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376 S. GLASERSUMMARY

The above paper contains an account of an investigationinto the distribution of the sweat glands in a Bantu and aEuropean subject. In spite of th e paucity of the materialthe following results ar e noted:a. The regional distribution of the glands of the Bantucorresponds with that of the European.

b. In the great majority of regions compared, however, theBantu has more sweat glands than the European, and this isprobably of considerable value to him in resisting extremesof heat.

LITERATURE CITED1 ARON, H. 1911 Investigation 011 the action of the tropical sun on men

and animals. Phillip. J. ScL, VI, 101-131.2 CILENTO, M. 1929 Quofed by Hertslet. Skin, it s uses in six phases.3 CLARK, E., AND R. H. LHAMON 1917 Observations on the sweat glands of

tropical and northern races. Anat. Rec., XII, 139-147.4 FINSEN, N. R. 1922 Quoted by Krogh. Anatomy and physiology of capil.

laries.5 GAUVAIN, H. 1933 Hastings' popular lecture on sun, air, and sea bathingin health and disease. Supplement to B.M.J., February 25, 5 7 ~ 1 .

6 GRAY, H. 1930 Textb. Hum. Anat.7 HOMMA, H. 1926 On apocrine sweatglands in white and negro men andwomen. Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp., XXXVIII, 365-371.

8 KRAUSE, W. 1879 Handb. mensch. Anat.9 MARTIN, C. J. 1930 Thermal adjustment of man and animals to externalconditions. Lancet, September 27, 673.

10 WOOLLARD, H. H. 1930 Cutaneous glands of man. J. Anat., LXIV,415-421.

BLOOD-GROUP C L A S S I B ~ I C A T I O N A.L.KROEBER

Department of Anthropology, University of CaliforniaONE FIGURE

Several methods have been used to formulate th e bloodgroup relationships of th e world's populations. Special interest attaches to this problem because these relationshipsappear to differ considerably from those expressed in the raceclassifications based on hair, headform, nose, stature, color,etc. in combination. Perhaps the best-known means of formulation is the biochemical index: the percentage of individuals of blood types A and AB in a given population dividedby the percentage of B plus AB. There ar e several otherindices, including at least one based on p, q, r, the calculatedvalues of the genetic factors involved in blood grouping.There have also been maps plotting by means of contours, orsimilar devices, th e distribution of the types as expressed byan index. That for Europe by Steffan,! fo r instance, is stimulating an d suggestive, but of necessity embodies more interpolations than data.

In general, the indices used have been concerned with therelation of the positive factors A an d B. The proportion ofboth of these to the presumably unmutated type 0 is howeveralso important, especially as it was early recognized that typeo tended to be strongly represented in peripheral or remoteareas likely to have been little touched by invasion an d mingling of peoples.The present paper accordingly suggests a graphic express;on of the relation of populations in regard to blood-groupfrequencies by designation of th e strength of the 0 factor on

'z. f. Rassenphysiol., 1928, 1, 61.377

AMERICAN JOURSAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL. XVIII, NO. :1JANUAl lY-MARCH, 1934

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.

.

378 A. L. KROEBERone axis, and of the A to B relation on the other. Fo r t ~ i l , latter, I have chosen the simple ratio of A-B, preponderanelof B being expressed by negative percentages below the zeiline. This scheme fails to express the AB values; but thtis perhaps of no great importance, AB being normallyfunction of A and B. As the ascertained values of 0 r a n ~ from about 20 to 95 pe r cent and the extreme values of Alie within + 60 and - 30, the populations of the world ea]be plotted within the area of an asymmetrical triangle letthan 100 intervals along the two axes (fig. 1) .

Instead of the direct A-B value, the biochemical or s o m ~ . other index could have been used; or p- q and r might hisubstituted for A-B and O. Bu t the crude values chose;seem as good as an y others and ensure a spread of entrie'satisfactory for diagrammatic presentation.

The data plotted ar e selected from Steffan and vVelliseh'l1930-1933 compilations. 2 The plotting of the nearly 1 0 0 ~ sets of figures there given would have cluttered a g r a p ~ almost to the point of valuelessn ess. I have therefore s e l e e t e ~ about 200 sets of data as most significant, avoiding all smaIUseries if large ones were available from the same region oi'lnationality; all whose interest was primarily local or s u b ~ ethnic; al l that did not state the number of persons e x a r i J . i n e d ~ etc. The following list of plotted data is meant to be selec;!tively representative and chosen without bias.3

Die Geographische Verteilung der Blutgruppen, Z. f. Rassenphysiol., 1930, 2;\i114-145; 1931, 3, 184-187; 1932, 5, 180-185; 1933, 6, 28-35.,\

The first number, after the abbreviated designation, as '368' after ' S c o t , ~ , is the number of the item in the Stefl'an-Wellisch compilation; then follow theio per cent value, the A-B value, and in some cases a geographical specification.,\

iru

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25 .3 0 .3 5'" GO(;II::- 1: Lapp 1...0:0c: ssII::t'0...." 50>i..0:0 Czech." 0>0 ..., Swe'l '8 to'" 40,>

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BLOOD-GROUP CLASSIFICATION 383

813-40.7, 30.328-35.6, 39.5

159-37.0, 34.62-92-37.7, 32.03-7911.-44.1, 34.84-7011.-40.7, 34.81-20-33.7, 40.92-38-36.9, 37.2

n 1-157-32.8, 26.52-205-31.7, 23.6

.pp 1-2-28.9, 58.1; in Sweden2-144-35.1, 28.0; in Finland3-58-50.8, 39.2; in Sweden

r W 1-31-30.6, 37.0; W 1-7 = Wof long. 12 '

W 260-42.3, 3604W 3-65-40.5, 35.3W 4-97-41.5, 32.9W 5-112-37.1, 3004W 6-131-40.0, 3004W 7-152-40.7, 28.8E 1-44-34.9, 36.3; E 1.5 = E

of long. 12'E 2-128-35.0, 29.0E 3-164-37.1, 2704E 4-199- 34.4, 24.7E 5-254-35.1, 21.6

Dutch 1-116-46.8, 24.72-133c-45.7, 31.6

Belg-98-47.9, 34.7French-130-43.2, 31.4Span 1-34-44.35, 41.15

2-2111.-20.3, 34.3; Valladolia3-36m-41.7, 39.8; Catalan4-1511.-43.6, 47.2

Port 1-11-3804, 46042-11m-35A, 44.6

Czech-15b-32.8, 41.7I t 1-19-36.1, 42.5; Triest

2-50-46.3, 39.0; Turin3-72-38.9, 33.8; Turin4-159-45.6, 29.9; N. Italy5-43811.-50.6, 13.1; Sardinia6-260-39.5, 22.1; Triest7-12111.-47.2,32.8; Parma8-133d-46.7, 31.9; Milan9-86b-36.7, 32.5; Umbria

10-257b-44.8, 2304; Naples11-354b-43.1, 17.8; Sicily

Pol 1-271-30.3, 19.5; Kielz2-272-32.6, 20.2; Warsaw3-295-33.7, 19.0; Warsaw4-294-3204, 18.9; Lodz5-280-3704, 20A; N owogrodek6-410-30.6, 12.6; Polesie

Rus 1-119-31.8, 28.8; Ukraine2-331-29.2, 16.1; Ukraine3-36532.0, 15.5; Moscow4-483-26.3, 704; Perm5-315-31.0, 18.0; Siberia6-459-32.5, 9.5; Siberia

Hu n C-153-35.7, 27.6E-275-31.0, 19.2S-514-22.3, 4.3N-242a-35.3, 20.6; Budapest

Rum 1-139-33.7, 27.72-241-33.5, 22.2

Bulg 1-187-39.0, 26042-11211.-30.6, 28.3

Serb-353-35.6, 17.0Gr 1-203-38.2, 25042-351-50.8, 19.3

3-17011.-40.0, 27.7Egypt

Eg 1-540-24.0, 2.02-51311.-24.2, 304

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY. VOL. XVIII, NO.3

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384 A. L. KROEBERWestern Asia Kor S 305-19.9, 15.8

C 1-538-31.5, 2.2'Arab' 1-111a-38.0, 30.5; Beirut C 2-552-27.3, 0.0Christians N 592-30.5, -7.12-345b-35.5, 17.0; Beirut Moh.3-328a-55.7, 21.6; 158 Yeme Manchu 1-599-30.9, -8.0nites 2-617-26.6, -11.6

Iran-565-28.3, -2.9 Chin N 1-615-65.4, -15.1; PekingArm 1-17-27.0, 39.0 N 2-608-30.7, -9.1; Peking

2-32-33.8, 38.9 N 3-583-28.6, -5.4; Peking3-222-36.3, 23.7 N 4-530a-34.2, 3.1; Hoangho4-9a-25.3, 40.5 N 5-616a-32.5, -11.8; Shansi

Cauc 1-204-42.5, 26.12-259-41.7, 22.9 Chin S 1-324-31.3, 17.4; Hunan, etc.3-346-31.9, 16.9 S 2-567-45.9, -2.4; Canton4-215c-47.0, 26.7 S 3-468a-42.9, '9.8; Yangste

kiangTadjik-490-29.7, 7.1 IndiaUzbek 1-491-29.4, 6.92-425b-30.4, 11.8 In d 1-581-34.2, -5.4; 'Turko

Turkoman-492-28.7, 9.9 Iranian'2-601-32.2, -8.3; 'Indo-Aryan'Kirgiz 1-562-34.4, -1.3; between Ural 3-612-24.3, -9.3; Dravidianand Emba r. 4-621-30.2, -12.7; 'H indu '2-589-36.8, -7.43-618a-28.7, -12.0; Tienshan Gyp 1-530-35.9, 3.2; Yugo-Slaviaand Semiretshe 2-628-34.2, -17.8; HungaryAltai-569-37.8, -2.4

IndonesiaEastern Asia Annam-582-42.0, -6.0Buryat 1-625-30.4, -15.92-625b-33.3, -16.6; western Formosa-Av. of 8-c. 43, c. 10 ; 8 small3-630a-32.4, -19.0; Irkutsk series

Tr Baikal-472-38.6, 9.3 Sumatra-580-43.7, -6.0Mong-604a-28.6, -8.1; Urga; Java-598-37.9, -8.6114 cases Celebes 1-558-28.7, -1.1; Macassar2-534-34.6, 2.8; BugineseGilyak-438-50.0, 12.9; only 62 cases

Gold-624a-39.3, -17.3; 196 cases Phil 1 - 5 5 ~ - 5 1 . 6 , 0.0; Igorot, LuzonAinu-595-25.7, -6.8; summary 2-573-64.7, -4.9Jap N 1-300-29.7, 18.0; Sendai 3-585-40.0, -6.0

N 2-478-30.5, 8.2; Yamagata 4-597-53.6, -9.6; Bagobo,C 1-312-27.1, 17.2; Tokyo MindanaoC 2-343-31.0, 16.3; Tokyo 5-587-41.6, -7.2; Sulu MoroS 1-317-27.9, 17.1; Nagasaki 6-637-25.7, -26.7; Samal MoroS 2-246-27.9, 20.3; ShikokuS 3-235-27.1, 20.7; Kyushiu Madag-537-45.5, 3.6

BLOOD-GROUP CLASSIFICATION 385Micronesia (I n W to E order) N ortlt Africa

Moroc-542a-53.6, 2.4Micr 1-435-58.9, 14.2; Pelew Tunis-383b-46.4, 16.62-542-57.7, 2.5; Yap N Af r 'AI' -421-43.6, 13.43-347-50.5, 19.8; Marianas Abyss-478a-55.3, 10.34-309-58.9, 23.2; Wolea5-557-28.7, -1.0; Truk Austmlia (Aborigenes)6-425-48.4, 14.1; Mortlock7-417-53.3, 15.0; Ponape Austr 1-120-57.0, 35.58-269-43.8, 22.6; Pingelap, etc. 2-163-55.0, 32.1; Queensland9-141-34.2, 27.9; Kusaie 3-7-45.6, 54.4; S. Australia10-463-52.2, 11.1; Marshall 4-4b-43.8, 56.2; C. York Penin.

5-276b-60.3, 25.3; N. Queens-Polynesia land6-3b-41.6, 58.4; HermansburgHawaii-3a-36.5 58.6 7-144b-55.2, 33.3; N.S.W.

Melanes'Uzns of New Guinea America (Aborigenes)Melan-475-53.7, 10.5 Am 1-446-84.5, 15.5; Canada2-301-70.9, 25.6; U.S., mixedNegrito of Phirippinea 3-413-77.7, 18.1; U.S.Negrito-348-48.5, 19.2 4-467-79.1, 13.0; U.S.5-520-913, 6.7; U.S., pure

Negro Africa 6-286-72.7,26.7; Navaho7-481-76.6, 11.3; MayaNegro 1-579-43.0, -5.8; Senegal 8-506-82.9, 8.6; N. Argentina2-563-52.3, -1.5; Yoruba3-566-45.6, -2.0; Katanga Esk 1-489-80.7, 10.5; Smith SoundBantu 2-45b-55.4, 42.7; Baffinland4-510-56.0, 7.0; E. Coast 3-138a-54.7, 33.7; 'Greenlanders'Bantu 4-7a-41.1, 50.3; C. Farewell5-578-53.2, -5.9; Bechuana

Bantu Am Mix 1-411-59.2, 16.3; Mexic. in6-498-52.0, 8.0; Bantu Texas7-549a-41.0, 1.0; Fr . mid. 2-390-59.0, 10.0; E. Argen-Congo tina8-513c-53.2, 6.1; Transvaal 3-458-55.6, 11.7; PeruBantu 4-513d-75.1, 6.9; PeruNeg Mix 1-474-58.7, 11.0; Hayti

2-503-46.5, 6.9; Jamaica3-488-49.0, 8.4; U.S.4-496-47.0, 8.0; U.S.5-240-43.0; 24.0; Makosa

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386 387. L. KROEBERIt is well recognized that several series from the same popu

lation generally come out somewhat diverse in their proportions. This may be due to local variations in the geneticcomposition of races being greater than has been supposed;to plasticity in the heredity; to greater inbreeding than hasbeen assumed for most local populations, resulting in stronginfluence of a relatively small number of ancestors; or toother factors. At any rate, the fact is evident; with theresult, for instance, that for Italians the A- B value rangesfrom 18 to 42, for North Chinese the 0 figure from 31 to 65.Where the number of individuals of a population in one.locality is small, and the opportunities for inbreeding par- "ticularly high, as among Lapps and Micronesians, the spreadis even greater. We cannot therefore expect all entries fora race or group of related populations to segregate themselves compactly in one part of the graph. That a definitetendency toward segregation nevertheless eventuates, seemsto justify the plotting device. There appears for instance tobe a conspicuous vacancy around 0 = 40, A- B = 10, corresponding to A +AB and B +AB values of 35 and 25 respectively. Theoretically, there seems no reason why there shouldnot be such populations.

Centering around 0 40, A- B 30, 'with limits roughly of 30to 50 and 15 to 45 respectively, are the peoples of WesternEurope, Southern Europe, and Southwestern Asia. This'blood-group race' comprises Scandinavians, including Finns;Germans; the nationalities to the west of the foregoing; allSouth Europeans from Portugal to Greece, Bulgaria, andRumania; and Armenians, Caucasians, and probably Syrian'Arabs.' Here and there a census falls outside the enclosingline; but the cases strong in numbers are few. It will beseen that while not all whites are included in this group, itincludes only whites or 'Caucasians.' On the other hand,this blood-type assemblage cuts across the usually dealt-withwhite sub-races: Alpines, Dinarics, Baltics are part in andpart out. Also in and out, if the recorded value for Egyptiansand Moroccans proves representative, are Mediterraneans.

BLOOD-GROUP CLASSIFICATION

And yet, the greatest excess of A over B is among the ultratypical Iberian Mediterraneans. The dozen highest values(among those chosen for the diagram) for A- B occur amongMediterraneans, Nordics, Alpines, and Armenoids.Some significant differences are however apparent withinthe group. I f we skirt the right hand or high O-value edgeof the ellipse, the peoples encountered are Portuguese, Spaniards, Italians, French, Belgians, Dutch, Scotch, English; inshort, th e inhabitants of the westernmost fringe of Europe,in approximate order of geographic position from south tonorth. Scandinavians and Finns ar e definitely lower in 0,and differ inter se in the lower A over B excess among thelatter. Armenians too ru n relatively low in 0; the Balkanpeoples in both 0 and A-B; Germans cluster about the middleof the ellipse.A second segregation is that which I have marked by theoval designated Poland-Japan. This is the cluster center forPoles and Russians; possibly the Hungarians, though theirscatter makes their true place uncertain; and, fa r to the east,for South Koreans, Japanese, and South Chinese. The rangeis compact: 0 from 25 to 35, A- B from 12 to 22 ; in spite ofthe vast geographic range.Near by in the diagram, with A- B 6 t o 12 instead of 12-22,are the peoples of western Turkestan: Turkoman, Tadjik,Uzbek; plus scattering samples of Russians and Japanese.These populations might be included outright in the PolandJapan group, if it were not for their possible adherence tothe next block.

The India-Manchu block is also low in 0, but the highestof any in B, so that A- B values are generally negative, therange being from nearly - 20 to around + 3. The populations included are the Hindus, with Gypsies and perhapsIranians; and the North Chinese, North Koreans, Mongol andBuriat, Turkish Kirgiz, Tungusic Manchu and Gold, and Ainu.So fa r as numbers go, the large populations in this groupare those of India and those in North China; with the Tungusic tribes beyond. Between these southwestern and north

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388 A. L. KROEBEReastern concentrations is a series of much smaller, thinly sownTurkic and Mongolic populations in inner Asia. The datafrom these pretty consistently fall in the same range as thosefrom India and North China-Manchuria. These inner Asiaticpeoples must therefore be accepted, in the present state ofknowledge, as tying India and North China into one block.

This however raises a difficulty. The general racial typeof Hindus and of North Chinese-Manchu is quite distinct. Thehistoric central Asiatic invasions of India cannot be invokedas a sufficient explanation, for several reasons. First, thenumbers of the central Asiatics ar e and have always beenvery small compared with the numbers of Hindus. Second,only fractions of these peoples penetrated India perhapsmore blood entered India from Oxiana than from remoterregions. Third, southern Dravidian India seems to show ashigh a B as northwestern, where exposure to invasion wasgreatest. An explanation of connection by barbarian invasion an d conquest of India therefore seems superficial if notspecious.

Nor can a reversed explanation of Hindu blood carriedvia inner Asiatics to the :Manchurian region be supportedany better. The basic difficulty is that both terminal areashave long held heavy populations, while interior Asiatic population has of necessity always been much less dense. Politicalconquests by tribes may loom large in ou r general impressionsof history, but they obviously will not pe r se seriously changethe blood composition of large settled masses of humanity.And if they did, the fact should inevitably show also in color,hair, and other anthropometric traits.Also, if the inner Asiatic peoples ar e used to unite Indiaand China-Manchuria, they inevitably separate Poland-Russiafrom Japan-South China. The latter 'block' then becomestwo geographically discrete blocks. Actually, in fact, they arenot only discrete, but thousands of miles apart. Possiblelinks between them ar e very few, if we except Russians mi-grated to Siberia in the last two or three centuries. Thereare only: one record of Trans-Baikalians, A- B = 9.3; Gilyak

389LOOD-GROUP CLASSIFICATION12.9, bu t only 62 individuals tested; and the Southwest Turkestan peoples already discussed-Turkoman, Tadjik, Uzbek-who, with A- B values of + 7 to + 12, ar e transitionalbetween Poland-Japan and India-Manchu.4

The Poles-Russians and the Japanese-South Chinese therefore evidently do not represent a genetic unit. The bloodtype similarity of these two sets of populations is due eitherto convergence, that is, independent causes happening tobring about the same consequences; or to approximately equalabsorption by both of high-B heredity from the interveningHindu-Mongol-North China-Manchu group. Th e latter hypothesis entails new difficulties: first, that neither Polandnor Japan was ever permanently invaded by Mongols or anyother inner Asiatic people; an d second, if they ha d been, it isas difficult to see as in the case of India, how the necessarilysmall number of invaders and conquerors could have workeda marked change in blood-type. I t seems accordingly thatconvergence, or independent sets of causes, is the best interpretation ye t available fo r the blood-group similarity of Polesand Russians with Japanese, South Koreans, and SouthChinese.

Another set of complications is provided by the overlap ofthe Indonesian type, and through this of the Negroid, withthe India-Manchu. The Negroid type is fairly well characterized: 0 = 50 -t- 9, A- B = t- 8. Four rather good series oftransplanted Negroes in Hayti, Jamaica, and the UnitedStates fall essentially in the same range: 0 = 47 - 58, A- B =7 -11, showing that these ex-slave populations are still essentially Negroid in heredity. New Guinea Melanesians, with54 and 10, ar e also within the range; and anthropologicallythey have always been reckoned as Negroid. Th e Negroidblood-type pe r se thus is definitely distinct from the India}lanchu one.

On the other hand, they are both heavily overlapped bythe Indonesian, which includes the peoples of Annam,Sumatra, Java, Celebes, and the Philippines. A- B is usually

Moreover, they are cut off from the Russians by the Kirgiz 011 the north sideof the Caspian, who belong with India-Manchu.

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390 A. L. KROEBERnegative, but not heavily so, from - 10 to + 3. Theactoris variable, from 29 for one Celebes to 65 for one Philippineseries.5 However, significant values above 45 have sofa r been reported only from the Philippines, which are geographically at the margin of the area. Fo r the tract AnnamCelebes, both thend the A- B values ar e either within theIndia-Manchu range or close to it. Whether this signifiescoincidence (convergence) or connection, it would be premature to say.

Several of the Indonesian values are also near to or withinthe Negroid range of values. This fact need not be takenas indication of hereditary relationship, in view of the analogous situations already discussed. There certainly seemsno positive warrant fo r any' Africo-Malayan' type as genetically valid. Descriptively it may be better justified, althoughthe scatter of the Negroid and the Indonesian populations isin different directions in the diagram.

Madagascar falls within the range of both types; which issufficiently fitting for an African island with Indonesianspeech, but throws no new light on the old question of whetherthe Madagascans are prevailingly of Negro or Indonesianheredity.Fo r Micronesia we have a number of small series. Half ofthese fall in a fairly compact compass somewhere around

0=55 , A- B = 17. The more divergent series can probablybe construed as variants such as ar e expectable in small, reduced populations. The Micronesian' average' is nearest tothe Negroid; but also not very remote from the WestEuropean.The Philippine Negritos, if our one series is representa

tive, with 48, +19, are rather nearer West European thanNegro values.6 What this suggests is that they may be more'The Samal Moro Philippine series runs A- B = - 27, 0=26 , which is far

outside any type. Analogous are the results on three Melanesian groups recently published byW. W. Howells in Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 19 : 49

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392 A. L. KROEBERwhereas in the diagram his situation is about as fa r from thatof the other Mongoloid peoples as it well could be. I t looksas if current race classification would encounter about asmany exceptions as corroborations of its scheme from bloodtype classification. However, the corroborations should notbe underweighted through any desire to overthrow acceptedclassification in favor of a new and simpler scheme.

Mixed American Indian populations, those with Caucasianabsorptions, show about the same A-B as pure American Indians, bu t a values from 10 to 35 lower; which is accordingto expectability. As in the case of Negroes, admixture shiftsthe place of the hybrid race toward that of West and SouthEuropeans in the diagram.

The Eskimo are puzzling. One group falls near the middleof the American range; two wi thin the Australian; anotherjust outside the Australian and West European. Europeanadmixture may partially account fo r two of the divergentcases in Greenland, bu t scarcely for the third in Baffinland.Bay-Schmith's conclusion seems warranted, that the Eskimovariation is unexplainable in terms of present knowledge. Headds that perhaps pure races may be variable.7

The following seems a fair summary of the situation:1. An empirical review points strongly against the assump

tion that the A and B factors each originated only once. I fthey are mutations, it seems more likely that they arose independently in more than one place, period, and population.

2. A very probable case of such convergent development isthat of Russians-Poles and Japanese-South Chinese. Otherpossible cases are India and Korea-Manchuria-North China;and Negroes and Melanesians. Even the West Europe-SouthEurope-\Vest Asia class is not necessarily a single one genetically.

3. Current anthropometric race classifications are at timessupported by empirical blood-type classification, at times con-travened. The latter result would be expectable if blood-types

'Acta Pathologica et :Microbiologica Scandinavica, 1930, VII, 107-116.

393LOOD-GROUP CLASSIFICATIONhave repeatedly developed convergently. Bu t not all discordances between the two kinds of classification seem properly attributable to blood-type convergences.

4. The prime need is for sufficiently large series of llew datafrom more populations; and, critically, for restraint from simplistic interpretations. The data ar e certainly complex andvariable, promise to become more so as they grow fuller, andtheir meaning bids fair to be difficult.

In conclusion, I wish to acknowledge the stimulation ofJ. B. S. Haldane, whose interest in this field stirred mine intoreviving incompleted work which I ha d laid aside.