best option during summer season. Considering suitability of climatic conditions and economic aspects, cultivation of Calocybe indica was undertaken to assess suitability of locally available substrates and the effect of different casing materials on biological efficiency this mushroom under Konkan conditions. 2. Materials and Methods The pure culture of summer mushroom C. indica was procured from Directorate of Mushroom Research (DMR) Solan, and augmented on PDA by frequent sub culturing. Culture was maintained at 28 ± 2

oC in a BOD incubator.

Five locally available substrates viz. paddy straw, horse gram waste, bamboo leaves, wild grass (Themeda quadrivolvis) and vermicompost were used to assess the biological efficiency of C. indica. Paddy straw and wild grasses (Themeda quadrivolvis) were chopped in to 5-7 cm pieces, while horse gram waste and bamboo leaves were used as such. Half kg quantity of each substrate was weighed separately on an electronic balance (10 kg capacity). All the substrates were soaked overnight in 0.1 percent carbendazim solution. Excess water in the substrates was drained off by placing the substrates on a clean, cemented platform with desired slope. The substrates were pasteurized by dipping in hot water (80-90

oC) for 2 hrs. After 2 hrs the excess water was drained off and the substrates were allowed

to cool at room temperature. Moisture in substrates was adjusted to 60 per cent by drying them in sunlight. All the substrates were then spawned @ 3 per cent on wet weight basis and filled in polypropylene bags (16 x 21 cm) so as to make cylindrical mushroom beds. Each bag was plugged with cotton plug. Mushroom beds thus prepared were then transferred to iron shelves in spawn run room. Complete darkness and 30±2

oC temperature was maintained in this

room till completion of mycelial run. Beds with full white mycellial growth were opened and transferred to the cropping room on a cemented floor. Each bed was encased with 2 cm thick casing material i. e. sand + soil (1:1 v/v). Casing layer was kept moist by spraying water, relative humidity 80-90 per cent and 30± 2

oC temperature was maintained in

the cropping room. Five replications were maintained for each treatment.

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In order to study the effect of casing material on the biological efficiency of C. indica, paddy straw substrate and four different casing materials such as sand + soil (1:1 v/v), vermicompost, dried spent biogas slurry, and combination of sand + soil + dried spent biogas slurry (1:1:1 v/v) were used. All the casing materials were subjected to intermittent sterilization for three consecutive days in an autoclave. Five replications were maintained per each treatment of casing material. Two centimeter thick layer of casing was given at the top the bed. Casing layer was kept moist by spraying fresh water as and when required. Observations on days required for spawn run, case run period, days required for pin head formation, yield data (number and weight of fruit bodies up to 4 weeks) were recorded. Complete experiment was carried out in completely randomized design (CRD). The data recorded were statisti-cally analyzed and the differences exhibited by the treatments were tested for their significance as per the methods suggested in reference no [5]. 3. Results 3.1. Effect of Substrates on Biological Efficiency of C. indica Five locally available substrates such as paddy straw, horse gram waste, bamboo leaves, wild grass and ver-micompost were used to ascertain the best suitable substrate for cultivation of C. indica in Konkan region. It is revealed from the data presented in Table 1, that the minimum period was required to colonize horse gram waste (14 days) fol-lowed by vermicompost (16 days) and paddy straw (17 days) respectively. They were followed by wild grass and bam-boo leaves. Maximum period (26 days) was required for complete colonization of bamboo leaves.

Table 1: Effect of Substrates on Biological Efficiency of C. Indica

Early emergence of pin heads occurred on horse gram waste (14 days) followed by wild grass (15 days). They were followed by paddy straw (16 days) and vermicompost (18 days) respectively. Delayed pin head formation was recorded only in bamboo leaves where pin heads were appeared 23 days after casing. The overall spawn run period ranged between14–26 days and pinhead initiation period between 14-23 days. Maximum number of fruiting bodies (12) was recorded on paddy straw. This treatment was followed by horse gram waste (9) bamboo leaves and wild grass (4) and vermicompost (3), respectively. Maximum biological efficiency of C. indica was recorded on paddy straw (81.05%) which was subsequently followed by horse gram waste (50%), bamboo leaves (40.62%), wild grass (16.15%) and vermicompost (14.92%), respectively. The biological efficiency on wild grass was numerically higher than that on vermicompost but both these treatments were statistically at par. The data in the table indicate that the biological efficiency on bamboo leaves was quite low as compared to paddy straw and horse gram waste but the average weight of the fruiting body on this substrate was maximum (101.56 g) and it was 34.06 g more than that in paddy straw. It is clear from the results of this experiment that in respect of time required from spawning to pinhead appearance, biological efficiency and average weight of fruit body, paddy straw was the best substrate for cultivation of C. indica. 3.2. Effect of Casing Material on Biological Efficiency of C. indica In this experiment, paddy straw was encased separately with four different casing materials viz., vermicompost, sand + soil, spent biogas slurry, sand +soil+ spent biogas slurry to assess their effect on the biological efficiency of C. indica.

Tr. No.

Substrates

Spawn run Peri-

od (days)

Pinhead Formation

(DAC)

No. of Fruiting bodies

Average weight of fruit

body (g)

Yield per Kg dry substrate

(g) BE (%)

T1 Paddy straw 17 16 12 67.5 810.5 81.05

T2 Horse gram waste 14 14 9 55.56 500.0 50.00

T3 Bamboo leaves 26 23 4 101.56 406.25 40.62

T4 Vermicompost 16 18 3 49.75 149.25 14.92

T5 Wild grass 19 15 4 40.37 161.5 16.15

SEm± CD at 5% CD at 1% CV%

12.46 37.55 51.94 6.15

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It is revealed from data illustrated in Table 2 that among the four treatments maximum biological efficiency was obtained on paddy straw encased with the combination of sand + soil + spent dried biogas slurry (180.32%). This was followed by paddy straw encased with vermicompost (176.8%), spent dried biogas slurry (130%) and sand + soil (79.94%), respectively. Though the biological efficiency was numerically higher on paddy straw encased with combination of sand + soil + spent dried biogas slurry than paddy straw encased with vermicompost, yield on both the treatments was statistically at par. These two treatments were statistically significant with the remaining two treatments.

Table 2: Effect of Casing Materials on Biological Efficiency of C. Indica

Early emergence of pinheads was recorded on paddy straw encased with vermicompost (12 days) followed by sand + soil (16 days) and combination of sand + soil + spent dried biogas slurry (18 days). Delayed pin head formation was observed on paddy straw encased with spent biogas slurry where pinheads appeared 26 days after casing. Maximum numbers of fruiting bodies were recorded on vermicompost (15) each weighing around 110–120 g. This was followed by combination of sand + soil + biogas spent slurry and sand + soil where 12 fruiting bodies were harvested. Minimum numbers of fruiting bodies were observed on spent biogas slurry (6). Even though the delayed primordial formation and only 6 fruiting bodies were obtained from casing with spent dried biogas slurry; the biological efficiency was 130 per cent and average weight of an individual fruiting body was 216.67 g.

It is evident from these results that the combination of sand + soil + spent dried biogas slurry as well as vermicompost are ideal casing materials for getting maximum biological efficiency of C. indica on paddy straw substrate.

Figure 1. Effect of substrate on biological efficiency of Calocybe indica, a: Paddy Straw, b: Horse gram waste

Figure2. Effect of casing materials on biological efficiency of Calocybe indica, a: Vermicompost, b: Sand + soil + spent biogas slurry (1:1:1 v/v)

Tr. No.

Casing Materials Spawn run

period (days)

Pinhead For-mation (DAC)

No of fruit-ing bodies

Average weight of fruit body

(g)

Yield per Kg dry sub-

strate (g) BE (%)

T1 Vermicompost

17 12 15 117.52 1762.8 176.8

T2 Sand+soil

17 16 12 66.61 799.4 79.94

T3 Spend dried biogas slurry

17 26 6 216.67 1300.0 130

T4 Sand+soil+spent dried biogas slurry 17 18 12 150.26 1803.0 180.32

SEm± CD at 5% CD at 1% CV%

46.97 140.81 194.02 7.42

SEm : Mean Standard Error, CD: Critical Difference, CV: Critical Variance

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4. Discussion Locally available substrates such as paddy straw, horse gram waste, bamboo leaves, wild grass and vermicompost were investigated for their suitability. Minimum period for substrate colonization (14 days) was recorded on horse gram waste while it was maximum (26 days) in bamboo leaves. In remaining three substrates the colonization occurred within 20 days. Bamboo leaves contain high amounts of phenolic substances and complex lignin compounds as compared to other substrates [15]. This might be the probable reason for delayed colonization in this substrate. Pin head formation period was also minimum (14 days) in horse gram waste and maximum in bamboo leaves (23 days). Even though shortest period for colonization and pin head formation was observed on horse gram waste it failed to record higher biological efficiency. The reason for early colonization and pin head formation may be attributed to the higher protein content of horse gram waste but the reason for decreased biological efficiency could not be ascertained. Comparison of the biological efficiency of C. indica on all the substrates revealed that maximum biological efficiency was on paddy straw (81.05%) which was followed by horse gram waste (50%), bamboo leaves (40.62%), wild grass (16.15%) and vermicompost (14.92%). The reason for low biological efficiency on wild grass and vermicompost may be attributed to unavailability of necessary ligno-cellulosic compounds in required amounts for fruit body formation. Paddy straw was the best suitable substrate in respect of, spawn run period, pinhead formation time, average weight of fruit body and biological efficiency. Proportionate amounts of lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose in paddy straw might have played the important role in performance of the mushroom under study. Requirement of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, carbon as well as dry matter for colonization and their positive effect on sporophore production and nutrient content was discussed in reference no [7] on the study on bio-degradation and bioremediation capacity of C. indica. Superiority of paddy straw as compared to many other substrates such as maize stalk, sugarcane bagasse, ground nut haulms, soybean hay, black gram hay, sunflower stalk, cotton waste, sesamum stalk, coir pith and wheat straw for cultivation of C. indica has been reported by many workers [1,9,11,12,16,20,22]. Biological efficiency on bamboo leaves was quite low as compared to paddy straw but average weight of fruiting body was maximum (101.66 g) which was 34.06 g more than that in paddy straw. Reason behind the heavy fruiting bodies in this substrate was not understood. In the reviewed literature, no author has discussed regarding the average weight of fruiting body. Concurrence of the results of present study and literature suggests that paddy straw is the best substrate for cultivation of milky mushroom. Casing is necessary for certain mushrooms such as Agaricus, Lentinula, C. indica etc. as it stimulates and promotes formation of fruiting bodies and provides physical support to the mature fruit bodies [3]. Casing acts as a platform for initiation of uniform fructification and also provides anchorage and essential reserves for developing sporophores of mushrooms [7]. In the present study, the effect of four different casing materials viz., sand + soil (1:1v/v), vermicompost, spent dried biogas slurry and combination of sand + soil + spent dried biogas slurry (1:1:1v/v) on sporophore development and biological efficiency was studied. Among the all treatments maximum biological efficiency was recorded on paddy straw encased with the combination of sand + soil + spent dried biogas slurry (180.32%) which followed by paddy straw encased with vermicompost (176.8%), spent dried biogas slurry (130%) and sand + soil (79.94%). Various factors like texture, structure, water holding capacity, pore spaces, electrical conductivity, C:N ratio affect the mycellial growth in casing layer and pin head formation [2,20]. Use of municipal waste based vermicompost and its suitability as casing substrate for Agaricus bisporus was suggested by reference [6]. In the experiment conducted in reference no [18] to determine the best casing material for C. indica it was revealed that, the two year old cow dung (BE 100%) was better casing material than biogas spent slurry (BE 98.7%). Macro-elements such as P, K and microelements such as Mn, Mg, Fe and Cu are present in vermicompost and spent dried biogas slurry in available form [4]. Positive role of micronutrients viz., Mn, Mg, Fe and Cu in casing material comprising spent biogas slurry in development of sporophore of A. bisporus was proved in reference [2]. According to reference no [8] higher bio efficiency of C. indica by casing with vermicompost (BE 135.83 %) and biogas spent slurry (BE128.61%) in combination with garden soil. Use of vermi-products (vermicompost and vermi-wash) in cultivation of milky mushroom for improvement of yield and quality was suggested in reference no [22]. These findings are in concurrence with the results of present study where maximum biological efficiency was recorded in the casing material comprising spent biogas slurry in combination with sand + soil and vermicompost alone. These results suggest that the micro elements such as Mn and Cu in spent biogas slurry as well as in vermicompost not only stimulated fruit induction but also played a major role in further development of fruit bodies. The least biological efficiency was recorded in the beds encased with combination of sand + soil. Physical, chemical and nutritional properties of casing materials affect the sporophore initiation [6,7,10,19]. The lateritic soil with acidic pH was used in combination with sand as casing material, in the present study. The low pH, less water holding capacity and unavailability of the essential nutrients such as Mn, Mg, Cu, and Fe required for fruiting and further development of fruit bodies might have resulted in low yield.

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5. Conclusion On the basis of the results of present study it can be concluded that, C. indica can be successfully cultivated in Konkan region during summer season by using paddy straw supplemented with 10 per cent wheat bran. Casing with a combination of sand + soil + spent dried biogas slurry (1:1:1 v/v) or vermicompost alone results in increased biological efficiency of C. indica. In rice based cropping system, there is vast scope for cultivation of C. indica and therefore its cultivation technology needs to be popularized in the farming community. Acknowledgement Authors are thankful to the Department of Plant Pathology Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth (Agricultural University) Dapoli, Maharashtra, India for providing necessary facilities. Abbreviations AICRP : All India Coordinated Research Project PDA : Potato Dextrose Agar DMR : Directorate of Mushroom Research References [1] Amin, R.; A. Khair, N. Alam and T. S. Lee, ―Effect of different substrates and casing material on the growth and

yield of Calocybe indica‖, Mycobiology. 38 (2), 97-101, 2010. [2] Angarish, M.; H. S. Sodhi, P. K. Khanna and C. L. Arora, ―Ideal casing material for Agaricus bisporus cultivation

under natural climatic conditions of Punjab‖, Mushroom Res. 12 (2), 93-96, 2003. [3] Chang, S. T. and P. G. Miles, ―Mushroom: Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect and Environmental

Impact‖, (2nd ed.) CRC press, New York, 2004. [4] Gaur, A.C., ―Bulky organic manures, recyclable wastes and Biofertilizers‖. Ed. H.L.S.Tandon, F.D.C.O. New

Delhi, 1982, pp. 36-53. [5] Gomez, K. A. and A. A Gomez. ―Statistical Procedures for Agricultural Research‖, 2nd ed. John Wiley and

Sons, London, 1986, 680 pp. [6] Jarial, R. S. and T. R. Shandilya, ―Mushroom yield quality characteristics as influenced by various casing

materials in Agaricus bisporus‖ Mushroom Research 14 (2), 64-67, 2005. [7] Jarial, R. S.; T. R. Shandilya and Kumud Jarial, ―Casing in mushroom beds - a review‖, Agric. Rev. 26 (4):

261-271, 2005. [8] Karnawadi, A. A., ―Biodegradation and biosynthetic capacity of milky white mushroom (Calocybe indica)‖, M.Sc.

thesis 2006, submitted to University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad - 580 005 India. [9] Krishnamoorthy A. S. and M. Muthusamy, ―Yield performance of Calocybe indica (P & C) on different

substrates‖, Mushroom Res. 6 (1): 29-32, 1997. [10] Kumar, R.; G. Singh, P. Mishra and R. Singh, ―Effect of organic supplements and casing mixtures on the yield

of two strains of milky mushroom (Calocybe indica)‖, Indian Phytopath. Vol. 65 (4), 2012. [11] Lakshmipathy G.; A. Jayakumar, M. Abhlash and S. P. Raj, ―Optimization of growth parameters for increased

yield of the edible mushroom Calocybe indica‖, African Journal of Biotechnology. Vol. 11 (11): 7701-7710, 2012. [12] Pani B. K., ―Evaluation of some substrate for cultivation of White summer mushroom (Calocybe indica)‖

Research Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 1(4): 357-359, 2010. [13] Prakasam V., ―Current scenario of mushroom research in India‖, Indian Phytopath. 65 (1):1-11, 2012. [14] Purkayastha, R.P. and A. Chandra, ―Manual of Indian Edible Mushrooms‖, Today and Tomorrows Printers and

Publishers, New Delhi, 1985, pp. 192-194. [15] Sahoo, A.; R. K. Ogra, A. Sood and P. S. Ahuja, Chemical composition and nutritive value of bamboo leaves

from different bamboo cultivars. Indian Journal of Animal Nutrition, 26 (4): 306-314, 2009. [16] Sarnya, P.; P. Madhanraj and P. Pannerselvam, ―Cultivation, composting, biochemical and molecular

characterization of Calocybe indica‖, Asian J. Pharm. Res.1 (3):55-57, 2011. [17] Senthilnambi, D.; A. Eswaran and P. Balabaskar, ―Cultivation of Calocybe indica (P & C) during different

months and influence of temperature and relative humidity on the yield of summer mushroom‖, African Journal of Agricultural Research. vol. 6 (3): 771-773, 2011.

[18] Sharma, S. S.; Anila Doshi, A. Triwedi and K.L.Kothari, ―Evaluation of different casing materials for Calocybe indica P & C‖, Mushroom Res. 6 (2): 81-82, 1997.

[19] Singh M.; A. K. Singh and R. K. Gautam, ―Effect of casing and supplementation on yield of milky mushroom Calocybe indica‖, Indian Phytopath. 60 (2): 191-193, 2007.

[20] Singh, M.; A. K. Singh and R. K. Gautam, ―Screening of substrates for growth and yield of Calocybe indica‖, Indian Phytopath. 62 (1): 109-111, 2009.

[21] Tondon G. and V. P Sharma, ―Yield performance of Calocybe indica of various substrate and supplements‖, Mushroom Res. 15 (1): 33-35, 2006.

[22] Yadav, R. S., ―Use of vermiproducts in the production of milky mushroom Calocybe indica‖, M.Sc. Thesis 2006, submitted to University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad - 580 005 India.

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Eco-Tourism in Maharashtra’s Konkan Region: The Way to Sustainable Development

Prachi Navare1

Assistant Professor, Maharashtra State Institute of Hotel Management & Catering Technology, Pune, India. Email: pra-chi.sompurkar@gmail.com

Dr. Sanjay Mali

2

Principal, Dr. B. N. Purandare Arts & Smt. S. G. Gupta Commerce and Science College, Lonavala, India Email: srm7978@gmail.com

Abstract Tourism is an important source of revenue-generation for any destination. It is a source of earning valuable foreign-exchange for the country. It supports the local economy directly as well as indirectly. A form of tourism that has been around for some time is eco-tourism. It is also known as sustainable tourism. It is a kind of tourism which leaves minimum impact on the environment. However, at the same time, it also helps in conservation of the environment. This tourism is for the travelers who are interested in the flora, fauna and natural attractions of a particular destination, rather than man-made attractions and shopping. It is a re-sponsible type of tourism, one that promotes the well-being of the indigenous population, by encouraging financial benefits for the locals. The Konkan region of Maharashtra stretches from Mumbai to Sindhudurg. Its beaches are very popular amongst tourists, and there are a lot of domestic and international visitors or most of the year, except during heavy monsoon. To cater to this demand, there is a lot of development that has taken place over the past few years, ranging from infrastructure and roads, to accommodation facilities, local transport & recreational activities. All this growth and expansion has had an impact on the environment. Encouraging eco-tourism will be instrumental in ensuring sustainable development of the Konkan region.

Keywords: Eco-Tourism; Environment; Impact; Locals; Konkan Introduction

Eco-tourism is a form of tourism that involves travelling with a focus to destinations that are rich in culture as well as natural attractions. It is of interest to those kinds of travelers who would like to reduce the negative effects arising from their visits on the environment. Such travelers are also fascinated by the indigenous culture and landscape.

Tourism in any form has impacts on the environment to a lesser or greater degree. Every organism in the

eco-system has its own role to play. Numerous organisms co-exist in harmony in nature. However, if this synchroniza-tion is disturbed in any way, it disrupts the natural balance.

The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), which is the top-most body for the development of tourism in the

world, defines Tourism Carrying Capacity as ―the maximum number of people that may visit a tourist destination at the same time, without causing destruction of the physical, economic, socio-cultural environment and an unacceptable decrease in the quality of visitors' satisfaction‖

If the number of tourists visiting a particular destination is greater than the carrying capacity, it is reflected in the

harmful after-effects such as garbage left over, traffic jams and pollution, to name a few. Objectives of This Research Article 1. To review eco-tourism development in the Konkan region of Maharashtra State. 2. To suggest recommendations for making this type of tourism successful. Research Methodology This research article is based on secondary data, sourced from research articles and papers, internet websites

and magazine articles as well as Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation website. Konkan Region - A Paradise for Tourists Maharashtra is blessed with a long coastline of about 720 km. There are numerous fishing villages like Karde,

Murud, Harne, Harihareshwar, Achra, Ganpatipule, Tarkarli, that are ideal for a short break away from the demands of modern-day living and its stresses. This proximity to the sea has created beautiful stretches of beaches, which are a main attraction for people. Alibaug, Kihim, Diveagar, Tarkarli, Bhatye beaches are well-known among tourists.

In addition this land, known as ―the Land of Parshuram‖ there are ancient temples that are a major source of

attraction to tourists. Also the original inhabitants, who have migrated elsewhere now, but come to pay respect to their family deities here when they can. Some of these include the Ganesh temple at Ganpatipule, the Suvarna Ganpati at Diveagar, and the Kadyavarcha Ganpati at Anjarle, Kanakaditya Sun temple at Kasheliand Mahakali temple at Adivare where ancient customs and traditions are followed till today. Forts like Raigad, Alibaug, Vijaydurg and Suvarnadurga stand as proud sentinels of history and a visit evokes memories of the glorious Maratha Empire.

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The emerald green coconut palms swaying invitingly in the breeze on the land welcome fishing boats home each evening and morning, laden with the catch of the day. This land has everything, from the seashores to verdant spice and betelnut plantations. The delicious local cuisine comprising of the freshest possible fish and the extremely popular sol kadhi, as well as fruits like mangoes and jackfruit and tales of local favorites like ―kuleethpithla‖ savored with soft rice have attracted many a tourist to this beautiful land.

The Sahyadri mountain ranges are a rich source of bio-diversity. Velas, near Dapoli is well-known as the place

where female Olive Ridley turtles come to lay their eggs, and the little ones, once hatched head for the sea. Malvan is known for its mesmerizing coral reefs.

So, there is something for every type of tourist. The locals of the Konkan region have been quick to grasp this

opportunity and utilize it to improve the local economy. Homestays have come up, offering rooms with attached bathrooms and local food to the droves of visitors.

What is Eco-Tourism? This kind of tourism focuses on conservation of the environment, the host community and sustainability. So, the

stake-holders in eco-tourism must concentrate on the following issues-

1. Reduction of impacts on the environment and the local population whether physical, socio-cultural or psychological.

2. Promotion of respect of local culture and the environment. 3. Restricting them from leaving non-biodegradable waste material in the form of plastic or metal. 4. Ensuring that there is a favorable exchange between the locals and the tourists, thus making both benefit from

the interaction. 5. Delivering economic benefits to the local population that can be partly diverted towards the protection and

upkeep of the natural attractions. 6. Encouraging the multiplier effect of tourism, that can be beneficial for the locals personally as well as for

creating commercial opportunities. 7. Generation of awareness about local issues amongst visitors. 8. Building facilities that create minimum negative impacts on the environment, by following norms such as

CRZ etc. 9. Respecting the local customs and traditions and sensitizing visitors to them. 10. Not carrying any kind of plants (in the form of cuttings etc.) away at the end of a trip from the destination. 11. Experiencing the local way of life, eating the same cuisine and staying as the locals do. Literature Review Hall and Brown (2000) opined that Eco-tourism is an instrument for natural protection and assures sustainable econom-ic benefits for the local people. Usha Bande (2005) analyzed that ecotourism stands for the management of tourism in such a manner that man derives maximum benefits from nature without disturbing its innate balance. It seeks to restore man‘s communication with na-ture and to ensure the fulfillment of the need of the local cultures and traditions remain undisturbed and intact. Raghavan (2005) said that ecotourism is ecologically sustainable with a primary focus on experiencing natural areas that fosters environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and conservation. It is therefore necessary to bring together conservation and development in the activities yearning for economic progress. Panigrahi (2005) stated that eco-tourism as a concept centres on the nature of the tourism and with regard to local communities emphasizes conservation, sustainability and biological diversities. Observations and Discussion 1. The Konkan region of Maharashtra attracts not only domestic, but also foreign visitors who come for relaxation. 2. In spite of the constant flow of tourists, this region of Maharashtra has largely managed to safe guard its original

culture and way of life. The economic gains from tourists have helped in improving the standard of living, with modern day conveniences such as television sets and refrigerators existing in harmony with traditional brass vessels and cow-dung coated floors.

3. The ―Bed and Breakfast scheme‖ of the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation of the State Government has been instrumental in promoting the concept of eco-tourism, offering clean and maintained rooms to the tourists.

4. Hotel rooms and home stays are often built using locally found material such as the ―jambha stone‖and other things such as betel nut tree trunks. This has helped in sustainable development and to minimize the carbon footprint, as fuel required for bringing building material from far off places has reduced.

5. Since the locals are benefitting from tourism, they are actively participating in these endeavors. In fact Velas is an eco-tourism case study by itself. A group of locals organize a ―Kasav Mahotsav‖ that encourages nature

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tourists from all over to visit this village and see the hatching of turtle eggs on the beach and the watch baby turtles progressing to the water. This has helped boost the local economy as so many tourists require accommodation, food etc. that is provided by local entrepreneurs. It also helps in conservation of the sea turtles as now the locals have a personal reason to protect these turtles and prevent their poaching.

Recommendations 1. It is recommended that unregulated ―home stays‟ that have sprung up everywhere and say that they provide an

authentic Konkani experience get themselves upgraded, and ensure that they provide clean rooms and bathrooms to the tourists. These are not recognized under the ―Bed and Breakfast scheme. ‖Currently, there are a lot of resident families that put up signs of ―rooms for visitors‖. These do not have adequate facilities, and even lesser attention is given to hygiene. So, people wanting a true Konkan stay are disappointed and are turning away. They prefer to go to resorts that provide a comfortable stay.

2. Also, the locals are also at times seen to over-charge gullible tourists for food, beverages etc, often quoting rates that would be the same in large cities. This attitude should not persist.

3. There is insufficient trained manpower in this region. Since the tourists are from all over the country as well as abroad, the locals should make an effort to pick up English language basics so that communication becomes easier and hassle-free for both the tourists as well as the hosts.

4. The accommodation providers should be encouraged to use more and more environment-friendly products and incorporate such initiatives in their daily operations like doing away with plastic plates replacing them with the more traditional brass or steel ones.

Conclusion 1. It is seen that to promote sustainable development, it is necessary that all development related to tourism

should consider the opinions and experience of the locals. 2. Moreover, it should be in such a way as to enhance the standard of living of the local population, by generating

income and providing employment. The locals should be made aware of the benefits that their participation will bring for them.

3. Eco-tourism projects will ensure that the indigenous plant and animal species, as well as natural attractions are not affected by development.

4. This kind of tourism will be instrumental in retaining the bio-diversity of the Konkan area, as well as preserving it for the next generation, and future visitors.

References Research Articles 1. Hall, D., Brown, F., ―Tourism in Peripheral Areas‖, Channel view, Clevedon ,U.K., pp. 110-118 , 2000. 2. Panigrahi, Nilakantha, "Development of eco-tourism in tribal regions of Orissa: Potential and recommenda-

tions" (2005). CEWCES Research Papers. Paper 9. http://epublications.bond.edu.au/cewces_papers/9

3. Usha Bande, ―Eco-Tourism and Mountains‖, Yojana Vol. 24 No.15, August 2002, PP 20-24. 4. V.P. Raghavan, ―Economy of Eco-Tourism in Kerala‖. Kerala Calling, Vol. 15, No. 2, Nov-Dec 2005, PP 40-41. Websites 5. www.ecoindia.com , retrieved on 31st August 2015 6. www.traveltips.usatoday.com , retrieved on 31st August 2015 7. www.untamedpaths.com , retrieved on 1st September 2015 8. www.ecotourism.org , retrieved on 5th September 2015 9. www.ecoindia.com , retrieved on 5th September 2015 10. www.woodswaterecotours.com , retrieved on 30th September 2015. 11. www.fao.org , retrieved on 1st October 2015. 12. www.unwto.org , retrieved on 21st October 2015. 13. www.maharashtratourism.gov.in , retrieved on 21st October 2015.

Volume 7, Issue 4 | October — December, 2015

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Evolution of Malvan Coast, Konkan, West Coast of India: A Case Study Using Remote Sensing Data

P.T. Hanamgond

1 , D. Mitra

2

1Department of Geology, G.S. Science College Belgaum, 590 006 Karnataka, India

Email: hanamgondpt@gmail.com

2Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun 248 001 Uttaranchal, India Email: mitra@iirs.gov.in

Source: - Journal of Coastal Research, 24 (3), 672-678, 2008.

Abstract

Konkan is the coastal lowland extending east–west from the Arabian Sea to the Western Ghat escarpment and north–south from north of Mumbai to north of Goa. The city Malvan is located in Sindhudurg district and bounded by three creeks viz., Karli, Kolamb, and Kalavli, of which Karli and Kalavli are the major rivers giving sediment input for this coast. The place is well known for the Sindhudurg Island Fort built by the Maratha King Shivaji during the 16th century and is crowded by tourists during the fair-weather season. The present study is a preliminary work and emerged while carrying out remote sensing application on the southern coast of Maharashtra. Hence, the present report does not have detailed in situ/field data. The remote sensing data provide significant information regarding physical setting, tectonic features, and coastal landforms, especially the large-scale morphological features such as beach ridges, spits, bars, islands, barrier beaches, and lagoons. In the present study, beach ridges and lineaments were observed along the Malvan coast and have been utilized to understand the evolution of the Malvan coast. Along with this, coastal erosion/accretion and landform/land cover classification have also been undertaken using remote sensing data.

Additional Index Words: Beaches, lineaments, land use, coastal evolution

Introduction

The coast of Maharashtra stretches 720 km in length. The Konkan region along the Sahyadri Ranges on India‘s west coast is internationally acclaimed for its sun and sand, making it a heavenly abode (Sathe and Chauhan, 2003). Apart from the beautiful beaches and island forts, the coast is also well known as the king of fruits—mangoes, cashew nuts and ko-kam—which in turn attracts a lot of tourists and traders, making this a busy stretch all through the year. The coast here has distinct morphological features from the rest of the Indian coast (Chandramohan, Anand, and Nayak, 1992) and has a unique combination of nature‘s endowment, with scenic beauty of bays, beaches, islands, and forts. The coastal ecosystem here is unique and divergent owing to the diverse geological and geomorphological processes such as tectonic, fluvial, coastal, and aeolian processes. These processes, which have acted in varying degrees and duration during the Quaternary Period, have left their imprints in the form of various geomorphic features along the coast such as beach ridges, backwater lagoon systems, estuary and creek systems, spit and bar systems, etc. (Ramaswamy, http://www.gisdevelopment.net). It is also known that the coastal region of Maharashtra was tectonically active during the Mio-Pliocene Epoch, and subsequently exo-genetic processes were more powerful (Tandale, 1993).

The Konkan, for a greater part, is developed on a basement of basalt flows of the Deccan

volcanic province (Kumaran, Shindikar, and Limaye, 2004). Deshpande (1998) gives a detailed geology of this area as the oldest rocks, mostly biotite gneisses (3500 ma); the Proterozoic formations (Kaladgi supergroup), such as conglomerate, sandstone, and shales, which occur as inliers (also referred as ‗‗Konkan Kaladgis‘‘); and Miocene-Pliocene sequences, such as Tertiary sediments, lignite, and shales, are exposed along the coastal tract of Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg districts. The Deccan basalt flows belonging to Eocene–Upper Cretaceous age and the recent Pleistocene formations (alluvium, laterite, sand, and soils) occur along this coastal tract. The Proterozoic sedimentary exposures occurring near Malvan are considered the equivalent of the Badami group and are considered to have been deformed during a much younger (Tertiary) activity along the west coast fault (Deshpande, 1998). Deshpande (1998), further in his study, envisaged that after the eruption of Deccan Traps the region of Maharashtra was affected by earth movements, mostly vertical, which led to the development of the present physiographic features, including the formation of the West Coast, the formation of ‗‗Sahyadris/Western Ghats,‘‘ offshore graben, and the development of a drainage system in the state. The continental shelf parallel to the West Coast is traversed by a series of nearly north–south trending faults producing narrow horst and graben structures, arches, and highs separated by basins.

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Figure1. Location map of the study area around Malvan. Kumaran, Shindikar, and Limaye (2004) have made some observations about the paleo sea-level evidences through lignite occurrence. Their study indicates that clays, sandstones, and lignites underlie the laterites in particular at Malvan and carbonaceous/gray-bluish clays occur sporadically along the Konkan coast. Some of these deposits, particularly the carbonaceous clays and lignite, are highly fossiliferous and yield both micro and megafossils of different ecological complexes ranging from terrestrial to aquatic environments. The pneumatophore associated lignites serve as evidence for a higher sea-level strand along the west coast of India during late Neogene (Mio-Pliocene).

The presence of islands composed of crystalline rocks off the mainland close to the coast, the presence of bays, and a jagged shoreline are indicative of a submergent coast. Studies of Kumaran, Shindikar, and Limaye (2004), Powar (1993), Sukhtankar (1986), and Sukhtankar and Pandian (1990) have revealed the presence of beach ridges, occurrence of coral reefs, and lignite beds with in situ mangroves high above the present sea level along the Maharashtra coast. These aspects present the evidences for both an emergent and sub-mergent coast, suggesting a combined nature of coast.

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Figure2. Landform map of Malvan coast during 1988. Figure3. Landform map of Malvan coast during 1999.

In the present study Landsat Thematic Mapper (1989) and Enhanced Thematic Mapper (1999) images spanning a decade have been used (http://glcfapp.umiacs.umd.edu). The coastal processes and climate along any coast at any time are not uniform. It is very difficult to com-pare two scenes for coastal erosion or change with a remote sensing study. This is mainly because the path time and duration is fixed for the sat-ellite at a particular scene. The tidal climate might vary from one scene to other, i.e., if it is high tide in one scene, it may be low tide or mid-tide in the next scene or vice versa. This may obscure many intertidal features as well as the width of the beach. However, for the present study, it is assumed that the coastal processes and coastal climate were similar during both the image dates as they were taken during the post monsoon period (25 October 1989 and 14 November 1999). The standard false color composites were created, using bands 4 (near-infrared), having a wavelength of 0.76 – 0.90 m, 3 (red), having a wavelength of 0.63–0.69 m, and 2 (green), having a wavelength of 0.52–0.60 m. Subsets of the study area were used for land use classification, lineaments, beach ridges, erosion, and accretion along the study area using the standard remote sensing techniques, viz., using high-pass filters for image enhancement, supervised classification, image differencing, etc.

Table1. Area of different classes identified using remote sensing technique during 1989–1999.

Classification Oct. 1989

(ha) %

Nov. 1999 (ha)

%

Agriculture 5167 71.25 2084.5 28.75

Forest (mango/cashew/coconut) 6565.4 41.88 9113 58

Beach and alluvial sand 7551 56.5 5813.1 43.5

Marshy/mangrove 1632 64 923.8 36

Grassland/plantation 427.4 11 3541.6 89

Results and Discussion

Through the satellite image the coastal landforms present along this stretch are clearly identified. The study area exhibits barrier beach with lagoon system (near Kalavli Creek and Karli River), pocket-crescent beaches, offshore islands and rocks, rocky coast, and estuarine beaches (Figure 1). Figure 1 also includes field photographs of important coastal landform and geological features, some of which support as ground truths for the landforms, viz., (a) beach with berm, (c) Karli Estuary, (d & e) crescent beaches, (f) island (Sindhudurg Island Fort), (h) tombolo feature, and (i) barrier beach near Tendoli (Kalavli River mouth).

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Figure4. Erosion/accretion along Malvan coast and creeks. Figure5. Beach ridges at Malvan beach.

Landforms and Land Cover

The landform and land cover classification maps are presented in Figures 2 and 3, while the calculated area of each class has been presented in Table 1. The overall classification accuracy is 84.00% and the overall kappa statistic is 0.7853.

It is noted from these maps and table that there is growth in forest (16%) and grassland/plantation (78%) areas

during 1999. There is a significant decrease in agriculture (42%), beach and alluvial (13%), and mangrove (28%) areas, indicating the possibility of shifting from agriculture to plantation (economically supporting) in the alluvial land areas and also may be due to plantation along the backshore (coconut and casuarina).

A significant decrease in the marshy and mangrove areas is possibly due to increase in settlement; mining of

sand and shell deposits from beach ridge–dune system; river and creeks; tree felling; desiltation in harbour; etc. Mangroves, along the Indian coast in particular, are under heavy stress and about 35% have been lost in less than 15 years (Biradar and Abidi, 2000). Reclamation of backwaters/lagoons, mud-flats, and mangroves for various uses is also common (Nayak, 2000).

Coastal Erosion and Accretion If two or more temporal scenes of the same place are compared, the remote sensing technique gives an overall

and quick picture of shoreline changes (erosion/accretion). But the multitemporal images have to be of the same projection system with the same spatial resolution. Finer spatial resolution will be able to pick up the subtle erosion/accretion areas. Understanding of coastal processes of erosion, deposition, sediment transport, and sea level fluctuation is one of the major requirements for any coastal protection and management plans (Nayak, 2000). To study the coastal erosion/accretion of the study area, the images of 1989 vs. 1999 have been subjected to supervised classification with only two classes— land and water. Using a suitable model in the image processing software, the areas for erosion and accretion have been demarcated (Figure 4). The net erosion or accretion along the stretch was calculated. In the present study, the volume estimation of erosion/accretion has not been carried out. Here the results indicate the change of the shoreline during different periods, which is manifested as erosion/accretion in a two-dimensional view.

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Figure 6. Browse image of Malvan (04 Nov 2005) courtesy http://www.digitalglobe.com/archive ) showing offshore rocks and sediment plume paths.

Figure 7. Beach ridges at Malvan beach shown by a draped image over a digital elevation model.

Figure 8. (A) Schematic diagram showing formation of first phase of ridges after faulting and separation of land at Malvan coast. (B) Schematic diagram showing submergence or erosion of central portion of land leading to erosion of first-phase ridges and formation of second-phase ridges at Malvan coast.

It is noted that the erosion of the coast has been significant (477.8 ha), with a deposition (gain) of about 100 ha during 1989–1999, giving rise to a net erosion (loss) of 378 ha.

The erosion may be possibly due to several reasons

such as strong long shore currents and change in the littoral drift due to increasing human interference along the coast such as urbanization; harbour development; construction of dams; desiltation in the bays, estuaries, and creeks; sand mining from beach ridge–dune system and river beds; etc. Nayak (2000) also reports that the groins, seawalls, breakwaters, and other protective structures have secondary effects resulting in downstream erosion along with dredging and other human activities; apart from these, construction of dams along rivers aid erosional processes.

Beach Ridges

The study of beach ridges is an essential aspect of coastal research as it provides clues about Holocene sea-level fluctuations and climate. Many researchers have reported the occurrences of beach ridges along the west coast of India, especially a the Uttara Kannada and Maharashtra coast ( Kumar, Kumar and Anand, 2000;

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Figure 9. Lineaments at Malvan coast with mean vector rose diagram.

Sukhtankar, 1986). In the present study the beach ridges have been delineated using satellite images (Figure 5). The beach ridges, which run parallel to the present coastline at Malvan, are formed because of the presence of Sindhudurg Island. The coast here is mainly influenced by northwesterly, westerly, and southwesterly waves. Sindhudurg Island and the rocks exposed offshore provide an obstacle to these waves and hence the shadow effect is caused at the beach in front of the island and offshore rocks. Because of this shadow effect, longshore currents occur in opposing directions, giving rise to deposition of the beach at the shadow zone, providing the tombolo effect. Such tombolos are clearly visible along this stretch wherever offshore rocks or islands are present near the coast. The figure shows that most of the city of Malvan is situated on the beach ridges. A striking feature is that the Proterozoic sedimentary rock exposures (Konkan Kaladgis) ranging between 540 and 2500 m.y. (Deshpande, 1998) situated north of Sindhudurg Fort Island (behind the Inspection Bungalow), Kaura rocks, and rocks around Karli river (offshore) giving a linear trend (Figure 6) suggest that they were once attached to the mainland and now detached from the mainland owing to the major lineament or fault (Figure 6). This fault might be associated with the major Sahyadri or Western Ghat lineament running 50 km with a north–south trend with down throw on the west occurring during late Pliocene. Further, owing to the formation of tombolo effect, the mainland and the detached strip of land (Sindhudurg Island and rocks behind Inspection Bungalow) were welded, developing the first phase of the beach ridges. Again in course of time the Sindhudurg Island and the rocks near

Inspection Bungalow were separated because of erosion (or submerged?) owing to the effect of east–west lineament (?) that is observed in the form of creeks in the mainland. This provided a passage for waves in between Sindhudurg island and rocks behind Inspection Bungalow that eroded the first phase of ridges and augmented the second phase of beach ridge development. This can be clearly envisaged in the satellite image indicated by the beach ridge truncations (circled portion in Figures 5 and 7). The above process has been schematically shown in the Figure 8. Mathur, Pandey, and Bahadur (2004) in their report mention that the Holocene transgression reached a maximum level between 2200 and 2600 years BP and left fossil beach ridges about 2 m above the high-tide level along the Konkan coast. This fact supports and indicates the possible period of formation of the beach ridges along the Malvan coast. Further, the occurrence of lignite beds near Kolamb creek (Kumaran, Shindikar, and Limaye 2004) supports that the area was once under the ocean.

Lineaments

Lineaments in the satellite images were identified

along the river course, creeks, and sharp scarps that are linear and continuous. The majority of the lineaments in the study area runs almost NE–SW (223). A major lineament that runs almost NNW–SSE (Figure 9) plays a major role in the physical setting of the coast along this stretch. This fact corroborates earlier reports (Biswal et al., 2003; Karlekar, 2001; Powar, 1993).

Along Konkan coast, Power (1993) has reported

that the Konkan coastal belt is characterized by a strong concentration of lineaments in an approximately north–south direction. The orientation of Sahyadri upland is NE-SW and the lineament patterns are characteristic of vertical uplift. His study shows that the lineament patterns reflect the joint role of compression (resulting from the collision of the Indian plate and its subsequent subduction, beginning middle Eocene, below the Eurasian plate) and vertical uplift due to isostatic adjustment.

Conclusion

The Malvan coast has evolved by faulting along

the coast (344 having a length of about 30 km, Figure 7) aided by the tombolo effect as explained in Results and Discussion section. The study exhibits the possibility of a strip of land detached from the mainland owing to this faulting and subsequently broken down into a group of islands or rock exposures offshore. Using remote sensing data, two generations of beach ridges were identified that can be explored in the future for additional signatures and possible time period. The present study has demonstrated the use of satellite imagery supported by ground-truth data to delineate the coastal landforms and land cover, morphodynamics, tectonics, and in general the coastal evolution on a regional scale. However, high-resolution satellite images with a detailed ground-truth survey using a global positioning system can provide better understanding of the coastal dynamics along the Malvan coast. The present study is a preliminary work. However, this report will definitely be of great use to the researchers to take up a detailed work, especially for the coastal dynamics and sea-level changes.

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Acknowledgments

We are thankful to the Dean, Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun, India, for providing the necessary facilities.

Literature Cited Biradar, R.S. and Abidi, S.A.H., 2000. Subtle issues in the management of coastal fisheries and aquaculture. In:

Sudarshana, R.; Mitra, D.; Mishra, A.K.; Roy, P.S., and Rao, D.P. (eds.), Subtle Issues in Coastal Management. Dehradun, India: Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, pp. 65–75.

Biswal, T.K.; Kundu, B.; Anand, M., and Subramanyan, V., 2003. Morphotectonic analysis of the Konkan Coast

of Maharashtra and its seismic implication. In: Gupta, H.K. and Gupta, G.D. (eds.), Earthquake Studies in Peninsular India: Since 1993. Geological Society of India Memoir 54.

Chandramohan, P.; Anand, N.M., and Nayak, B.U., 1992. Surf zone dynamics of the Konkan Coast, India.

In: Desai, B.N. (ed.), Oceanography of the Indian Ocean. New Delhi: IBH, pp. 751–759. Deshpande, G.G., 1998. Geology of Maharashtra, Geological Society of India, Text Book Series 10, 223p. Karlekar, S.N., 2001. The evidences of the vertical displacement of shorelines in Konkan (West Coast of India).

In: Rajamanickam, G.V. and Tooley, M.J. (eds.), Proceedings of the International Seminar on Quaternary Sea Level Variation, Shoreline Displacement and Coastal Environment. Delhi, India: New Academic Publ. pp. 162–166.

Kumar V.S.; Kumar K.A., and Anand N. M., 2000, Characteristics of waves off Goa, west coast of India. Journal

of Coastal Research, 16 (3), 782–789. Kumaran, K.P.N.; Shindikar, M., and Limaye, R.B., 2004. Man-grove associated lignite beds of Malvan, Konkan:

evidence for higher sea level during the Late Tertiary (Neogene) along the west coast of India. Current Science, 86 (2), 335–340.

Mathur, U.B.; Pandey D.K., and Bahadur, T., 2004, Falling Late Holocene sea level along the Indian Coast.

Current Science, 87 (4), 439–440. Nayak, S., 2000. Critical issues in coastal zone management and role of remote sensing. In: Sudarshana,

R.; Mitra, D.; Mishra, A.K.; Roy, P.S., and Rao, D.P. (eds.), Subtle Issues in Coastal Management. Dehradun, India: Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, pp. 75–98.

Powar, K.B., 1993. Geomorphological evolution of Konkan coastal belt and adjoining Sahyadri Uplands with

reference to Quaternary uplift, Current Science, 64, 793–796. Ramaswamy, S. Mapping of coastal eco system using remote sensing and spatial technology—experience from

South India; http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/nrm/coastal/mnm/nrmmm002.htm . Sathe, P.V. and Chauhan, O.S., 2003. The saga of Sahyadri: societal environmental issues of Konkan and

Goa. Recent Advances in Environmental Science, 26–35. Sukhtankar, R.K., 1986. Trends in grain-size measures of the quaternary sediments off the Vengurla coast, Ma-

harashtra, with reference to beach morphology and tectonic evolution. Journal of the Geological Society of India, 27(5), 419–427.

Sukhtankar, R.K. and Pandian, R.S., 1990. Evaluation of sea-level rise on the shore zone areas of the Maha-

rashtra, coast. In: Raja-Manickam, G.V. (ed.), Sea Level Variation and Its Impact on Coastal Environment. Thanjavur, India: Tamil University, pp. 329–338.

Tandale, T.D., 1993. Coastal environ of Maharashtra—evolution and human activities aided with satellite re-

mote sensing. Photo-nirvachak, 21 (2), 59–65. Hanamgond, P.T. and Mitra, D., 2008. Evolution of Malvan Coast, Konkan, west coast of India—a case study

using remote sensing data. Journal of Coastal Research, 24(3), 672–678. West Palm Beach (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.

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Farming Systems Diversification in North Konkan Region of

Maharashtra — An Economic Analysis*

S.R. Torane1, B.K. Naik

2, V.S. Kulkarni

2 and J.M. Talathi

1

1Department of Agricultural Economics, Dr B.S.Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli-415 712, Maharashtra

2Department of Agribusiness Management, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad-580 005, Karnataka

*This article is based on the part of Ph.D. Thesis entitled and econometric analysis of farming systems in north Konkan region of Maharashtra submitted to university of agricultural sciences, Dharwad by the first author.

Abstract

The location-specific existing farming systems have been studied for their profitability and extent of diversification in the North Konkan region of Maharashtra. The study is based on the primary data collected from 360 farmers, as well as secondary data on agro-climatic parameters. The study area has been delineated into different clusters/sub- regions using hierarchical agglomerative method. The farming in the North Konkan region has been found highly varied in nature. The enterprises being followed and farm situations are of different nature across different clusters. The farm economy has also depicted a wide variation as per farm income has been found to range from ₹1135 to ₹218015 across different farming systems. The most profitable farming systems in study area are: (i) Paddy + Irrigated plantation + Betelvines (B:C ratio, 2.02), (ii) Paddy + Pulses + Dairying + Poultry (B:C ratio, 1.74), (iii) Paddy + Vegetables + Dairying (B:C ratio,1.62), (iv) Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Rainfed plantation + Dairying (B:C ratio,1.57), (v) Irrigated plantations + Dairying (B:C ratio,1.56), and (vi) Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Flowers (B:C ratio,1.42). The diversification has shown a positive co-relation with profitability which underlines the importance of combination of enterprises.

Key words: Farming systems, Agricultural diversification, North Konkan region, Farm economy, SPSS, Crop diversification index Introduction Agriculture constitutes one of the most crucial sectors of Indian economy by virtue of its being the single largest contributor to national gross domestic product (GDP) which hovers around 18.5 per cent (Rajmani, 2007) of the total income and provider of employment to 59.2 per cent of the total workforce. With declining farm sizes, it is becoming increasingly difficult to produce enough food for the country. The progress in production or steady growth in output is necessary to meet the challenges posed by the present economic, political and technological environment. On the other hand, farmers need to be assured of regular income for a living at least above the poverty line. In this context, adoption of farming system approach is one of the important solutions to meet this peculiar situation because in the farming system approach different enterprises can be undertaken meaningfully and based on the available resources, location-specific systems can be developed which will result into sustainable agricultural development. In view of this, the paper has studied the location-specific existing farming systems, along with their profitability and extent of diversification in the North Konkan region of the Maharashtra state. Data and Methodology The study was conducted in the North Konkan region, which is one of the agro-climatic zones of the Maharashtra state. It is based on the primary as well secondary data for the year 2006-07. The tahsil level secondary data for 23 different agro-climatic parameters were collected and the study area was delineated by applying cluster analysis. Hierarchical agglomerative method was used for delineation of the study area. The discriminent analysis was carried out for the verification of clusters in which cluster membership of tahsil was applied as a grouping variable. The Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) was used to carry out cluster and discriminent analyses. The study area was divided into five distinct clusters (Similar results were observed by Naik, 1998), out of which, four clusters were selected for the study. The fifth cluster comprising Mumbai and the adjoining urban area was dropped from the study. The primary data for 90 sample farmers (30 small, 30 medium, and 30 large) was collected for the year 2006-07 from each cluster. Thus, a total of 360 sample farmers were randomly selected for the study. These clusters were renamed as (i) Northern Coastal Plains, (ii) Southern Coastal Plains, (iii) Northern Central Plains & Hills, and (iv) Southern Central Plains & Hills. Simpson‘s diversification index was used to examine the extent of diversification in the farming systems as well as diversification across the crops (cropping systems). This index has a range from zero to one and increases with the extent of diversification.

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Analytical Tools Diversification Index for Farming System

where, Di = Diversification index, Si = Share of net income of the i

th enterprise in per farm net income, and

S = Per farm net income of a farming system. Crop Diversification Index

where, Di = Diversification index, Si = Share of area of the i

th crop enterprise in gross cropped area, and

S = Gross cropped area. The Pearson‘s correlation coefficient was used to assess the linkage between diversification index and profitability of the farming systems. Simple tabular analysis and standard cost concepts were used to work out the cost and returns of different enterprises. Results and Discussion Existing Farming Systems The study area was delineated as per the results of cluster analysis and has been presented in Table 1. In the study area, a total of 26 farming systems were identified in different clusters or regions. Out of these, 21 farming systems were considered for the study as major farming systems (10 % or more farmers in a cluster). The listing of existing farming systems along with the number of farmers who had adopted them and the per cent area under each system have been depicted in Table 2. Table1. Delineation of study area on the basis of agro-climatic parameters:

Cluster No.

Name of cluster Tahsils

1 Northern Coastal Plains (NCP) region Talasari, Dahanu, Palghar, Vasai

2 Northern Central Plains & Hills (NCPH) region Vikramgadh, Jawhar, Mokhada, Wada, Bhivandi,

3 Southern Central Plains & Hills (SCPH) region Panvel, Karjat, Khalapur, Pen, Sudhagadh,

4 Southern Coastal Plains (SCP) region Uran, Alibag, Murud, Shrivardhan, Mhasala

5. Central region (CR) Thane, Ulhasnagar, Ambarnath, Kalyan

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Table2. Existing farming systems in North Konkan region

Farming System No.

Farming system Number of Farmers

Area (ha)

Cluster – I: Northern Coastal Plains region

FS–I Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Dairying 27 53.73

FS–II Paddy + Grass + Dairying + Goat rearing 15 17.25

FS-III Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Flowers 14 26.46

FS-IV Irrigated plantations + Dairying 13 14.56

FS- V Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Betelvines 11 21.89

FS- VI Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Poultry 6 6.78

FS-VII Paddy + Flower + Dairying 4 3.20

Sub-total 90 193.87

Cluster – II: Northern Central Plains & Hills region

FS–I Paddy + Other cereals + Rainfed plantations + Dairying 21 37.38

FS-II Paddy + Other cereals + Dairying + Goat rearing 18 25.38

FS-III Paddy + Pulses + Dairying 15 23.25

FS-IV Paddy + Vegetables + Poultry 13 19.50

FS-V Paddy + Grass + Dairying 12 26.6

FS-VI Paddy + Goat rearing 5 8.21

FS-VII Paddy + Other cereals + Oilseeds 4 5.4

FS-VIII Paddy + Grass + Goat rearing 2 1.96

Sub-total 90 147.24

Cluster – III: Southern Central Plains & Hills region

FS-I Paddy + Vegetables + Dairying 22 43.56

FS-II Paddy + Dairying 19 33.35

FS-III Paddy + Dairying + Goat rearing 17 21.59

FS-IV Paddy + Pulses + Dairying + Poultry 15 23.55

FS-V Paddy + Rainfed plantations + Dairying 11 34.87

FS-VI Paddy + Pulses + Goat rearing 6 8.52

Sub-total 90 165.44

Cluster – IV: Southern Coastal Plains region

FS-I Paddy + Rainfed plantations + Dairying 23 33.12

FS-II Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Dairying 18 23.04

FS-III Paddy + Irrigated plantations +Rainfed planta-tions + Dairying

13 34.58

FS-IV Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Vegetables + Dairying 12 16.80

FS-V Irrigated plantations + Dairying 10 8.50

FS-VI Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Rainfed planta-tions + Poultry

9

19.71

FS-VII Rainfed plantations + Poultry 4 4.92

FS-VIII Paddy + Irrigated plantations 1 1.43

Sub-total 90 192.10

Grand total 360 698.65

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It was observed from Table 2 that in the Northern Coastal Plains region the five farming systems being followed were: (i) Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Dairying (FS-I), (ii) Paddy + Grass + Dairying + Goat rearing (FS-II), (iii) Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Flowers (FS-III), (iv) Irrigated plantations + Dairying (FS-IV), and (v) Paddy + Irrigated plantations (FS-V). The paddy enterprise was being followed in all the farming systems, except FS-IV. In addition to paddy and irrigated plantations, farmers also followed flowers, betelvines and dairying, which indicated awareness among the farmers to implement market-oriented farm production in this region, as Mumbai market is near to this region.

The farming systems in the Northern Central Plains & Hills region were: (i) Paddy + Other cereals + Rainfed

plantations + Dairying (FS-I), (ii) Paddy + Other cereals + Dairying + Goat rearing (FS-II), (iii) Paddy + Pulses + Dairying (FS-III), (iv) Paddy + Vegetables + Poultry (FS-IV), and (v) Paddy + Grass + Dairying (FS-V). In this region, along with paddy, other cereals, pulses and vegetables were being grown. The goat rearing was followed mainly by the tribal farmers, while some land was kept idle for the grass enterprise. It was due to the demand for grass as cattle feed on one side and scarcity of certain inputs with farmers to cultivate other crop enterprises on other side. In the Southern Central Plains & Hills region, the five major farming systems being followed were: (i) Paddy + Vegetables + Dairying (FS-I), (ii) Paddy + Dairying (FS-II), (iii) Paddy + Dairying + Goat rearing (FS-III), (iv) Paddy + Pulses + Dairying + Poultry (FS-IV), and (v) Paddy + Rainfed plantations + Dairying (FS-V). In this region, paddy was grown during kharif as well as rabi seasons and paddy and dairying were the major enterprises undertaken by the farmers along with vegetables and poultry.

The farming systems followed in the Southern Coastal Plains region were: (i) Paddy + Rain fed plantations +

Dairying (FS-I), (ii) Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Dairying (FS-II), (iii) Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Rain fed planta-tions + Dairying (FS-III), (iv) Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Vegetables + Dairying (FS-IV), (v) Irrigated plantations + Dairying (FS-V) and (vi) Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Rain fed plantations + Poultry (FS-VI). The irrigated plantations and rain fed plantations were the main enterprises followed in addition to paddy in this region due to the suitable agro-climatic situation for these crops.

Cost and Returns Structure The cost and return structure of different farming systems was estimated for each region (clusters) independent-

ly. It has been presented in Tables 3 to 6 and discussed region-wise in the following sections. Northern Coastal Plains Region The farming system wise cost and returns profile of the Northern Coastal Plains region has been presented in

Table 3. The enterprises followed in FS-I were paddy, sapota, coconut, arecanut, banana and dairying. The per farm total cost was ₹110053 and gross returns were ₹167116. The net returns at total cost were ₹57063/farm, resulting into returns on per rupee invested at total cost to be ₹1.52. The components of FS-II were paddy, grass, dairying and goat rearing. The per farm total cost was ₹58176 and per farm gross returns were ₹59374. The net returns over total cost were just ₹1198/farm, resulting into low returns on per rupee invested at total cost (₹1.02). In FS-III, the total cost was worked out to ₹ 124442/ farm and net returns over total cost were ₹52635/ farm. The farmers following FS-IV were engaged in cultivation of sapota, coconut and arecanut crops along with maintaining the dairy animals. The per farm gross returns were worked out to be ₹158728. The net returns over total cost were ₹57618/farm, resulting into returns on per rupee invested at total cost to be ₹1.56. The enterprises followed in FS-V were paddy, coconut, betel vines and arecanut. The per farm total variable cost was ₹122005. The total cost was worked out to be ₹212360. The per farm gross returns amounted to ₹430375 and returns on per rupee invested at total cost were ₹2.02.

Table 3. Cost and returns structure of major farming systems followed in Northern Coastal Plains region

Particulars FS – I FS – II FS – III FS – IV FS – V

Total variable cost (TVC) 77062 38439 89183 70751 122005

Total fixed cost (TFC) 32991 19737 35259 30359 90355

Total cost (TC) 110053 58176 124442 101110 212360

Output / Returns

Returns from crops 130033 15015 177077 113595 430375

Dairying 37083 31707 45133

Goat rearing 12652

Gross returns 167116 59374 177077 158728 430375

Net returns at TC 57063 1198 52635 57618 218015

Returns on per rupee invested at TC 1.52 1.02 1.42 1.56 2.02

Crop diversification index 0.65 0.47 0.85 0.35 0.45

Farming system diversification index 0.45 0.42 0.90 0.45 0.26

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Table 4. Cost and returns structure of major farming systems followed in Northern Central Plains & Hills region (₹/farm)

Particulars FS – I FS – II FS – III FS – IV FS – V

Total variable cost (TVC) 40814 48426 35323 301231 47163

Total fixed cost (TFC) 9629 8786 8440 47819 10010

Total cost (TC) 50443 57212 43763 349050 57173

Output / Returns

Returns from crops 40716 18029 35043 96263 24278

Dairying 24195 31494 19422 43919

Poultry 347898

Goat rearing 16371

Gross returns 64911 65894 54465 444161 68197

Net returns at TC 14468 8682 10702 95111 11024

Returns on per rupee invested at TC 1.29 1.15 1.24 1.27 1.19

Crop diversification index 0.60 0.26 0.60 0.47 0.50

Farming system diversification index 0.65 0.32 0.60 0.61 0.36

Among the farming systems followed in the Northern Coastal Plains, the per farm net returns over total cost were maximum in FS-V (₹218015), followed by FS-IV (₹57618), and FS-I (₹57063). Similar results were obtained by Chipte (1997). The net returns per rupee invested at total cost were worked out to be ₹2.02 in FS-V, followed by ₹1.56 (FS-IV), ₹1.52 (FS-I), ₹1.42(FS-III) and ₹1.02(FS-II). The net returns per rupee invested were maximum in FS-V (₹ 2.02) which was mainly due to betel vine crop, indicating high profitability of the system. It can be concluded that the in North Coastal Plains, the farmers following the farming system paddy + irrigated plantations + betel vines (FS-V) were getting more profit than the farmers following other farming systems. However, it was observed that there were spatial limitations for this system, because this system could not be followed in whole of the region due to the requirement of specific climatic conditions. In the Northern Coastal Plains region, FS-I, FS-III and FS-IV have also shown a higher profitability.

Northern Central Plains & Hills Region

The enterprises followed in FS-I were paddy, finger millet, mango, cashewnut, prosomillet and dairying. The per

farm gross returns from various enterprises amounted to ₹64911. The returns on per rupee invested at total cost were ₹1.29. In FS-II, the enterprises were paddy, fingermillet, prosomillet, goat rearing and dairying. The per farm total cost and gross returns were worked out to be ₹57212 and ₹65894, respectively, resulting into net returns of ₹8682. The returns on per rupee invested at total cost were ₹1.15. The FS-III consisted enterprises such as paddy, black gram, cowpea, wal, green gram and dairying. The per farm total cost and gross returns were ₹43763 and ₹ 54465, respective-ly while returns on per rupee invested at total cost were ₹ 1.24. In FS-IV, enterprises followed were: paddy, brinjal, la-dy‘s finger and poultry. The total variable cost and total fixed cost amounted to ₹301231 and ₹47819, respectively with gross returns as ₹444161. The FS-V comprised following enterprises: paddy, grass and dairying. The per farm total cost was ₹57173 and gross returns were ₹68197. The net returns at total cost were maximum in FS–IV (₹95111), followed by FS-I (₹14468); this indicated that the farmers who followed FS-IV earned more from farming. It was also revealed that in FS-II and FS-V, the subsidiary enterprises like dairying and goat-rearing were playing important role in improving the economic condition of tribal farmers, because even if the net amount realized by the farmers was less, considering their asset position and paid out costs, the income earned under these farming system was highly supportive to them. It could be concluded that the area under rainfed plantations, number of dairy animals and number of poultry birds need to be increased to improve net returns of different farming systems in this region.

Southern Central Plains & Hills Region The farmers following FS-I in this region undertake enterprises like paddy, bottle gourd, tomato, brinjal, smooth gourd, lady‘s finger, chilli and dairying. The per farm total variable cost and total cost were worked out to be ₹54608 and ₹74520, respectively (Table 5). The per farm gross returns were ₹120722 and returns on per rupee invested at total cost were ₹1.62. In FS-II, paddy and dairying enterprises were being undertaken. The per farm total cost and gross returns were ₹ 42966 and ₹ 44101, respectively. The per farm net returns at total cost were very low (₹1135) in this system. The

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Table 5. Cost and returns structure of major farming systems followed in Southern Central Plains & Hills region

(₹/farm)

Particulars FS – I FS – II FS – III FS – IV FS – V

Total variable cost 54608 35492 38626 242220 71413

Total fixed cost 19912 7474 8569 24728 18030

Total cost (TC) 74520 42966 47195 266948 89443

Output / Returns

Returns from crops 90015 24143 17162 29561 62246

Dairying 30706 19958 31810 32349 54958

Poultry 403152

Goat rearing 10037

Gross returns 120722 44101 59009 465062 117204

Net returns at TC 46202 1135 11814 198113 27761

Returns on per rupee invested at TC 1.62 1.03 1.25 1.74 1.31

Crop diversification index 0.71 0.44 0.27 0.59 0.58

Farming system diversification index 0.75 0.12 0.38 0.13 0.53

Table 6. Cost and returns structure of major farming systems followed in Southern Coastal Plains region (₹/Farm)

Particulars FS – I FS – II FS – III FS – IV FS - V FS – VI

Total variable cost 42883 50067 80227 92434 38432 449977

Total fixed cost 12189 14447 31725 30885 12568 37795

Total cost (TC) 55072 64514 111952 123319 51000 487772

Output / Returns

All crops 44829 45261 116688 140799 44456 84836

Dairying 34114 43674 59519 44860 24032

Poultry 48639600

Gross returns 78943 88935 176207 185659 68487 571232

Net returns at TC 23871 24421 64255 62340 17487 83460

Returns on per rupee invested at TC 1.43 1.38 1.57 1.51 1.34 1.17

Crop diversification index 0.59 0.54 0.75 0.78 0.36 0.75

Farming system diversification index 0.55 0.63 0.72 0.78 0.47 0.54

enterprises followed under FS-III were paddy, dairying and goat rearing. The per farm total cost and gross returns were ₹ 47195 and ₹59009, respectively resulting into net returns of ₹11814 and net returns per rupee invested at total cost as ₹1.25. In FS-IV, the farm enterprises paddy, cowpea, wal, gram, green gram, dairying and poultry were being followed. The per farm total cost was worked out to be ₹266948 with gross returns of ₹465062. In FS-V, enterprises observed were paddy, mango, cashew and dairying. It was revealed that inclusion of poultry and vegetable crops in the farming system had increased the cost relatively less and provided more net returns as compared to other enterprises. The per farm gross returns and total cost were ₹117204 and ₹89443, resulting into net returns of ₹ 27761. The net returns per rupee were ₹ 1.31. The

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vegetables, dairying, and poultry enterprises had more share in income, indicating the necessity of their inclusion in the farming system. The gross returns were maximum in FS-IV (₹ 465062), followed by FS-I (₹120722), FS-V (₹117204), FS-III (₹59009) and FS-II (₹44101). The returns on per rupee invested in farming systems ranged from ₹1.03 in FS-II to ₹1.74 in FS-IV. It was also observed that FS-IV and FS-I were highly profitable farming systems in this region, while FS-II was found to be the least economical system.

Southern Coastal Plains Region

The farmers following FS-I (Table 6) had undertaken enterprises of paddy, mango, coconut and dairying in this region. The gross return were ₹78943 and the returns on per rupee invested at total cost were ₹1.43. In FS-II, enterprises such as paddy, coconut, arecanut and dairying were being undertaken by the farmers. The net returns over total cost were ₹24421 and returns per rupee invested at total cost were ₹1.38. The components of FS-III were paddy, coconut, arecanut, mango, cashew and dairying. The per farm total cost was ₹111952. The FS-IV consisted of enterprises like paddy, arecanut, coconut, brinjal, smooth gourd, bottle gourd and dairying. The per farm gross returns and total cost were ₹185659 and ₹123319, respectively. The per farm net income was ₹62340 and returns per rupee invested were ₹1.51. The components of FS-V were coconut, arecanut and dairying. The per farm gross returns were ₹ 68487 and returns on per rupee invested at total cost were ₹1.34. The farmers following FS-VI had undertaken farm enterprises such as paddy, coconut, arecanut, mango, cashew and poultry. The per farm gross returns were ₹571232 and net returns over total cost were ₹83460, resulting into returns on per rupee invested at total cost as ₹1.17.

Among the different farming systems in the region, per farm gross returns were maximum in FS -VI (₹571232), followed by FS- IV (₹185659) and FS-III (₹176207). The returns on per rupee invested were maximum in FS-III (₹1.57), followed by FS-IV (₹1.51), FS-I (₹1.43), FS-II (₹1.38), FS-V (₹1.34) and FS-VI (₹1.17). It was revealed that though the gross income and per farm net returns were higher in FS-VI than the other farming systems, the returns on per rupee invested were less, indicating operation of economies of scale.

A comparison of economics of identical farming systems across the regions suggested that FS-I and FS-IV in the Northern Coastal Plains region were more profitable compared to the similar systems, viz. FS-II and FS-V in the Southern Coastal Plains region. The net returns per rupee invested were also higher in the Northern Coastal Plains region than in the Southern Coastal Plains region in both these systems. Similarly, FS-5 of the Southern Central Plains & Hills region had marginally higher net returns over the FS-1 in Southern Coastal Plains region. However, the net returns per rupee in both the regions were at par in this farming system.

Crop Diversification

The crop diversification index was found to range from 0.26 to 0.85. The value of diversification index was maximum in FS-III (Cluster-I) in which paddy, irrigated plantations, and flowers were grown, followed by FS-IV in Cluster IV (0.78) in which paddy, irrigated plantations and vegetables were undertaken. A positive linkage was found between diversification index and profitability, as the correlation coefficient was worked out to be 0.23.

Diversification of Farming Systems

The diversification index of farming systems ranged from 0.12 to 0.90, indicating a wide variation in distribution of per-farm income. The maximum diversification was found in Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Flower farming system in cluster-I, followed by Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Vegetables + Dairying farming system in cluster-IV. In all the farming systems, 52 per cent (11) were found to be the diversified farming systems in the study area. Similar results were obtained by Talathi (2002) in case of fruits and vegetable crops in the Thane district of Maharashtra. Across regions, diversification index of farming systems in the Southern Coastal Plains was found to be higher in most of the farming system, while it was lower in the Southern Central Plains & Hills region. At the overall level, the extent of diversification was higher in the Southern Coastal Plains region and Northern Coastal Plains region than in Southern Central Plains & Hills and Northern Central Plains & Hills regions. It indicated that the area which was nearer to the sea coast had higher diversification than the area away from the sea coast due to the advantage of appropriate microclimate and suitable topographic situations. Conclusions and Policy Implications The study has revealed that farming in the North Konkan region is highly varied in nature. The enterprises being followed and farm situations are of different nature across the identified clusters. The farm economy has also depicted a wide variation as per farm income has been found to range from ₹1135 to ₹218015 across different farming systems. The most profitable farming systems identified in the study area are: (i) Paddy + Irrigated plantation + Betelvines (B:C ratio, 2.02), (ii) Paddy + Pulses + Dairying + Poultry (B:C ratio, 1.74), (iii) Paddy + Vegetables + Dairying (B:C ratio,1.62), (iv) Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Rainfed plantation + Dairying (B:C ratio,1.57), (v) Irrigated plantations + Dairying (B:C ratio,1.56), and (vi) Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Flowers (B:C ratio, 1.42). The region-specific farming systems need to be focused and promoted. The study has identified the following farming systems across different regions: (a) Northern Coastal Plains region: (1) Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Dairying, and (2) Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Flowers, (b) Northern Central Plains & Hills region: (1) Paddy + Other cereals + Rainfed plantation + Dairying, and (2) Paddy + Vegetables + Poultry; (c) Southern Central Plains & Hills region: (1) Paddy + Vegetables + Dairying, and (2) Paddy + Rainfed plantations + Dairying, and (d) Southern Coastal Plains: (1) Paddy + Rainfed plantation + Dairying, and (2) Paddy + Irrigated plantations + Rainfed plantation + Dairying. Of the total farming systems in the study area, 52 per cent have been found as the diversified farming systems. Also, the area which is nearer to the sea coast has shown higher diversification than the area away from the sea coast. The diversification has revealed a positive co-relation with profitability which underlines the importance of combinations of enterprises.

-o0o-

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References

Aldender, M.S. and Blashfield, R.K. (1984) Cluster Analysis: Quantitative Application in the Social Science (Paper No. 44), Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA.

Anonymous (2006 a) District Socio-economic Review of Thane District. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of Maharashtra, Mumbai.

Anonymous (2006 b) District Socio-economic Review of Raigad District. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of Maharashtra, Mumbai.

Chipte (1997) Economics of farming systems in Thane district. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis (unpublished), submitted to Dr. B. S. Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli, Maharashtra.

Joshi, P.K. (1987) Effect of surface irrigation on land degradation: Problems and strategies. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 42 (3): 416-423.

Naik, B.K. (1998) Farming system in Uttar Kannada district – An econometric analysis. Ph.D. Thesis (unpublished), submitted to University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka.

Rajmani, R.C. (2007) Optimism on growth constraints over inflation, Yojana, (3): 44-47. Talathi, J.M. (2002) An economic analysis of investment for sustainable use of ground water in Konkan region of Maharashtra state. Ph.D. Thesis (unpublished), submitted to University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka.

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Infrastructural Facilities for Tourism Development in Konkan Region (Maharashtra State)

1Mr. Milind V. Talware,

2Mr. Upendrakumar A. Tiwari and

3Dr. B.B. Sonule

1Research Scholar, University of Mumbai, Mumbai.

2Lecturer, Gurukul College of Commerce Ghatkopar.

3Professsor, University of Mumbai, Mumbai.

Source: Tactful Management Research Journal [ISSN-2319-7943]

Abstract:

Tourism is fast becoming the dominant global activity surpassing even trade in oil and manufactured goods. It is an important fac-tor for regional development. So, Konkan can be developed only through Tourism activity. The Konkan has Geography, History as well as cultural heritage and this is the potential of tourism. The various beaches, forts, temples and waterfalls are main attraction of the tourists' in the Konkan. There is wide scope of development of Tourism. Tourism development may be defined as the crea-tion, provision or addition of facilities, amenities and services to meet the needs of the tourist. The various types of facilities and services required in the process of tourism development. So, the present research paper focus on Important of infrastructure facili-ties required for development of tourism in Konkan region.

Keywords: Public Private Partnership, Travel Mart

1 Introduction Infrastructural development is necessary to stimulate the development of tourism. It predominantly serves the

residential population but is also shared by tourists and is essential for tourism development. Infrastructure consists of all the underground and surface development construction of a region. It comprises transportation terminals (railway lines, parking, air fields and harbors), communication networks, street highways, health care facilities, security-systems, besides public utilities such as water system, power sources and sewage disposal. Its provision is almost always the responsibility of the government and it is a charge on development. It is one way in which the public sector creates a climate conductive for tourism development.

The infrastructure ―is a condition of all activities in tourism and has to precede the superstructure,‖ which con-

sists passenger traffic terminals, shopping facilities etc. The provision of infrastructure normally extends over a wide ar-ea. It entails heavy investments and capital outlay and with a few exceptions, it is provided by public authorities. The individual facilities within tourist area, which comprise the superstructure in tourism, are commonly planned and provid-ed by individual developers and operators. Airport building terminals, port facilities, railway, bus and coach terminals, car parks are usually planned in conjunction with the related infrastructure. Their location is of crucial importance in tourism planning in order to avoid congestion and environmental effects of tourism.

Study Area:- The Konkan region is situated in the western part of the Maharashtra State. It is located between the Arabian

Sea to the West and Sahyadri Mountain to the East and has 700 km's coastline. Its consists of Mumbai, Thane, Raigad, Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg district. The Konkan division is an administrative subdivision of Maharashtra which comprises all the coastal districts of the state. The ancient sapta-Konkan is a slightly larger region described in the Sahyadrikhanda which refers to it as "Parashuramakshetra.

Objectives:- 1) To study the present infrastructure in Konkan. 2) To suggest proper / required infrastructure for tourism development in future. Data Base and Methodology:- For the present research work, relevant data were collected from primary and secondary sources. Cartographic meth-ods were used. Most of the research work were based on secondary data i.e. district census handbook, Statistical ab-stract and other reliable government publications articles, news report prints, journals, etc.. Data collected on different aspects of tourism were processed and given spatial dimensions. Present Infrastructure: 1) Accommodation: Generally in Konkan region, proper accommodation facilities are available at tahsil, district places and some popular tourist spots i.e. two, three star hotels, motels, private resorts, and M.T.D.C. resorts. The Hotels are so costly, M.T.D.C resorts have limited rooms and services. e.g, Amboli, Tarkarli, Alibag, Murud-Janjira, Dapoli etc.

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Fig. 1 Location of Study Area

2) Transport: Konkan railway is backbone of development for konkan region. It‘s a very nice experience of tourist to travel by Konkan railway. There is limited flow of Express trains. Express train is not taking halt at all station, alternate halts are given. Reservation is not available in all season. During rainy season sometimes trains are derailed due to landslide. Other source that is NH-17 ( Mumbai-Goa highway ). It is very narrow road. During peak season its overcrowded and main problem is heavy traffic jam. 3) Communication: Mostly every tourist centre have PO, TO. Tata tele service, Reliance, Vodafone, BPL, BSNL these companies provides mobile network services. Every tourist centre is not connect by mobile network. Only popular and road side centre‘s are connected by mobile network.

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4) Health Care Facilities: Hospitals are available only at tahsil and district headquarters normally. Dispensary is available at or near by every tourist centers. Health Care service is not sufficient for tourist. 5) Coastal (Tourist) Highways: It is very important for tourist and excellent experience to travel along the coast. It‘s started from Alibag to Vengurla. Very few centres are providing the facility of petrol pump, Garage services, Hotels, Motels. Emergency services are not available. Required Infrastructure for Tourism Development in Future:- Training Facility:- 1) Tourism Training Institute: To develop Tourism industry in Konkan extent Human resource is needed and youngsters of Konkan region should get jobs in tourism industry. Tourism Training Institute should be established and branches of the institutes should be established in Thane, Raigad and Sindhudurg. To establish such institute financial arrangement needed. 2) Publicity and Entrepreneurship Development Campaign: To develop tourism industry in Konkan region, we have to change Psychology tourism and hotel professionals. There should be Professionalism in food, Hospitality, Lodging and Boarding etc. facilities should be improved at great level. Small seminars and workshops should be arranged to change Psychology of tourism professionals in Konkan region. B) Basic Facilities:- 1) Konkan Tourist Centre: Tourist centre should be started on the basis of Public Private Partnership (P.P.P) at Coastal Highway Alibag to Vengurla at every Particular distance. Every centre should provide breakfast and food made by Kokani style, Rest room, petrol pump and CNG gas, ATM centre, tourism information centre. 2) Studio for Film Making: Excellent locations are available at Thane, Raigad, Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg in Konkan region for film making. Shooting is possible but basic facilities are not available. At least one studio should be available in every district with all the advance facilities. 3) Water Tourism Campaign: With support of govt. of Maharashtra Tarkarli, Ganpatipule, Harihareshwar at this places water tourism centers are developed. At Tarkarli Snorkeling, Scuba diving etc. facilities are available and getting excellent response from tourist. 4) Backwater Tourism Centers: I n Konkan region, potential of backwater parks are available at Tarkarli, Aronda , Vijaydurg, Jaygadh, Dabhol, Vasai Creek etc. So, It is necessary to open backwater tourism centre in each place. At all places Resorts, House Boat, Water Transport in creeks, water sports, parasailing etc. facilities should be made available for the tourist. 5) Problem of Electricity: There is major problem of electricity in Konkan region. From Dahanu to Vengurla on Konkan region No. of tourist are increasing constantly in this area. Load shading should be stopped because local professionals cannot afford expenses of generator and diesel. 6) Tax Benefits: Tourism is a backbone of Konkan region. For next 10 years Tourism industry should be free from Taxes like VAT, Luxury Tax etc. It will increase investment in Tourism industry. 7) NH-17 Extend in Four Line Ways: There is always problem of Traffic jam specially during peak season. So, there is need to convert highway in four lane ways like Mumbai-Pune Highway.

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8) Coastal Highway: From Alibag to Vengurla, all tourist centers are situated near coastal Highways. Where coastal highway cannot be reach, there fairy service should be started on P.P.P basis. Every tourist center provides breakfast, Konkani food, standard restaurant, clean dormitories, develop store for Konkani product, tourist information centers, Photo exhibition of surrounding area, rest room for driver, petrol pump, CNG Gas and A.T.M. centers at every stations. 9) Lack of Accommodation: Near every tourist spot Lodging & Boarding facility should be available. Maharashtra govt. should provide basic requirement and subsidy for Hotel industry specially for Konkan. Local governing council create awareness among the local people who have ample space to provide accommodation facilities to tourist. 10) Lack of Security: Security is very important for tourist. There should be arrangement for Tourist police specially at every Beaches. When tourist have been physically assaulted, robbed and sexually harassed, its created negative image of particular spot. 11) Parking Facilities: Generally during peak season and on the fair days, there is a problem of parking and traffic jam. Local govt. bodies, Trust consider the flow of tourist and arrange the proper way of parking. C) Publicity: 1) Global Konkan Celebration: Every year in the capital of India ( Mumbai ), one international Celebration of Konkan should be arranged. Konkan Pratishthan has already organise this activity every year with the help of Maharashtra government. 2) Konkan Travel Mart: Maharashtra state shows the strength of Konkan tourism to tourist. For this achievement Konkan Travel Mart should be arranged in Nagpur, Aurangabad, Pune, Mumbai and Nashik. 3) To Participate in Exhibition of Tourism at National Level: Every year ( I.T.M. ) and ( T.T.F ) institute arrange exhibition on Travel and Tourism. Konkan Tourism should be promoted in this exhibition Like Mumbai, Madras, Kolkatta, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Delhi etc. Konkan Tourism pavilion should be arranged and should be promoted all over India. Conclusion: Tourism development is thus a composite subject and does not necessarily mean the development of only the tourism facilities like hotels, restaurants, recreational activities will be meaningful only if the area has the minimum basic amenities and infrastructure like road, water, electricity, sewerage, telecom facilities etc. Tourism is an information intensive industry and Information and Communication Technology is a key driver for developing countries in organizing and marketing their tourism products. With the help of ICT applications, tourists can view information regarding a destination, book accommodation and reserve tickets for train, flight or other forms of transport and at the same time pay for all these without leaving their homes. This aspect was given importance in the Tourism ‗Synergy‘ programme. Subsequently the State Governments are requested to prepare Master Plans for development of Tourism based on the same concept. References:- 1) Ferraro F.F. (1976):―An evaluation of the tourist resources - an applied methodology‖, Journal of Travel

Research, Vol. XVII No.3. 2) Gazettier of Ratanagiri district. 3) Gour Kanjilal (2005): ―Indian Tourism – Through the inner eyes‖, Orchid books, Delhi. 4) Kala P.M. (2004):―Potentialities and possibilities of tourism as an eco-friendly industry – A critical‖ 5) Patil Sardar (2012): ―Sustainable tourism development in Konkan: A need of Time‖ published research paper,

EIIRJ. Vol-I, Edition-III. 6) Rana Pratap (2005):―Tourism is a factor of regional development: A case study of Bihar‖, Punjab Geographer,

Vol. I, No.1. 7) Robinson H. (1979): ―A Geography of Tourism‖. 8) Saptarshi P.G. and Jaybhaye R.G. (2010): ―Tourist assessment in Bhimashanakar and Sinhgarh centres of

Pune district‖, The Deccan Geographer, Vol. 48, No. 1.

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Psycho-Social Study of Adolescent Girls of Rural Konkan Region (Maharashtra)

Krishna S. Pevekar*, Suvarna N. Patil, Ashwini J. Chavan Department of Psychiatry, BKL Walawalkar Rural Medical College, Dervan,

Ratnagiri, Maharashtra, India

* E-mail: krishnapevekar@yahoo.co.in

Source: International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences, 2015 Oct; 3 (10); 2745-2750 Abstract

Background: Konkan area in Maharashtra, India is rich in Biodiversity and known for its Natural Beauty. At the same time geographical difficulties, poor socio-economical status, superstition and religious beliefs are some important factors contributing to more Psycho-social problems in this area including Physical Health. We focused in this Study to find out Psychological Problems, Health issues and planning future activities for School going adolescent girls. Methods: The Study was carried out on total no. of 1290 School going adolescent girls of age group 11-20 years, over the period of six months. The following Psychological and Physical parameters were considered. Mental Status Examination, High-er Mental Functions, Personality, Decision Making capacity, Hemoglobin status, Body Mass Index and Health related factors of Adolescent girls. Results: According to Psychological assessment 78.46% had abnormal expression, poor hygiene, low decision making. 72.47% were underweight and 47.22% were anemic. Conclusions: More Active measures need to be taken for care of Psychological and Physical health. Awareness Programme needs to implement for Students, Parents, Teachers and Public. Keywords: Psycho-social, Adolescent girls, Rural Konkan

Introduction

Konkan is a narrow strip of land lying between the Sahyadri Mountains on the east and the Arabian Sea on the west. Engulfed in hills, this area is rich in biodiversity but at the same time due to its extremely inaccessible terrain, shortage of fertile land and poor water harvesting this land has remained very backward. According to our organisational findings, the people of this area lack economical and educational facilities and are dominated by religious beliefs and social taboos. Burdened with excess housework and farming, the adolescent girls here, are devoid of education and hence lack the basic knowledge about their own health. Due to lack of health awareness and proper education they succumb to a lot of health problems. Adolescence is a period of great turbulence and a unique turning point of a very rapid, albeit and uneven development of physical, emotional, intellectual, social, moral, spiritual and aesthetic aspects. Also it is a period of unpredictable behaviour. Curiosity, exploration and adventure on one hand while psychological and emotional problems on the other exert considerable influence on the social behaviour of the adolescents.

The health of adolescent girls depends on their own behaviour and also the behaviour of people with whom

they interact. Many of the behavioural and psychological factors in adulthood have their origin in adolescence and hence the study of adolescent period is gaining a lot of importance as more and more people are trying to magnify the behavioural patterns of this period. Obstacles to adolescent health are inadequate level of understanding of health needs, lack of training among health care providers resulting in negative attitude towards adolescence and insufficient interpersonal communication skill in working with young people. Most of the services are designed either for adults or children and are quite often inaccessible to adolescents. There is lack of coherence in policy and legislation regarding how the information and services can be provided to adolescents. The objective of the study was to find the psychologi-cal problems and health issues affecting adolescent girls and to provide treatment facilities to adolescent girls at the hospital.

Methods

Physical Variables

Table 1: Showing method for assessment of physical variables.

Variables Methods

Body Mass Index Status Clinical Assessment Menstrual Cycle Hemoglobin status and Anemia 5. Nutritional status

Calibrated weight and height machine. Included thorough clinical examination. Special attention given to Ear, Hearing, Scalp, Dental, Eyes, Hair, Face, Poor Posture, Headache, White Discharge or leucorrhoea. Clinical History. Calibrated Calorimeter Method. Observation and Verbal Questionnaire.

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To ensure cooperation the objectives and purpose of the study was explained in full details to the subject. The information collected was pre-designed and pre-tested. Semi structure interview was conducted and clinical examina-tion was done. Verbal Questionnaires were used and observation in some cases was also done. The data was proved to be statistically significant by conducting the cross tabulation and chi-square tests. Validity of social and psychological problems was cross checked by asking questions to subjects and teachers. Haemoglobin examination was carried out by the calibrated Calorimeter method.

A community based cross sectional study of 1290 adolescent girls of age group 11-20 years was carried out.

Variables considered for the study were age, gender, height, weight, BMI, anemia and menstrual, psychological and behavioural problems. The above mentioned Variables were studied in Adolescent girls.

Table 2: Showing method for assessment of psychological variables.

Results

Physical assessment

BMI status

Figure 1: Showing body mass index status of adolescent girls.

Above figure highlight that the percentage of underweight girls was 72.48%. Tools used were weighing machine

for weight and the height of every girl was taken. The percentage of poor posture was highest in the clinical assessment (53.03%).the Clinical assessment of

adolescent girls was carried out by specialist doctors. Low Body Mass Index results in poor posture. For improvement we have provided reference services to them.

Figure 2: Showing clinical assessment of adolescent girls.

Variables Methods

Mental Status Examination

Expressions, Eye Contact, Superstitions & Beliefs and Speech were assessed.

Personality Girls were looked for Introvert, Extrovert or Balanced type of Personality.

Decision Making Capacity Here Own Decision and Group Dependency were noted.

Academic Performance The Reading, Writing, Understanding skills noted

Higher Mental Functions

Such as Concentration, Memory, Intelligence, Attention were tested.

Other Psychological Factors Such as Confidence, Sleep, Timid, Aggressiveness were considered.

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Figure 3: Showing menstrual history of adolescent girls.

As data analysis shows the percentage of regular menstruation was 76.20%, but we have come across some problems like dysmenorrhoea, menorrhea, polymenorrhoea, white discharge or leucorrhoea and abdominal pain. Verbal Questionnaire method was used. The girls with problems related to menstrual cycle are referred to the gynaecologist at the hospital. Haemoglobin Status and Anaemia The data findings show that the percentage of anaemic girls was 47.72%. The calibrated calorimeter method was used to assess the haemoglobin of the subjects. The organisation has provided diet counselling and follows up services. Nutritional Status The percentage of girls with mixed diet (non-vegetarian and vegetarian) was 93.57% and vegetarian diet was 6.43%.Method used was verbal questionnaire.

Figure 4: Showing nutritional status of adolescent girls.

Psychological Assessment Mental Status Examination Discussion The percentage of girls‘ with poor verbal expression was highest (78.46%). Other problems like poor hygiene, no eye contact, day dreaming and speech related problems were also identified. Verbal questionnaire method and observation method was used for the above mentioned factors. Personality Mental status examination discussion As seen in above figure the percentage of extravert girls was also more. The percentage of Balanced personality in girls was 42.07%.Verbal questionnaire method was used to assess the above mentioned factors of personality.

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Figure 5: Showing personality of adolescent girls.

Dependency Needs The percentage of girls with the capacity of making own decisions was more than the group dependency (81.33%).Verbal Questionnaire method was used.

Figure 6: Showing dependency needs in adolescent girls.

Figure 7: Shows academic performance in adolescent girls.

Above figure shows about 4.57% of girls have reading problems, 3.95% have writing problems and 5.03% have understanding problems. Observation technique was used as a tool.

Figure 8: Showing higher mental function in adolescent girls.

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Higher Mental Function The higher mental functions include memory, intelligence and attention. Method used was verbal questionnaire and observations.

Figure 9: Showing attention status of studied adolescent girls.

According to data findings the percentage of girls with low attention was 27.03%. Method used was verbal questionnaire. As seen in above figure, the percentage of girls with low confidence was 29.97%, sleep disturbance in girls was 79.93%, pessimistic attitude percentage in girls was 52.82%, timid girl‘s percentage was 27.19% and aggressive factor percentage was observed to be 46.20%. Other Psychological Factors

Figure 10: Showing other psychological factors in adolescent girls.

Discusion The present study was a carried out in a rural community of Kokan region of Maharashtra state. Adolescent girls (1290 subjects) of age group 11 to 20 years constituted the study group. The main aim was to find out the psychological and health problems among them. The findings revealed that of the 1290 subjects, (47.72%) were anaemic because of diet which lacks carbohydrates, fats and proteins. A similar study was conducted in Bihar and Kerala but their findings were 81% and 20 to 40%.

1 Also a study conducted in Vadodara, Gujarat revealed that 75% girls were anaemic.

2 And

another study of Kurukshetra (Haryana) by N Gupta and G Kochar revealed that 81.81% girls were suffering from various degree of anaemia as their Hb level ranges between 6.6g/dl to 11.0g/dl.

3

In our study findings (76%) had normal menstrual cycle and some menstrual problems were also identified. Most common menstrual problem was dysmenorrhoea (29%) and heavy bleeding (13.6%) The important reasons behind this problem are poor diet and exertion. A similar study was conducted in Himachal Pradesh and their result depicted that 67.0% girls suffered problems related to menstrual cycle and 33.84% problems were found in a study conducted by nag in Calcutta.

4,5

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According to the reference grade adopted from WHO 1995, WHO 2000 and WHO 2004 data analysis shows that BMI Status of Adolescent girls in the Underweight category is 72.48% , Normal category is 26.51%, Over weight category is 0.54% and Obese category is 0.47%. This fluctuation was found because of lack of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Secondly the girls in this area have to walk long distances which results in exertion.

Using the body mass index as an index of adiposity similar study in Pondicherry revealed that 36.3% and 4.8 % of the girls from government and matriculation school respectively were severely undernourished, 16.5% and 29.8 % of them were noted to be normal and 19% and 48 % were identified as obese.

6 Also the results of a study conducted in an

urban slum area of Varanasi depicted that 70% of the adolescent girls had BMI < 20, 51.43% of the study subjects were suffering from chronic energy deficiency while stunting was present in 10% of the adolescent girls.

In study findings the percentage of mixed diet is 93.57% and vegetarian is 6.43 %. Because of the lack of nutritious diet they suffer from energy deficiency and anaemia or vitamin B complex deficiency. Even though the percentage of mixed diet is more, the amount of poultry products in the diet is less and thus the appropriate nutrients are not included. The amount of dry fish intake is more. Intervention strategies are needed to improve the dietary intake of adolescent girls so that their requirement of energy, protein, vitamins and minerals are met. In a study of Rajasthan the diets were deficient in calories by 26 to 36%, and in proteins by 23 to 32%.7 Nutritional status as assessed by body mass index revealed that 8.1% of Adolescent girls suffered from chronic (CED) grade I, 6.6% grade II CED, and 78.8% grade III CED. About 73.7% of subjects suffered from anaemia.

7

Regarding mental status, study findings show that the percentage of girls with abnormal expressions was highest (78.46%). Other problems like poor hygiene, no eye contact, day dreaming and speech related problems were also identified. A similar study was conducted in Andhra Pradesh and their results showed that 27% of adolescents from both Government and Private Schools have poor status of mental health and the remaining adolescents (73%) are with moderately better status of Mental Health.

8,9 Decision making capacity in girls was seen to be 81.33%. The percentage

of girls taking their own decision was more. Considering the circumstances, they have to take several responsibilities at home and thus they can take their own decisions. The study findings of the higher mental functions include concentration, memory, intelligence and attention and the percentage of girls in the medium category of concentration, memory and intelligence was highest as no abnormalities were detected discussion. Regarding Psychological Assessment the percentage of girls with low confidence was 29.97%, sleep disturbance in girls was 79.93%, depression percentage in girls was 52.82%, timid girls percentage was 27.19% and aggressive factor percentage was observed to be 46.20%. The study findings show that poor hygiene, poor verbal expressions, no eye contact, speech defect, irrational thoughts and day dreaming is due to the lack of health awareness/ communication with parents and teachers, peer group and also the lack of proper education.

10

To check the validity of the data, cross tabulation and chi square method was also done. As the cross tabulation method provides a basic picture of the interrelation between two variables we have taken some of the psychological factors for the method.

A positive attitude of the parents towards the adolescent girls should motivate the adolescent girls to develop the trust and confidence in them, in their family, society and ultimately become confident. Thus adolescent girls should be given counseling services regarding anxiety and other psychological problems.

Recommendation

Nutritional status of adolescent girls contributes to the nutritional status of the community. There is a need to initiate intervention measures to improve the nutritional status of adolescent girls who are the future ‗mothers-to-be‘. Hence there is a need to create awareness among adolescents about nutrition and health. Also there should be an adolescent health education clinic to address the issues of adolescent girl‘s problems. Regular meetings of parents with school / college authorities should be held to identify the problems. Follow up to the hospital should be frequent. Psychological testing according to the problem identified should be conducted by the psychologist. Teachers should be friendly with students. Each school should have a counsellor. Apart from teaching, extra time should be given to guide the pupils.

References

1. Yadav RJ, Singh P. Nutritional Status and Dietary Intake in tribal children in Bihar: Indian Pediatrics.1999: 36: 37-42 2. Kothecha PV, Nirupam S, Karkar PD. Adolescent Girls Anaemia Control Programme in Gujarat, India: Indian Journal of

Medical Research. 2009; 130(5): 584-9. 3. Gupta N, Kocher G. Parvasiveness of Anaemia in Adolescent Girls of low socio-economic group of the district of

Kurukshetra, Haryana. Internet Journal of Nutrition and Wellness. 2008; 7(1). 4. Singh MM, Devi R, Gupta SS. Awareness and health seeking behaviour of rural adolescent school girls on menstrual and

reproductive health problem. Indian J Med Sci. 1999; 53(10): 439-43. 5. Nag RM. Adolescents in India, Medical Allied Agency, Calcutta. 1982:18-26. 6. Dr. Ajeet Jaiswal. A Study on Body Mass Index and Nutrient Intake of Adolescent Girls. 7. Chaturvedi S, Kapil U, Ganeshkaran N, et al. Nutrient Intake Amongst Adolescent Girls, Rajasthan. Indian Paediatrics. 1996;

33: 197-201. 8. Lavanyakumari P. Influencing Factors of Mental Health of Adolescent at school level. IOSR Journal of Humanities and

Social Sciences (JHSS). 2012; 5(4):48-56. 9. Kumbhar SK, Reddy M, Sujana B, et al. Prevalence of Dysmenorrhea among Adolescent Girls, Andhra Pradesh: National

Journal of Community Medicine. 2011; 2. 10. Reeva A. Recognising and Treating Anxiety and Depression in Adolescents. Medical Clinics North America. 2000;

84: 891-903.

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Women of Konkan (India) and their Environmental Experiences

Sulakshana Mahajan

Source: Women and Environment, NRE 477 [ http://sdmahajan.tripod.com/konkan_women.htm ] Introduction: Environmental experiences of women from different regions of India could be a rich source for scholars. Thinking about the regional variety in India one can safely say that the environment is the most influential factor affecting the lifestyles of people. The relationship of society and nature in India has evolved through the interaction of regional traditions and practices of many cultures

[i] that have been assimilated superimposed and adapted in a complex

web. The Indian caste system is a common factor easily understood by all Indians as they intimately relate to it even when separated by geographic space

[ii]. It may pose difficulties for outsiders. Even today it is the most important factor

of identity for most Indians, though it has been abolished in the legal system. Despite the caste differences, a large number of common practices that transcend beyond the narrow categories of castes are shared by all. As an example of using turmeric powder in food, medicine or for cosmetic purpose is common knowledge throughout India. So much so that marriage ceremonies may differ but use of turmeric is common in the ceremonies. On the strength of its universal use India could win a case in the US patent court in 1998. The main argument was based on the traditional knowledge [iii]

.

It is also difficult to define the social position of castes in India in terms of economic class. A Brahmin, upper

caste widow may experience many social constrains but her work experiences and her economic position may be superior to poor farmer women or those of tribal women, who enjoy much more personal and social and familial freedom. The fishermen caste or farmers of worrier castes (Khatriyas) or even the former untouchable castes can be economically superior to some Brahmins.

For the purpose of this paper the categories of women and their experiences of environment are referred from

their social position i.e. the caste system, in the Hindu tradition. This paper will focus on rural Hindu women of the coastal region of Maharashtra known as Konkan and it will not be prudent to consider these experiences as those of Indian women in general.

This paper will also indicate some similarities and differences in the environmental experiences of women of

Konkan with those of North American women. It may be useful to indicate the differences in the environmental attitudes regarding conservation and preservation of nature and women‘s role in it. However this paper does not attempt to present a comparative study of American and Konkani (of Konkan region) women‘s environmental experiences or the role of women in the contemporary environmental movement.

Sources for the Study

Most of the studies related to Konkani women are undertaken from sociological, cultural, economic or feminist

perspectives, but some of them have links to the environment. In this essay I have put together Konkani women‘s environmental experiences by referring to such written resources and books. I have also referred literary sources, and biographical works of Konkani women. I have also referred my own notes and transcripts generated between March to July 1999, in relation to the study of the status of Konkani women in saline land affected villages with an aim to develop a program to help them. In this paper I have not touched the environmental experiences of urban (Mumbai) women because of the limitation of space. This also helped me maintain the focus on the traditional pattern of women‘s lives, observed as of today in rural areas rather than the urban women who maintain superficial ties with the traditions.

Konkan Region

Konkan region is a coastal area between the Arabian Sea on the west and high Deccan plateau (800 meters)

on its east. It is a narrow strip of land, 740 km (437 miles) long, broken by a number of rivers and creeks. At the north, width of the strip is 60 km (38 miles) while at the southern end it is 25 km (15 miles). The northern half of the region (Thane and Raigad Districts) is flat and close to the sea level. Rainwater and high tidal waters often flood lands in this area while the southern part (Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg Districts) is undulating and has few small flat areas. Mumbai (Bombay) island is in the northern part of the region, which is the economic capital of India and a crowded urban metropolis housing more than ten million people. The northern Thane district is nearly urbanized while the southern part of Konkan on the other hand is largely rural. Konkan shares its southern boundary with that of Goa, famous for its beaches. Before the British colonial rule there were many large and flourishing ports in Konkan along the coast which had established trade links to Red Sea and Egypt. (Bombay Gazetteer, Ratnagiri & Sindhudurg, page 416). Man made, sharp contemporary urban-rural dichotomy in the region is of colonial and postcolonial origin. As the ports declined, Konkan districts except Thane were isolated. For British rulers, this difficult region posed problems for railway and road construction. Road network started improving slowly after 1950. In 1995 the Konkan railway was established and the area is got linked to the rest of the country. Isolation of Konkan protected it from the industrial and urban influences and hence it provides an opportunity to study the traditional life patterns.

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Geography and Ecosystem

The seasonal, geographic, climatic and natural variations reflect on the variety of lifestyles of the people of the region. The beautiful white sand beaches with coconut groves, thick teak forests along the river valleys, and dry rocky plateaus at a little higher elevation can all be found within a short distance. The settlements are located where water, vegetation and seafood is in ample supply. Main crop of the region is rice, which is grown mostly in the monsoon sea-son of four months and all efforts are made to bring every kind of land, such as slopes on hills, rocky ground as well coastal saline lands under cultivation. A second crop of oil seeds and beans follows the rice in some places where there is some irrigation available. The forests, though depleted, consist of a rich variety of trees that is source lively hood for local people.

The laterite stone, a sort of red soft stone found in the southern part of the region is cut into blocks and used for

walls of the houses. The sloping roof is made from timber with clay tiles as well as dry coconut leaves woven as roof panels. A kind of reed (locally known as Karvi) is used to construct panels for the walls of houses in the north, which is then covered with mud paste and plastered with cow dung. Houses are raised on platforms, floors are flattened and consolidated and covered with cow dung layer. All materials used for rural house construction are generated from local sources and houses are constantly maintained and last for generations. A typical architectural style of housing is unique to Konkan. The houses are constructed by masons and carpenters who are well trained in the family tradition of construction based on the Vastu Shastra (Indian architectural science).

Season and Climate

The climate of this region is temperate and humidity is high during the monsoon and very hot and sultry in the

summer. Three main seasons form part of the yearly cycle. Monsoon is the main farming season June to September and the region receives more than 100 inches rain in the period, followed by winter, October to January and the summer from February to May. Despite the ample rains, the region faces severe shortage of water in summer and the well water is rendered useless for life due to salinity and depleted water table. Presence of Sea is the center of life and many activities are related to it.

People of Konkan

Konkani men and women have to wander through variety of landscapes for livelihood and social interactions.

Role of women is important for the paddy cultivation and hence their position in society is much different than in other parts of Maharashtra. This region was part of the traditional matriarchal social system in which worship of earth Goddess was important. Even today Goddess cult is dominant in this part. During the colonial rule the Konkani women continued with the life in the villages while men increasingly migrated to Mumbai in search of work, first for construction of docks and then as labor for industries (Bagve A. page 170).

Upper Caste Konkani Brahmin Women

Social and Economic Position: The Brahmin caste is considered at the top of the Indian hierarchical social

and Hindu religious system. The men do work related to knowledge. They teach Sanskrit, religion, language and literature, philosophy, farming, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, politics, medicine, accountancy, legal system (Gazateer of Bombay presidency, Ratnagiri and Sawantwadi districts, page 113). The women of this caste had right to the same knowledge some earlier times (Sane G. Page 7) but subsequently the women were cut off from it and they performed the support function for the men. Women thus acquired knowledge but had little rights to participate in social and religious interactions like men. Today most Brahmin women are educated and some have entered the formal jobs in the villages like teaching, medicine etc. Most Brahmin women in Konkan continue with the work of looking after the horticulture gardens (My notes).

Environmental Experiences: Konkani Brahmins own best of the farmlands and horticulture plantations. Farming is done by paid labor force and managed by men. Brahmin women are in charge of horticulture and coconut plantations. They perform all the necessary farm management functions with help of labor in absence of men, though they never till the land or do hard labor. Cows and buffalos are part of their household responsibilities and the mornings and evenings are devoted to the care of animals. Milking, feeding, cleaning, and washing the animals is the responsibility of women. They manage all dairy production. Taking care of the garden is another major job the Brahmin women do. In Chiplun taluka (taluka is equal to a county) Chitapawan (pure of hearts) Brahmins have long narrow plots of lands facing the sea (Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg gazetteer page 111). Chiplun is a major taluka for this Brahmin community where women have perfected the art of coconut plantation. The large family houses sit in the middle of thick plantation of coconut palms and beetle nut palms. Description of Kerala plantations by Vandana Shiva fits well for Konkan plantations as well. ―Coconut is cultivated in a multi layered, high intensity cropping system, along with betel and pepper vines, bananas, tapioca, drumsticks, papaya, jackfruit, mango and vegetables‖. (Mies M. & Shiva V. page 165-166). The front garden consists of variety of fruit tress, seasonal scented flowering trees, shrubs and medicinal plants commonly used by the households. Collecting flowers from the garden and distributing them among to poorer families is a common practice (Deshpande S. page 37). Women prepare saplings, plant trees and nurture them. A unique way of growing mushrooms on walls in rainy season by mixing seeds in cow dung plaster is a unique practice in Malvan Taluka (Deshpande, S. page 39). Drawing water from wells and watering the garden is a major task. Used domestic water is carefully diverted to the garden through channels. Women also have the responsibility of managing the farm products and arranging

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storage and preservation and processing for the year round consumption. Knowledge about various food preservation and storage techniques is well developed by the Brahmin women. They use dried Neem

[iv] leaves for the dried grains

to protect from fungus in rainy season. Most of the summer months are busy days for the women. They have to arrange for sun drying of all kinds of foods in the front yards including drying of raw mangos, tamarind, kokam (a red fruit used in daily cooking), jack fruits, bananas and prepare pickles, jams and spices in large quantities for the year round use. Front yards of their houses look attractive and colorful in the summer months with red chilies, yellow tamarind, variety of green, white and brown beans and mustard seeds and many more products (my notes). Pickles, fruit juices and jams are kept in the Sun as a preservation technique. Knowledge of Environment: The Brahmin women mostly work in their homes and gardens and visit the sea-shore for recreation. Temple visits on holy days, festival days are occasions when women have to venture out and walk long distances. Many religious places are located on the hills, in the caves and everyone has to trek. Women generally go in group and these times are happy times for them. Knowledge of plants, flowers and fruit trees is common. Animals, birds, and even snakes are their common home visitors (Deshpande S. page 35)

[v]. Each house has a stone water dish

for birds. A handful of rice is offered to birds every day. Most Brahmin women make a plate of cooked food ready for cows in the morning before any family member can eat lunch. Any left over cooked food is offered to cows. Using banana leaves as plates for food is a common practice and the used leaves are offered to cows (recycling technique!). Even today at times of marriages, and festivals, banana leaves are preferred as plates. Large green teak tree leaves are plucked and joined to make circular plates. Bowls are made from a single leaf by twisting and stitching it with a thorn. Young girls and boys are trained in this art and they do this job while roaming forests in the summer months. The plates are then dried in the sun and stored for year round daily use. Brahmin diet is strictly controlled for the pro-fession. Brahmins cannot eat meat. Some Konkani Brahmins in south known as Saraswat Brahmins eat fish. For some milk and milk products are used in daily diet. Most of the food eaten in any particular season is naturally available in the region and is considered suitable and healthy for the season and supposed to have close links to the seasonal body requirements. Women and men often commit to go without food for few days in a week (supposedly for religious reasons) and may have been a technique of conserving food. According to Ayurveda, different kinds of foods available in each season are most suitable for human body. Brahmin diet changes according to each season and women generally follow these traditions.

Brahmin women have keen knowledge about certain foods and plants, seeds and their medicinal properties. Brahmin women follow recommended diet before and after childbirth. They are also very about child upbringing. A novel called ―Shamchi Aai‖ (Sham‘s mother in Marathi) is an epic story written by Sane Guruji, a freedom fighter from Konkan and a film based on it became very popular. The Brahmin women work very hard and enjoy considerable power and respect in the family and villages due to their knowledge. A local proverb says give waste land to a Chitpavan and he will turn it into gold. (Gazetteer of Bombay presidency, Ratnagiri and Sawantwadi districts, page 113). But in reality it is done by women most of the time. My visit to village Asood, (Taluka Dapoli) which is mostly in-habited by the Chitapawan Brahmins was very revealing. The terraced horticulture gardens have a very intricate irriga-tion channel system and water from a perennial source from the top of a nearby hill is brought to the plantation. The garden system is at least 400 year old. In hot summer afternoon the garden remains cool and breezy and a pleasant place for siesta.

Middle Class / Caste Farmer Women

Social and economic position: This is the largest group of Konkan population. Locally known as Marathas and Kuna-bis they comprise of nine groups in Ratnagiri and Sawantwadi area (Gazetteer of Bombay presidency, Ratnagiri and Sawatwadi districts, page 121). The main crop grown by the community is paddy. Other crops like millet, maize etc. are cultivated on hill slopes and rocky lands in rainy season.

Environmental Experiences

Unlike Brahmin women, most of the farmer women have to spend their time in fields. The farms are small and

distributed at different locations hence the women have to walk to reach them. There are different types of soils in Konkan and one has to have perfect knowledge of farming practices of each type. Rice varieties, propagation methods and cultivating practices differ for each type. Women generally don‘t plough the earth and men don‘t do transplanting. The ground for rice plantation is cleared, ploughed to loosen soil and allowed to get exposed to sun in April and May. The paddy fields are surrounded by raised bunds (12 inch tall dykes made from stone and earth). In summer all men and women leave home early morning along with children and animals before it is too hot and work in the fields till noon. Cooked food is carried to the fields by one of the family members for all. Trees provide welcome shade in the noon and work is resumed till the evening. In the rainy season transplantation of rice is undertaken when there is enough water tables in the fields and women work in the rains by bending down while men plough the fields with help of bullocks and wooden plough. The cooperation of all farmers is essential and as every person is needed in the fields in those days. People ware bamboo shields irale, covered with palm leaves to protect them in rain. Cow dung manure, and green leaves from certain trees are applied to the fields before transplanting. Drainage of fields has to be continuously manipulated so as to maintain proper level of water in each field. Knowledge about natural pest control is also common. Using Neem leaves or diluted paste of Chili and garlic as pest control measure is common for vegetables, fruit gardens. Seeds are also treated with many natural substances before plantation so as to protect them from insects. In the production and preparation of plant foods, women need skills and knowledge. ―To prepare seeds they need to know about seed preparation, germination requirements and soil choice.

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Seed preparation needs visual discrimination, fine motor coordination, and sensitivity to humidity levels and weather conditions. To sow and strike seeds demands knowledge of seasons, climate, plant requirements, micro-climate, soil enrichment‖. (Mies M. and Shiva V. page 167).

Some years back value of frogs for controlling pest in the rice fields became apparent in the region. Frog

population depleted in fields when farmers were attracted by the demand Mumbai the export market. Soon the fields were found infested by a pest called Khodkida. When the relationship of frogs and this insect became clear, government banned the frog exports. (My notes)

Most farmer families have cows and bullocks. Women‘s knowledge has been the mainstay of the indigenous

dairy industry. ―Dairying, as managed by women in rural India, embodies practices and logic rather different from those taught in dairy science at institutions of formal education in India, since the latter is import from Europe and North America. Women have been experts in feeding and breeding, not only cows and buffaloes but also pigs, chicken, ducks and goat‖ (Mies M. & Shiva V. page 167). Konkani farmer women grow variety of vegetables and vines in their backyards in the rainy seasons. A number of seasonal plants, fruits, leaves, sprouts, mushrooms that grow naturally on hills, along the paths are collected by women as vegetables and sold in the market or consumed in daily diet. They also collect valuable products from forests in summer for the market including many medicinal varieties used in Ayurveda.

Diet of farmer community is different than the Brahmins. Except in the four months of rainy season they eat

meat, chicken, eggs, and variety of fish and use lot of spices and coconut in preparation. Rice and Nachani (also known as ragi) are part of their diet.

Knowledge of Environment:

Women take part in most religious functions and visit temples like Brahmin women. Local fairs and festivals and

weekly market trips to nearby towns are must for the women. These women also collect firewood from forests for their own consumption. Green grass and leaves are collected for animals. Knowledge of tidal cycles, seasons, and sky is essential part of their daily life. Geographical knowledge of these women is much more extensive as they walk a lot in the region compared to Brahmin women. They cross rivers, creeks in boats quite often and also climb hills when they graze their animals in the dry season. Variety of berries, fruits and nuts are collected. Cashew and mango plantations are on higher grounds and women collect cashews and fruits from the plantations. The saline land affected farmers have to plant special variety of rice after leaching out salt from first showers even though yield is much lower. Most of the women preserve good quality seeds for the next season. Hence they have to know all the techniques of preserving.

Most of the training for women starts an early age. Young girls take care of siblings in homes and on farms,

collect water from common wells or go to river to wash clothes and cook food when elder women are busy with farm work. In last few years the formal education among girls has improved substantially in the region however it is not uncommon for girls to walk few miles to school and high schools.

Many land holdings are small and not sufficient to provide food for the families. Many families migrate to other

regions and towns to find work for six months. They generally have good established network of such work places and hence their experiences are varied and rich about other regional environments and farming practices.

Women of Fishing Caste:

Social and economic position: Social position of fishermen caste is same as that of the farmers. But the community is generally economically better off than farmers. Fishermen own wooden boats and sail in deep sea in groups, often for 2 or 3 days. When they return after the catch, women take over all the other operations of marketing, preserving and storage. Certain fish is sold in auction on the seashore and merchants send it to Mumbai port for further processing.

Environmental Experiences:

Fishermen community lives very close to the coast but they generally select higher and rocky grounds, that

provides grand view of the Sea and creeks. They use the beach for parking their boats, repair and net repairing. Long bamboo poles and wooden soars are used for navigation. Women rarely accompany the boats. But they have keen eye for all the details of the seacoasts. Women collect crabs and shells from the rocky areas. They know about the high low tide timings and have keen sense of the habitats of the creatures. Crabs collected on certain days of the month are big and fleshy. Harnai and Malwan Ports are famous for large variety of fish and lobsters. Certain varieties of fish are reserved for drying. Fish called Bombay duck is hung on bamboo frames erected on the beaches while small fish is dried on the rocks. The fish has to dry in hot sun in one day to avoid wastage. Rocks, wind and sun all help the process of drying fish. Much of fish residue is sold as manure or chicken feed (My notes).

Knowledge of Environment:

Environmental experiences of the fisher women largely are related to the sea. They have keen knowledge

about mangroves, weeds and trees, sea animals and fish. They also have keen knowledge of celestial movements. Four months of rainy season are lean season for the community. No fishing is undertaken as the sea is rough and the strong winds are dangerous. On the full moon day in the fourth month of the season a special day celebrations

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usher in the fishing season and men and women dance on the beaches singing songs in praise of the Sea. These folk songs are generally based on the rhythm of the waves and well known dance form of the region. Fisher women dress themselves for the occasion in bright colorful sarees and ware lot of flower garlands on head and bodies. Offering coconut and flowers to the sea is an essential part. They also go on pilgrimage to the Goddess temples on hills along with children. Their diet is quite similar to that of farming community. Walking to markets carrying fish for sale is everyday task for the women.

Land Less Middle Caste and Lower Caste Women.

Social and Economic Position

Traditionally lower caste people settled on the outskirts of villages at a little distance from main settlements.

They had to perform certain services for the villages and had a right to the agricultural produce from the village. Now this system is legally abolished and most of the people have come to stay in cities like Mumbai where they have better economic and social environment. Very few lower caste families are found in Konkan compared to other regions. But landless families are substantial in number.

Environmental Experiences

It is necessary for the land less class of people to go job hunting in the region for their survival. Men and women

often travel long distances to larger towns in summers to work on road construction or public works and return to villages in rainy season to work on the farms. Their permanent houses located in the villages allow them access to the traditional rights to share cropping. Old people and children generally stay in villages. These people experience variety of environments in different regions, often staying in tents on the travel or on the project sites in remote forests and towns. Besides farming some of the families have skills like bamboo work, carpentry, masonry, building construction, leather work, metal working, weaving, pottery, salt making etc. Women help the men in some of these jobs and most of the time they work outdoors. The women have to fetch water from village wells or common taps or rivers, firewood from forests and prepare food, using stones, often at new places. Tents are made from bamboo mats. Their animals like goats, sheep, horses, donkeys also travel with the people. These people often go on pilgrimage with groups in the regions they visit and travel long distances most of the time on foot. They commonly travel to the Deccan plateau where sugar plantations need seasonal farm workers and they can make more money working there.

Knowledge of Environment The journey often consists of climbing the traditional trekking routes, which are both picturesque and cut the

travelling time. The region has many mountain forts constructed by Maratha rulers in earlier centuries, which were destroyed by the British colonial rulers. But these forts are cherished historical places for urban people as well as rural people. Men and women have great knowledge of the beautiful trekking routes in the Sahyadri ranges

[vi]. In village

Raigad, the most favorite tournament of the year is climbing the fort Raigad (Capitol Fort of the King Shivaji) and most of the times the race is won by women. This traditional skill is legendary. One of the steep difficult rock formations on Raigad fort is named after a heroic woman named Heera. As the legend goes, when King Shivaji ruled this fort, gates used to get closed at sunset for security reasons. Once Heera, who came to sell buttermilk on the market from her village at the bottom of the fort was late and had to reach her family and baby by climbing down the steep rock with help of her long saree, in the dead of the night. When king came to know of her feat, he ordered the rock to be named as Heerkani! This story is a great source of inspiration for every person in the region. Such legends of women‘s environmental interactions are commonly heard in all parts of Konkan and one is really surprised by them. Free spirit of Konkani women is quite unique compared to the stereo type images of women of India.

Konkani Women in Indian Context

The contributions of Konkani women, in urban center like Mumbai in contemporary society are of great

importance. The middle class, upper caste women in Mumbai were in forefront of freedom movement. The Konkani textile women worker‘s role in the labor movement is unmatched. The fact that most of the pioneer women in a number of fields like science, medicine, politics, social work, environmental movement in Maharashtra came from this region of Konkan is not a simple coincidence

[vii]. One can trace the roots and links of these women to their Konkan environment.

Women writers from Konkan have a niche in the literary circles and environmental experiences of each are part of the great literature.

Konkani Women’s attitude towards environment: Attitude of society is the product of knowledge and experience as well as cultural and religious views. When the knowledge is part of the daily experience, part of informal ritual and behavior norm in society, the rational thought behind it is difficult to evaluate. Knowledge system of such a society, evolved over many centuries, is often viewed as cultural heritage and its knowledge value and its environmental content is not understood. Understanding of such knowledge poses difficulty for others when there is no common evaluation and translation system. Thinking about environmental experiences of Konkani women, the differences between the American approach towards environment became apparent. The main difference is that the American women had to fight men on environmental issues

[viii] from their own class for conservation and preservation of environment. They had

to seek state help and legal forms for protection. The unconscious but highly effective social norms of Konkani women

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achieve conservation and preservation of environment in a much different manner. It is a fact that the conflict with the state and the commercial interests which have been instrumental in partially destroying the balance of the environment is of last one century and a half. The difference in the approaches is well documented by the Indian environmentalist Dr. Vandana Shiva. ―The economy of many Third world communities depends on biological resources for their sustenance and well being. In these societies, biodiversity is simultaneously a means of production and an object of consumption. The survival and sustainability of livelihood is ultimately connected to the conservation and sustainable use of biological resources in all their diversity. Tribal and peasant societies‘ biodiversity-based technologies, however, are seen as backward and primitive‖. (Mies M. & Shiva V. page 165) Conservation

Certain common cultural factors such as knowledge about the region, Konkani language with all its dialects and styles of speaking, foods, clothing house construction and attitudes towards nature, animals and plants, common mythological roots, festivals and functions, customs and rituals have a common regional flavor. Konkani women can easily be identified by their dress codes and language by the outsiders. The more knowledgeable person and keen observer can identify the caste, social and economic positions of the women and their occupation. The common dress of Konkani women is nine yard saree and a blouse. However style of wearing the saree is closely linked to the work the women do. Flexibility of the nine yard saree allows it to be used as a complete cover for the body with a shawl for wrapping around for the upper caste women. It can also be worn in such a fashion, which allows women to do all necessary work. The saree, when pulled high above knees and tightly secured to body with knot at the waist

[ix] such as

done by farmer women facilitates all kinds of movements. It is convenient for climbing hills, working in fields, climbing trees to cut the branches for fire wood, or enter in the sea for a swim or collecting shells and fish in it, or do domestic work in and around the house

[x]. It also provides head cover as protection from sun. As compared to the traditional

flowing dresses of western middle class women[xi]

of earlier periods the dress of Konkani women appears to be extremely functional and suitable for the environment. The young women ware a long skirt until they are married and when it is divided and secured to waist it provides same flexibility as shorts. Few women have luxury of having more than 2 sarees in a year and old sarees are quilted together by women and used as sleeping covers. Multiple layers provide the luxurious warmth in winter, while smaller quilts made from sarees are cherished by children. Even in rich families it is not uncommon to use the old, used cotton sarees for such purpose. The white loin-cloth worn by men and sarees thus give same functional freedom to men and women.

Major traits and the patterns of behavior of Konkani people, which is in fact related to the Konkan environment

is the art of conservation refined by the Konkani women. Konkani women are often touted by other people for their extreme thriftiness. However looking from the environmental perspective the value of their behavior is immense for their survival in challenged environment. Use of all the available natural resources including trees, plants, animals, birds, forests, rivers, creeks, mountains and recycling techniques of Konkani women will be a great topic of research. An example of use of cow-dung will not be out of place here. The dung is a valued commodity. Small girls and boys are trained to keep watch for this valued product wherever they are. They collect the cow dung from streets, forest paths, markets, grazing grounds and collect it in baskets and carry it home. This precious resource is then put to multiple use. Dung cakes are made by mixing coal powder, rice husk or dried rice stalks and dried in sun for storage for use as fuel. When the fuel is burned the fine ash is used for cleaning brass and metal utensils while the coarse parts are transferred to the farms as valuable input. The cow-dung is used for plastering the floors, walls of houses. It is also used for plastering the woven bamboo baskets, silos for storage of rice, known as kanagi and other farm products. Mixed with water, the dung is sprayed by women in the front and the back yards of the houses. On this surface decorative floral patterns and symbols are drawn in white stone powder rangoli

[xii], and red kumkum

[xiii] and yellow turmeric powder

[xiv].

Rangoli is introduced near the entrance as a welcome gesture. This practice effectively reduces the dust entering the house. The surplus dung is converted in compost for the farm in the back yards along with other bio waste. The dung is also used to plaster the wood burning stove every day. In recent years the cow dung is valued for its use in gobar

[xv] gas

plants, which have been installed with government subsidy in many households which produce gas for household burners and gives rich manure from the residual slurry. The art of tribal women

[xvi] from north Konkan district of Thane,

which depicts all the common environmental activities of women on the external dung covered walls of their reed huts has become very popular and extensively used by the textile industry and interior designers as ethnic art form. The Warli art of women depicts the daily work of women related to environment, animals, plants, and tools used by them.

Conservation of natural products is a second nature for Konkani women. The coconut palm is famous for its

multiple uses and for its zero waste. In fact the tree is called Kalpataru[xvii]

. Knowledge of women about the plants, trees, flowers, seeds, along with the properties of each, techniques of collecting, preserving and converting such natural resources into useful products is commonly practiced art developed by women over many centuries. Medicinal potions are prepared by women in homes from commonly available herbs, which provide cheap remedies for minor ailments. The new born babies are massaged, bathed with special herbs, coconut oil and given a daily dose of a paste prepared from multiple herbs and roots, freshly ground on sahan

[xviii] which provides micro quantities of preventive medicines.

Similarly special herbal compounds are prepared for the mother to facilitate lactation[xix]

. Paste prepared from sambarshing, a piece of horn of dear is commonly used for muscle relief and sprain. The knowledgeable women, who maintain small stock of medicinal roots, dried herbs, seeds, and fruits. The women are respected in the community and there is no fee charged for consultation or medication. Midwives who assist in childbirth are traditionally trained through the women‘s network. Most of the village women even today deliver at home assisted by the midwives however nurses trained in modern schools are appointed by the government and their help is appreciated by the village women more for family planning. They combine traditional practices with modern medicines which is found to be popular and inexpensive

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strategy. Such knowledge is passed from generation to generation [xx]

through the women‘s informal networks [xxi]

. The need is to record all these practices systematically and researched for their value.

The Konkani style sea food and vegetarian food has become a recent rage in cities like Mumbai. Five star ho-

tels regularly held Malavani food festivals in their restaurants [xxii]

. While Malavani restaurants are doing great business in other urban areas and tourist centers in Konkan. The culinary art and variety of foods from Konkan refined and developed by women over past centuries is now a big business.

The knowledge about the celestial bodies like stars and constellations, the sun and the moon, tidal movements,

seasonal cycles and patterns, are well understood by the women in a very informal fashion. The Indian Almanac is interpreted by the priests and seasonal cycles, rituals, farming activities, fishing schedules, are set in motion by the same. The food and eating habits are intricately connected to the caste, women‘s work, their age, and state i.e. pre and post childbirth conditions as well as seasons. In the four months of monsoon, meat and fish is strictly avoided by all the castes. From environmental perspective this is a valuable practice

[xxiii].

Preservation

The life styles of Konkani people have evolved through the common Indian philosophical tradition of relating to

the nature. Humans are entitled to the natural resources for their biological sustenance but they have no right to cause damage to the environment. Human activities leading to destruction of natural environments are strictly prohibited. Thus when women collect firewood, only dried branches are pruned and carried home. Trees often uprooted in natural way are put to use. Such practices not only provide useful material for human consumption but also help in limiting the excessive consumption. Natural balance between growth and decay was automatically maintained. Timber, bamboo, and other materials are used for the shelters but forest cutting and exploitation is a recent practice acquired from colonial rulers. The thick forest cover extensively exploited by colonial powers, first for ship building and later for railway construction and mono-culture plantations has rendered Konkan ecosystem and its people vulnerable. Such actions have also caused erosion of top soil silting most the rivers and creeks and robbing earth of its fertile cover. Life styles Konkani people are thus related to the philosophy of preservation of balance of nature. Material poverty of Konkani people is not a tradition but a recent phenomenon and result of modern times. The Indian society as a whole had maintained a delicate balance of nature and society through the thick web of social customs, taboos, practices, mythological stories, belief systems, through evolution, albeit at a lower level of populations and consumption.

Preserving the nature was not separate from the daily work nor was is practiced in separate spaces like parks

and gardens preserved by state authorities [xxiv]

. Legitimate use of nature for needs was considered natural right of human being but it was balanced with the duty of preservation. Nature was loved as well as feared because the destruction was also part of the nature. Thus the idea of conquest of nature is align to the Indian mind.

Another important aspect of preservation of nature is attitude towards all the living creatures. Plants, animals,

birds, snakes, fish and even the forest animals like tigers and elephants are not dreaded animals but are considered as relations of human beings. Killing of animals for enjoyment of the activity is never practiced. A useful custom observed is the pairing of animals with gods. Each god has a favorite animal and hence to be respected. God Ganesha has elephant face mounted on human body while God Shiva has bullock as his companion. Lard Vishnu sits on the seat prepared by snakes themselves. Hence except the most poisonous species it is taboo to kill snakes. Each animal useful to man is also respected and gratitude is expressed through rituals. The bullocks, the most useful animals for farming is thus a guest on a particular day in the households and treated like human being and offered special food. Cow is equated to mother and hence never killed but looked after till her death like a family member

[xxv].

The earth is the life giver and women are equated to mother earth. Farming was invented by women (Sane G.

page 24) and the secrets of farming were then share by men. In the Konkan region earth Godess continues to have supreme place in the village life as she is considered as savior of life. ―During the colonial period Mother India was the symbol and inspiration for the struggle for independence against British colonialism. It was a decolonizing category‖. (Shiva V. page 108)

Conclusion

In a fast globalizing world the issues of development, poverty and environment are creating challenges for which

there seem to be no answers. Many Indian thinkers and scholars are rediscovering the heritage and meanings of the traditional values, which have remained intact in pockets. The question is how the people and their values will be preserved in face of the commercial forces and how their environmental experiences and knowledge can be put in the center stage of policy. Challenges of preserving human life, community and the environment are rather important than ever before for the world today.

I have described the environmental experiences of the people, who are called ecosystem people (Gadgil, Guha

page 3). The category of people described by the authors in their book Ecology and Equity ―India has been and remains a biomass based civilization. By this we mean that majority of Indians depend on biomass gathered by their own labor, or produced through low input agriculture to meet most of the subsistence needs. They also exchange such biomass, at best processed through simple manual labor, to acquire other materials and services they consume on the market‖.

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As per 1991 census 74.3 percent of the Indian population is rural based, and most of these people depend on cultivating their own lands or working as laborers on other people‘s lands for significant fraction of their earnings (Gadgil Guha page 133).

However it should be noted that most of the rural villages are located in regions which are threatened by the

so-called modern development to various degrees. In many challenged areas initiative of local population is growing through new awareness to protect their environment. In few places, control of resources has been demanded and won by local people such as Uttar Kannda (Gadgil, Guha page 184). At few other places people are successfully regenerat-ing and restoring the traditional systems of local village control and management of natural resources based on conventional wisdom which was discontinued in the colonial era.

Knowledge of such traditional systems and rationale behind the same need to be understood so as to help

devise alternative policies to protect environment. Advocates of alternative development policies have time and again expressed the importance of women in preservation of environments and livelihood in India. Women have managed to preserve their own role and environment in the Konkan region through the practice of traditions. In the new age of information and knowledge, hidden treasures of women‘s environmental experiences need to be recorded and shared with all those concerned for the future. This was the thought behind writing this paper.

References

1. Bagawe Anjali. Of Women Caste, 1995, The experience of Gender in Rural India. Zed Books Ltd. New Jersey 2. Gadgil M. and Guha R. Ecology and Equity, The use and abuse of nature in contemporary India1995, Routledge, London, New York. 3. Maria Mies and Vandana Shiva, Ecofeminism, 1993, Publishers, Kali for women, New Delhi and London. 4. Gazetteer of Bombay presidency, Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg Districts, Volume 10, Part I and II, published by Govt. of Maharashtra.

(Originally published in 1880) 5. Gazeteer of Bombay presidency, Thana District Volume XIII, part II. 1976, (Farsimile reproduction) Published by Gazeteer Department,

Govt. of Maharashtra. (Originally published in 1882). 6. Deshpande Suneeta, Ahe Manohar Tari ( Memoires in Marathi), 1990, Mauj Prakashan Griha, Mumbai 7. Shiva Vandana, Biopiracy, The Plunder of Nature and Knowledge, 1997, South End Press, Boston, Massachusetts. 8. Robinson C.A. Tradition and Liberation, The Hindu Tradition in the Indian Women‘s Movement. 1999, Curzon Press, Surrey. 9. Sane Geeta. Bharatiya Stree Jeevan (Marathi) 1986, Mauj Prakashan Griha, Mumbai. 10. My own notes and survey record collected during March 1999- July 1999. 11. Map of Konkan reproduced from the Saline Land development plan report, 2000. Government of Maharashtra. 12. http://www.shubhyatra.com/htm/maharashtra/goldenstrip3.htm #At Chiplun and Guhagar site 13. http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/maharashtra/index.html Map of Maharashtra

Notes [i] Cultural influences refer to local people‘s traditions, those of other races like Aryans, Jews, Arabians, European as well as influences of

other regional and religious traditions. Konkan was a trading region for internal and external trade with many distant lands. [ii] Position of Chamar, the leather processing caste has same social position and common all over Indian continent. [iii] The United States Patent and Trade Mark Office (US PTO) has cancelled the patent it granted for the use of turmeric as a wound healing

agent at the intervention of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). R. A. Mashelkar Director General CSIR said that the cancellation of the patent on turmeric powder is a significant development of far reaching consequences for the protection of the traditional Indian knowledge base in the public domain. This is perhaps the first case where the use of traditional knowledge base of a developing country. News item in Indian express, 24 August 1997. http://www.hvk.org/articles/0897/0113.html

[iv] Neem is a commonly found tree used for multiple purposes and has great medicinal and environmental value. Its use as pesticide is promoted as a green farming technique. Animals don‘t eat the leaves.

[v] The author narrates an episode when a snake made a daily visit to her grand mother who was staying alone in the house, and it was considered as a protective guard by her. But ultimately it was killed by the relatives.

[vi] Sahyadri mountain ranges run parallel to Konkan coast and provided formidable challenge for British rulers. [vii] In the book named Daughters of Maharashtra, majority of women are from families from Konkan region. [viii] NRE 477 class notes and readings. [ix] In this knot of saree women tuck wads of currency notes as the most secured place! Konkani women used to carry important documents in

such a manner in times of freedom movement, unsuspected by the police. [x] My mother, a tennis player in her college years in 1940‘s had to ware 9 yard saree while playing as wearing shorts was a taboo in those

years for any women. The Modern version of 5 yard saree is most inconvenient for work of women. [xi] Reference from class notes [xii] The art is also known as Rangoli, is considered as a necessary art for every woman. [xiii] Red powder is made from turmeric powder and lamon juice, which is also apllied in a dot form by most Indian women. The widows have to

avoid it. [xiv] Turmeric powder. [xv] Gobar is local word for cow dung. [xvi] Known as Warali art [xvii] An ideal tree. The tender coconut water, coconut flesh, shell, the fibrous cover, the trunks, leaves are used for production of valuable

commodities like edible oil, ropes, roofing mats, supporting columns, decorative products. [xviii] A round thick piece of a particular stone is usually found in all households. [xix] The Ayurvda, the traditional medicine is now systematically researched by scholars and medical practitioners like Dr. Sharadini Dahanukar

from Mumbai. [xx] It is known as grandmother‘s medicinal kit and maintained by most of the households in Maharashtra. My own grandmother used to give

these kinds of medicines to whoever needed them and her surgeon husband used to value them! [xxi] These informal networks are now valued by the state medical system and is incorporated in the formal system with varying degrees. My

personal interview with two women village health workers in a remote village in Konkan revealed a rich information about this system. [xxii] The famous Taj group of hotels provide Malavani food regularly in their restaurants in Mumbai region. [xxiii] The monsoon season is important for fish breeding and animal propagation which can guarantee better food supply [xxiv] National park movement appears to be the product of urbanization rather than rural, traditional way of relating to nature. [xxv] The festival called Bail Powala and is celebrated on the full moon night of third month in Monsoon when animals have no practical work.

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