1352-2310(94)E0044-K KUWAIT1 OIL FIRES - AIR QUALITY MONITORING MOHAMED B. AMIN and GHIR HUSAIN Waler Rcsourccs and Environment Division, The Rcscarch Institute. King Fahd Unlverslty or Petroleum and Mlnersls. Dhnhran-3 1261. Saud] Arabia Abstract Just before rhc Gulf War was concluded In early March 1991. more than 700 wells in Kuwaiti oil lields wcrc SCI on tire. About 6 mllllon barrels per day of 011 wcrc lost in flames and a large number of pools and lakes wcrc formed. Burning wells I” Kuwait cmitred several thousand tons of gases such as sulfur dloxlde. carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide. carbon dloxlde. and the oxides of mtrogen, as well as partlculatc matlcr. on a daily basls containing partially burned hydrocarbons and metals, all of which were potential for atTecting human health and vegetation growrh. Thib paper summarizes the real-rime measurements or various gaseous pollutants In the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia in Dhahran. Abqq, Rahlmah. Jubail and Tanajib. The statistics on monthly variation of gaseous pollutants showed that pollution concentration in general was high in May 1991. The levels of typical pollutants such as sulfur dioxtdr (SOz). carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO,) in the amblent air were much lower than the permissible limits defined I” the Meteorology and Environmental Protection Agency (MEPA) standards. The pollutants measured during the Kuwaltl Oil Fires were compared with the corresponding values measured in the previous year. The comparison shows that although rhc concentration ofgaseous pollutants were within the MEPA limits. during the period ofoil well lires. the concentration level Increased persistently which might have been harmful for human health. The harmful efkcts of the maJor pollutants on human health and vegetation are also briefly discussed in the paper. Key word I&\-: Carbon monoxide. hydrogen sulfide, Kuwait. 011 fires. oxldes of mtrogen. ozone. Saudi Arabia. sulfur dloxlde. 1. INTRODUCTION Burning oil wells in Kuwait produced large amounts of gases and particulate containing partially burned hydrocarbons and metals, all of which have a potential effect on human health (Goldsmith and Fribers, 1977) and vegetation (Heck and Brandt, 1977). Sulfur dioxide (SO,), being a very soluble gas, is absorbed in the human nose and upper airway while breathing which, in turn. produces increased airway resistance in the lung. High doses of SO2 (i.e. 2-5 ppm or 5OOt- 13,000 pg m- 3, may cause severe impairment of lung functions (Nadel ef al., 1965). In some cases, a healthy person without any previous history of asthma may develop a moderately severe attack of the disease. Among the healthy people studied, about one in ten is susceptible to such an exaggerated reaction. The effect at low concentration (i.e. 0.5 ppm or 1300 pgrnm3) includes distasteful odor, and irritation leading to airway resistance. A chronic cough and mucus secretion may result from repeated exposures. Of several oxides of nitrogen present in ambient air, only two are known to affect human health. These are nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide. The recent study shows that nitrogen dioxide adversely affects lung defense mechanisms (Gardner, 1984; Morrow, 1984; and Pennington, 1988) and causes lung damage in excessive dose. Once inhaled, NO, is retained in the lungs and is deposited in the airways, and in the presence of moisture it is transformed to nitrous acid and nitric acid (Overton and Miller, 1988). These oxides, if transferred across the lung-blood barrier, can produce inactive forms of hemoglobin. It is no- ticed that eye and nasal irritation will develop after exposure to about 15 ppm nitrogen dioxide and pulmonary discomfort will commence after brief ex- posure to 25 ppm. It is likely that pathological changes can be detected on the basis of exposure of 25-50 ppm for a short period. Exposure to 150- 200 ppm may lead to the gradual development of fatal pulmonary fibrosis (Myers and Hine, 1961; Samet, 1991). Upon entering the respiratory system, CO com- bines in the lung with bloodstream hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin (COHb). This reduces the capability of hemoglobin to carry oxygen to body tissues and induces allosteric change that shows dis- association of the oxygen bond to other heme sites on the hemoglobin (Coultas and Lambert, 1991). It has been observed that a CO level of 50 ppm leads to an equilibrium value of 7% COHb and 100 ppm to about 14% COHb. After exposure the CO is slowly released from the blood with a clearance half-life of 3-4 h. At COHb levels of 2-5%. effects are noticed in the central nervous system. At levels greater than 5%, there are cardiac and pulmonary functional changes. Inhalable suspended particulates probably present the most serious health hazard. Their concentrations 2261
Transcript
1352-2310(94)E0044-K
KUWAIT1 OIL FIRES - AIR QUALITY MONITORING
MOHAMED B. AMIN and GHIR HUSAIN Waler Rcsourccs and Environment Division, The Rcscarch Institute. King Fahd Unlverslty or Petroleum
and Mlnersls. Dhnhran-3 1261. Saud] Arabia
Abstract Just before rhc Gulf War was concluded In early March 1991. more than 700 wells in Kuwaiti oil lields wcrc SCI on tire. About 6 mllllon barrels per day of 011 wcrc lost in flames and a large number of pools and lakes wcrc formed. Burning wells I” Kuwait cmitred several thousand tons of gases such as sulfur dloxlde. carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide. carbon dloxlde. and the oxides of mtrogen, as well as partlculatc matlcr. on a daily basls containing partially burned hydrocarbons and metals, all of which were potential for atTecting human health and vegetation growrh.
Thib paper summarizes the real-rime measurements or various gaseous pollutants In the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia in Dhahran. Abqq, Rahlmah. Jubail and Tanajib. The statistics on monthly variation of gaseous pollutants showed that pollution concentration in general was high in May 1991. The levels of typical pollutants such as sulfur dioxtdr (SOz). carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO,) in the amblent air were much lower than the permissible limits defined I” the Meteorology and Environmental Protection Agency (MEPA) standards. The pollutants measured during the Kuwaltl Oil Fires were compared with the corresponding values measured in the previous year. The comparison shows that although rhc concentration ofgaseous pollutants were within the MEPA limits. during the period ofoil well lires. the concentration level Increased persistently which might have been harmful for human health. The harmful efkcts of the maJor pollutants on human health and vegetation are also briefly discussed in the paper.
Key word I&\-: Carbon monoxide. hydrogen sulfide, Kuwait. 011 fires. oxldes of mtrogen. ozone. Saudi Arabia. sulfur dloxlde.
1. INTRODUCTION
Burning oil wells in Kuwait produced large amounts of gases and particulate containing partially burned hydrocarbons and metals, all of which have a potential effect on human health (Goldsmith and Fribers, 1977) and vegetation (Heck and Brandt, 1977).
Sulfur dioxide (SO,), being a very soluble gas, is absorbed in the human nose and upper airway while breathing which, in turn. produces increased airway resistance in the lung. High doses of SO2 (i.e. 2-5 ppm or 5OOt- 13,000 pg m- 3, may cause severe impairment of lung functions (Nadel ef al., 1965). In some cases, a healthy person without any previous history of asthma may develop a moderately severe attack of the disease. Among the healthy people studied, about one in ten is susceptible to such an exaggerated reaction. The effect at low concentration (i.e. 0.5 ppm or 1300 pgrnm3) includes distasteful odor, and irritation leading to airway resistance. A chronic cough and mucus secretion may result from repeated exposures.
Of several oxides of nitrogen present in ambient air, only two are known to affect human health. These are nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide. The recent study shows that nitrogen dioxide adversely affects lung defense mechanisms (Gardner, 1984; Morrow, 1984; and Pennington, 1988) and causes lung damage in excessive dose. Once inhaled, NO, is retained in the lungs and is deposited in the airways, and in the
presence of moisture it is transformed to nitrous acid and nitric acid (Overton and Miller, 1988). These oxides, if transferred across the lung-blood barrier, can produce inactive forms of hemoglobin. It is no- ticed that eye and nasal irritation will develop after exposure to about 15 ppm nitrogen dioxide and pulmonary discomfort will commence after brief ex- posure to 25 ppm. It is likely that pathological changes can be detected on the basis of exposure of 25-50 ppm for a short period. Exposure to 150- 200 ppm may lead to the gradual development of fatal pulmonary fibrosis (Myers and Hine, 1961; Samet, 1991).
Upon entering the respiratory system, CO com- bines in the lung with bloodstream hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin (COHb). This reduces the capability of hemoglobin to carry oxygen to body tissues and induces allosteric change that shows dis- association of the oxygen bond to other heme sites on the hemoglobin (Coultas and Lambert, 1991). It has been observed that a CO level of 50 ppm leads to an equilibrium value of 7% COHb and 100 ppm to about 14% COHb. After exposure the CO is slowly released from the blood with a clearance half-life of 3-4 h. At COHb levels of 2-5%. effects are noticed in the central nervous system. At levels greater than 5%, there are cardiac and pulmonary functional changes.
Inhalable suspended particulates probably present the most serious health hazard. Their concentrations
2261
are aircad! naturally high and the presence or soot in thr atmosphere may have synergistic effects un health. Parriculatcs may cause physical irritation and may ha\r serious &ects on health since organic pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons arc ab- sorbed onlo the particulate surface In addition. inorganic pollutants such as trace metals arc also absorbed on particulate surfaces.
Organic compounds such as benzene and hcn7o(<r)pyrcnc are known to be carcinogenic (Lance. IYY I: Santadonato L’I (I/.. 1979: Albert. 1978: IARC. 19821. .Aromatic compounds such as toluene. xylene.
eth>lhenzene. and tyrcne. which are found in the petroleum combustion process. have also shoivn a little e\,idcnce ofcarcinogenicity (National Toxicology Prosram. 1987: Molha\,e (‘I [I/.. 1986). Other organic compounds such as carbon tetrachloride can produce Ii\,er damage. narcotic erects and sometimes loss of consctousness (Stern el ‘I/., 1973).
Sulfur dioxidr concentrations above 0.5 ppm for a maximum exposure time of 3 h may cause visible foliar injur! in most temperate crops. Photo-oxidation of sulfur &oxide is enhanced by the presence of moisture and results in the formation of sulfuric acid aerosol which can drastically lower the pH of rainwater. Nitrogen oxides may also contribute to acid rain.
2. SIR QC’ALITY hlONITORING IN SALiD ARABIA
The Research Institute at the King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPMIRI) has been collecting data on the gaseous pollutants and partic- ulate matters in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia since January 1991. The KFUPMiRl contacted vari- ous organizations such as the Saudi Aramco, the Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu, and the
Meteorolog) and En\.lroniiicnt~rl Protsctl0n :\~0ic! (MEPA) to huppl! mcasurcd data on ;ur clualr~! parameters. Saudi Aramco. \~iicc then, ha> hccn sup- plying the data mrahurcd at ;I numhcr 01‘ locn~~c>n~ 111 the Eastern Pro\,ince cjf Saudi Arabia to KFLIPM RI on a regular basis. The Royal ~‘on~n~~ss~on I;)r Juh;iil and \r’anhu has a1so \uppl~ed hourI! measured data from one of its air qual~t> sites in Juhail. The \tatu\ 01 data recrilrd from \ari~)us IocatIoiis lb ~umiiiar~/cd 111
Table I. Air qualit! monitoring hitch are ‘rho\\n 111 Fig. I.
This paper &al\ onl! with the rca-tlmc nic;15- urcments ol” various ga5cous pollutant\ in the Ea\tcrn Province of Saud1 Arabia in Dhahran. Abcl;liq. RLI- himah. Jubail and TanaJih and detailed anal!si\. The stallstIc on partlculatc m;ittcr\; 111 the .III- ;I!-c prc- sentcd III anathcr articlc hi I-lusa~n ;rnd ,\min I lY4-l).
2. AIR QC’ALITI EQL IPI\IF.XT-QI :\l.lT\ \SSI R \\C.E
AUD Ql ALIT\ (‘OX-rHOI.
In the Eastern Province ol” Saudi Arabia. the Saudi Aramco began air qualit! and meteorological mon- toring in 1982. The air qualit! stations include TECO H2S and SO, monitors. Some of the stations arc equipped with TECO NO2 measuring instruments which operatr on the principle of chemllUliiiiiesccI1Cr. Dasibi ozone monitors operate on LIV absorption principle (Al-Sunaid. lYY7u).
Data are scanned every IO -30 s and arc recorded onto a cassette tape ivith the maximum. mlnimum and mean hourly values for each parameter. The personnel responsible to maintain these stations visit once ;I week to check dryers. lilters, ROM rates. data loggers. temperature manifold systems. and the zero span pre-
Table I. Status of measurement of gaseous pollutants
M;lr. Oct.. l9Y Mar. Oct.. I99 M;ir. Oct.. IYY I Mar.-Oct.. 199 I M;lr.--Oct.. IYY I Mar.-Oct.. I99 I
NOi Hourly H,S *Hourly and da~l!
SO? Hourly amI dail> NO, Hourly and ci;~lly HZ.5 Hourly ;tnd &III!
03 CO
NMOC
Hourly and da111 Hourly and &II> Hourly anJ drill!
l Hourly datx are ;Ivailable for March and April IVY1 only
Air quality monitoring 2’63
50 km -
37’ 4x0 49’ 50” 51’
Fig. I. Air quality monitoring sites in Saudi Arabia.
ctsion of the instruments. The instruments are main- tained with an overall + 5% errors.
The tapes storing data are processed using Compaq desk pro 386 PC and the information is stored in a database. The equipment are maintained and repaired in the laboratory. All the analysers are complemented by the calibration devices, Teledyne/Hastings certified flow meters are used to calibrate flow rates, liquid-in- glass thermometer. Gas concentration standards are maintained by the certified traceable permeation de- vices and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) protocol bottle gases.
The quality of data is assured by the calibration standards and periodic checks at three levels. The first level of check, which is carried out every 24 h, gives a trend of the instrument accuracy and drift character- istics while in the second level of check which is performed biweekly. the analysers and sensors are compared with the known pollutant levels and their response recorded. The third level of check. which is carried out every 3 months, deals with the detailed equipment calibration in the laboratory. In addition, periodic efficiency checks are carried out on the analyser converters every six months. The station gas calibrators are also calibrated every six months for Row and temperature checks (Al-Sunaid, 1992a).
4. AIR QUALITY STANDARDS In this paper, the measured values of the air qual-
ity parameters are compared against the MEPA MEPA has published the permissible levels of the primary pollutants in the ambient air of Saudi Arabia. standards. The maximum hourly and average dally
These are listed in Table 2. In order to compare the permissible limits as defined by the MEPA with other international organizations, the air quality standards for different parameters as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO), the U.S. EPA. and the European Community were compiled and are listed in Tables 3-5.
Comparing these standards, it is observed that for SO,, the US. EPA and the MEPA standards are similar while the WHO standard is relatively strin- gent. The 24 h limit for SO, as defined by the MEPA and the U.S. EPA should be 365 pgrnm3 while WHO air quality guidelines show l-h limit as 350 pgrnm3. For NO,, the US. EPA and MEPA define the annual permissible limit as 100 pgm-3, while the European Community put the hourly limit as 200 p&m-’ and it should not exceed 175 h in a year. while WHO define the hourly limit as 400 /cgrnm3. In the case of H2S. the 24 h value as defined by the MEPA is 40 /~g m 3 while the U.S. EPA and the WHO define such a limit as 150 pg m-‘. The permissible limit of 0, concentration as defined by MEPA is 295 pgmm3. WHO guidelines define hourly 0, concentration between I50 and 200pgm-3 while the U.S. EPA defines this limit as 235 pgrne3.
5. AIR QUALITY DATA ANALYSIWAUDI ARABIA
Averaging time Ma\~mum concentration Exccedance.s
Sulfur dioxide (SO,, Ih 730 pg m ’ (0.78 ppm) TWICC a month
74 h 365 pg m ’ (0. I4 ppm) Once 3 war I yr HO /ig “1 ’ IO 03 ppml (None)
lnhalable partlculnlc (11’1 24 h 340 pg m ’ Once 3 war
I yr X0 rig m ’ (None)
Pho(ochem)cal ox)dan(s (dclincd as ozone 0,) Ih 2YS rip m ’ (0. I5 ppm) Twtce a month
Nitrogen oxides (dclincd as mtrogen dloxrde. NO,) Ih 660 pg m ’ (0.35 ppm) Twice a month I yr 100 pg m ’ (0.05 ppm) (None)
Carbon monoxide (CO) Ih 40 ~(9 m .’ (35 ppm) Twice a mon(h
Xh IOngn~-~ ( Y ppm) Twice a month
Hydrogen sullidc (H,S) Ih I Y 5 pg m ’ (0. I4 ppm) Twice a month
24h 40 111: m ’ (0.03 ppm) Once a year
Fluorides (F ) 30d I /rg m .’ (0.00 I ppm) (None)
*Source: MEPA 1402 H.
Table 3. WHO air quality guidelines for selected parameters
Substances Exposure level Exposure time
Cadmium
Carbon monoxide
Hydrogen sulfide Lead Nitrogen dioxide
Ozone
Sulfur dioxide
Vanadium
IL5 mgm-’ IO-20 mgm-’ 100 mgm-’
60mgm-’ 30 mgmm3 IOmgm-’
150pgm-’ 0.5-I pgrn-j 400pgm-3 150 pgrn-’
150-2OOpgm-’ lOG120~gm~’
500 pg m 3 350pgm-3
I /igme3
I yr (rural area) I yr (urban area)
15min 30 min
Ih 8h
24h
IY Ih
24h Ih 8h
IO min Ih
24h
Table 4. U.S. EPA air quality guidelines for selected parameters
concentration of pollutants were measured at different Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia between January
locations in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. The and November 1991 are listed in Table 6. By com-
highest and second-highest values of the gaseous paring these with the MEPA permissible limit listed in
pollutants as measured at different locations in the Table 2, it is noticed that in most of the cases the
Air quality monttorrng 2265
concentration was within the MEPA specified permissible limit. The detailed analysis on individual parameter is presented below.
5. I. Sulfur dioxide
Figure 2 shows the box-whisker plot for SO, con- centration in Dhahran for a period MarchhNovember 1991. The plot shows an increase in monthly mean values in May. June, and July 1991 in the range of 50-60 pg m - ‘. Ten percent of the values in July 1991 were found higher than 75 /lg m 3. The concentration
in Dhahran did not exceed MEPA-defined 24..hourly value of 365 jig m 3. The trend of the mean values from August to November was found decreasing with the minimum in November 1991.
Figures 3-5 present variations of SO, concentra- tion at five locations (Jubail, Rahimah. Dhahran, Tanajib. and Abqaiq) in the Eastern Province ofSaudi Arabia. Among all these locations, the highest concen- tration was observed in Dhahran. Mean monthly values in Dhahran during these three months were in the range of 60-75 /lgrnm3 while in other locations,
Table 5. European Economrc Community air quality guidelines
Pollutants Concentration in air bgme’)
Length of exposure Observations
Sulfur dioxide associated SO,: 350: PSI 150 6dyr ’ with suspended particulate or
S02: 350; PS>l50 hdyr-’ SO:: 180; PS<60 Half of the days of the SIS
ii3 : 130. PS>60 months winter period
so:: 120; PS<40 Half of the days of the six or months winter pertod SO,: 80: PS <40 Half of the days of the year
Half of the days of the year Nitrogen dioxide 200 175 h in the year
Lead 2 Year
These levels are very rarely ex- ceeded in the Ile de France region but may still be reached in in- dustrial regions
This level is exceeded in certain parts of the Paris area
This level is not reached at any of the measuring sites of Paris
400
365
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
\ MEPA Permissible Limit
365
March April May June July August SeplrmberOctober November
Fig. 2. Variations in SO, concentration in Dhahran from March to November 1991.
Loca
tions
Tabl
e 6.
Hi
ghes
t an
d se
cond
-high
est
conc
entra
tion
of
pollu
tant
s rn
th
e Ea
stern
Pr
ovinc
e of
Sa
udi
Arab
ia
for
Janu
ary-
Nove
mbe
r. 19
91
SO,
(143
m-7
H2
S (p
grn-
‘1 NO
, (p
gm-‘1
0,
(wsm
m’)
CO
(jog
m
‘) NM
OC
(ppm
)
Max
. ho
urly
Mea
n da
ily
Max
, ho
urly
Mea
n da
ily
Max
. ho
urly
Mea
n da
ily
Max
. ho
urly
Mea
n da
ily
Max
. ho
urly
Mea
n da
ily
Max
. ho
urly
Mea
n da
ily
Dhah
ran
High
est
Seco
nd
high
est
Abqa
iq
High
est
Seco
nd-h
ighe
st
Rahi
ma
High
est
Seco
nd-h
ighe
st
Tana
jib
High
est
Seco
nd-h
ighe
st
Juba
il High
est
Seco
nd-h
ighe
st
MEP
A sta
ndar
d
377
I IO
296
94
422
147
233
73
396
102
14
20
280
76
71
IS
458
168
36
8 40
3 I5
7 21
7
104
54
195
23
ICKI
51
10
1 22
73
0**
365*
19
5”
40*
222
87
177
79
98
36
94
32
85
30
71
26
II2
36
99
34
660"
NA
368
89
3795
21
74
2.61
0.
77
215
88
3335
'07
0 1.
62
0.67
29
5'1
NA
40,O
OO**
NA
NA
NA
l On
ce
a ye
ar.
**Tw
ice
a m
onth
.
Air quality momtorlng 1x7
.I u h :I i I K ah i ma h Dhahran Tanajih Ahqaiy
Fig. i. Variations III mean SO2 concentration in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia in May 1991.
,luhail Rahimah Dhahran Tanajih Ahqaiq
Fig. 4. Variations in SO? concentration in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia in June 1991.
fhc mean monthly concentration was below 3Opg fore, carried by the wind contributed in elevating
m ‘. Analysing meteorological data, it has been ob- ground-level concentration in the Eastern Province of served that 80% of the time wind direction during Saudi Arabia in general and Dhahran in particular.
these months was from the north and northwest. Figure 6 shows the variations in SO, concentration
Frequent inversion was also observed during these at various locations in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia months in the coastal region. The pollutants, there- based on eight months continuous monitoring during
2268 M. B. AMIN and T. H~ISAIN
400
36.5
350
300
E
.$ 250 E 2 en C L .J 200 E
.r P 2 150
7 >
100
50
0
\ hlEPA Permissible Limit
400
365
350
300
E z 250
2
gJ L
200 .- E
.c c 150 3
5
100
50
0
Juabil Rahimah Dhahran Tanajib Abqaiq
Fig. 5. Variations in mean SO> concentration in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia in July 1991
MEPA Permissible Limit
Dhahran Rahimah Abqaiq Jubail Tanajib
Fig. 6. SO? variations in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabta during Kuwattt Oil Fires
365
oil tires. The plot shows relatively high concentration locations while 75% measurements were below
in Tanajib and Dhahran while in Jubail, Abqaiq, and 50pgm-‘. Rahimah, the mean concentration was relatively low. In order to study the variation of SO, concentration
The eight months mean was less than 40 p’gm-’ at all with the wind direction, the mean daily SO, concen-
tration values were categorized into a number of groups according to the prevailing wind direction and box-whisker plot with respect to each group of data was plotted as shown in Fig. 7. It is clear from this figure that the mean SO, concentration was above 40pgm-’ with lOoJo of the measurements above 80 ~lgrn -3 when the prevailing wind direction was from the northwest and north-northwest. In other cases specially when wind direction was easterly or
400
365
350
3 0 0
E i
250
E 2 8 200 k .- E
.E I 5 0 6
Z 2
100
50
0
from the southeast. the mean concentration was found to be less than 30 j~grn ‘. while l0”,0 of the values were above 40 jigrn -j. Since the smoke plumes which originated from the Kuwaiti Oil Fires were carried to Dhahran mainly by northwesterly winds, the plot therefore shows a relative increase in the concentra- tion level during north westerly winds.
To study the impact of wind speed on the concen- tration of SO, in Dhahran during Kuwaiti oil fires.
-
0 I
E EN E NE SSE s NXW NW SSE SE ESE
365
WS<=2.4 2.5<=WS<3.5 3.5<=WS<4.5 4.5<=ws<5.5 ss<=ws Fig. ti Varl;lcitms in SO, concentration in Dhahran with wind speed.
AE 28:13-J
‘270 M. B. AMIN and T. HIIS~IN
mean daily SO? data were categorized into five groups: (c)Group 3: SO2 measurements wllh the wind speed between 3.5 and 4.-l ms ‘.
(a) Group I: SO2 measurements with the wind speed (d) Group 4: SO, measurements with the wind less than or equal to 2.5 m s ‘. speed between 3.5 and 5.4 m s ‘.
(b) Group 2: SO, measurements with the wind (e) Group 5: SO2 measurements with the kvlnd speed speed between 2.5 and 3.4 ms-‘. greater than 5.4 m s ’
March April hlay Jllfle JUI~ August September October
Fig. 9. Variations In NO, conccntratlon In Juhail (March Octohcr 199 I I.
MEPA Permissible Limit (One-year averaging lime)
Dhahran Abqaiq JUbail Tanajib
. 1 0 0
Fig. IO. NO, variations in the Eastern Prownce of Saudi Arabia during the Kuwa~t~ Oil Fires
The statrstical trend of the data of each group discussed above is presented in Fig. 8 and found no srgnificant change m the trend with the wind speed.
3.-. - ’ O~itlcs II/’ ilrrroqol
Figure 9 shows the variation of the concentration of nitrogen dioxide in Jubail from March to October 1991. As shown in the plot. the concentration of NOz in the summer month of June was lowest while in March. the concentration was found maximum. Com- paring the 90 percentile values in different months. it was found that 90 percentile values were less than 40 jog m ‘. Figure IO shows comparison of NO2 concentration in Dhahran. Abqaiq, Jubail and Tana- jib during MarchhOctober 1991. It is clear from the plots that in Abqaiq. Tanajib. and Jubail. the statist- ical trend of NO2 concentration is similar to each other while in Dhahran a relatively high concentra- tton of NO2 was observed. The mean concentration in Dhahran is about 45 {cgrn ’ while in other measured locations. the mean concentration was between 10 and IS jig m ‘. The plots also show that the measured values were much lower than the permissible limit defined by the MEPA. The MEPA limit for the hourly concentration is 660jcgm-‘. while for l-year aver- aging time, the limit is 100 jlgrn-!
As shown in Fig. 13. the mean monthly ozone (0,) level in the Jubail area was in the range of 40-70 jig m - ’ while the maximum daily concentra- tion was in the range of 40-95 jcg m- 3. The maximum concentration was measured in July and August with the mean monthly values between 65 and 70 jigrn-‘. Since there is no 24.hourly standard available for 0,. the measured daily mean values were compared with the S-hourly average. Such comparison showed the concentration of ozone less than the permissible limit of lOGI pgrn-‘. Comparing the statistical trend of the 0, level in Jubail with the NO, level. a reverse trend (i.e. an increase of 0, level with the decrease in NO; level) was observed. However, such investigation needs more detailed study. Comparing the 0, level in Dhahran with the 0, level in Jubail during oil fires. no significant deviation in the statistical trend was ob- served (Fig. 14). Mean values at both locations were between 50 and 55 jLgrnm3, while 90% of the mean The available records for 8 months (i.e. March-
November 1991) measured in Jubail show an average daily measurements were below 75 pg m - 3.
monthly concentration of H,S usually less than lO/lgrn-’ while the mean daily concentration was usually found to be below 25 jlgrn-” (Fig. 1 I). Com- parison of H,S measurements made in other cities are shown in Fig. I2 The comparison shows similar trend with 90?/0 measurements within 15 pgrn-’ range. HIS measurements were found much less than the MEPA permissible limit of 40 /lgrn 3 on a 24-h averaging ttme basis.
5.4. O:orw
March April May June July August September October
Fig. I I. Variations in HIS concentration in Jubail (March-October 1991).
M. B. AMIN and T. HLISAIN
10
0
160
140
120
5 100 Y E 3 FKJ 2 80
.Y E
.E 5 60 f
2
40
20
0
MEPA Permissible Limit (24 hours)
Rahimah Jubail Tanajib
Fig. I?. H2S variations in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia during the Kuwaiti Oil Fires.
March April May June July August September October
Fig. 13. Variations in ozone level in Jubail (March-October 1991).
100-120
6. AIR QUALlTY MONITORING IN KUWAII- 2. Mansooriyah 30 March-7 May 1991
Measurements of air quality parameters and par- 3. Sabaheea 20 April-6 May 1991.
ticulate were made in Kuwait area by using the MEPA The analysis of the data shows that most of the time, mobile unit at the following three locations: except on 24 and 25 April 1991, the concentration of
SO, in Al-Sabaheea was very low. On 24 and 25 April, 1. Rega 7 April-7 May 1991 the highest hourly concentration was, respectively,
Air quality monitoring
50
0
100-120
Dhahran Jubail Fig. 14. Ozone variations in Dhahran and Jubail during the Kuwaiti Oil Fires
7OOand850~gm-’ against the l-hourly MEPA limit of 730 ~grn-~. The highest concentration at Rega was 57 p’grnm3 with a mean value of 5 pgrnm3, while at Mansooriya the maximum hourly concentration was 98 pgrn-) with a mean value of 10 pgrnm3.
The concentration of H,S was within the MEPA permissible limit of 196 pgrne3. The highest measured hourly concentration of H,S at Sabaheea was 84 pgrne3 on 22 April, 1991. The measured values of NO, show significant variations on a daily basis. The highest hourly measured values at Al-Sabaheea, Rega and Al-Mansooriyah were, respectively, 371, 2237, 800, and 675pgm-’ against the MEPA limit of 660 pgm-3.
7. CONCENTRATION ESTIMATES USING MODELING
APPROACH
The analysis of air pollution modeling using the regional transport model was carried out and the results are reported by Husain and Khan (1993a. b). The analysis was carried out using the Air Resources Laboratories-Atmospheric Transport and Disper- sion (ARL-ATAD), a long-range transport model developed by Heffter (1980) for the assessment of the transport of the pollutants over a long distance.
The temporal and spatial distribution of SO, con- centration and deposition in the Gulf region was simulated using source emission and meteorological data. SO, concentration values were estimated on a daily and monthly basis during the period of study
and presented in the form of concentration contours. It was found that the pattern of pollutant concentra- tion was changing on a daily basis depending upon the variations in the meteorological conditions. In order to evaluate the long-term variation in the concentra- tion values of the pollutants, monthly average values were simulated using source emission and meteoro- logical data of each month. The estimated monthly average concentration contours of SO2 in jlgrnW3 for May and August 1991 are shown in the Figs 15 and 16, respectively. The outer envelope shows the area covered by the SO, concentration greater than 10 pgrnm3. The contour lines are drawn at 10,50, 100, and 365 pgrn -3 intervals. The inner loop of concen- tration 365 pg m -3 was selected to simulate the areas where the MEPA standards were exceeded. It was observed that the concentration patterns for the re- gion were changing depending upon the changes in the meteorological conditions and the emission source of the pollutant. By comparing observed values with the simulated values it was revealed that the model over- predicted the SO2 concentration values by almost 50% within 50 km from the source but a good agree- ment was observed between simulated and observed values at the monitoring locations in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia with only 5-10% deviation.
8. CONCENTRATION OF SO, WITH THE EXTINGUISHING
OF FIRES IN KUWAIT
About 8 10 wells were on fire and 74 were gushing oil forming lakes and pools in Kuwaiti oil fields at the
Fig. 15. Monthly average SO? concentrations (jig m ‘1 for May 1991
32 31
30 29
27
24
23 22 21
20
RAFt IA *
OAI
OASEEH l
SUIAH l
RIYhtJt *
I I I I I I I I I L l I I I I I 40 41 42 43 44 46 46 47 40 49 60 61 62 63 64 66 6.5 67
LCNITUX
Fig. 16. Monthly average SO, concentrations (/~g mm’) for August 1991.
initial stage of oil fires in March 1991. It was estimated different oil fields are presented by Husain (1994a. b). that about 6 million barrels of oil was lost daily at the In order to study the relationship between the initial stage on fires. The details on the source emission number of wells on fire and the concentration of rates and the chronology of extinguishing wells in gaseous pollutants, the monthly mean values of SO2
Air quality momtorlng 2775
700
600
500 m L
ii
: 400
01 =
g 300
%
$ 200 E :
100
0 +
Number of Wells on Fire with Time - - SO2 Cone wllh Time SO2 Cone wllh Time
I I 1 1 I I I - 1 I - 1 1 . 1 1 . 1 I I apr apr may may 1un 1un JU’ JU’ au9 au9 w w OCI OCI “0” “0”
Months Months
Fig. 17. Variation of monthly SO, concentration with well extinguishing rate. Fig. 17. Variation of monthly SO, concentration with well extinguishing rate.
concentration in Dhahran were compared against the number of wells on fire. The results are plotted in Fig. 17. As shown in this figure. the mean monthly SOL concentration in May, June, and July 1991 were among the highrst while it decreased to the lowest level by November 1991. Such a decrease can, how- ever. he partially attributed to the decrease in the number of wells on fire and change in the meteorologi- cal conditions in the region with time.
9. ( ONCENTRATION OF GASEOUS POLLLiTANTS
Dl RISC; AND BEFORE THE KL;WAITI OIL FIRES
The mean concentration of gaseous pollutants measured in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia during the Kuwaiti Oil Fires was compared with the mean values in the previous years as compiled by Al-Sunaid (1992b). The percentage change in mean concentration of SO, in 1991 relative to the concen- tration values measured in previous years is listed in Table 7. As discussed in the previous section, although the concenlration level of pollutants as measured in the Eastern Part of the Kingdom were much lower than the permissible limits defined by MEPA but a considerable increase in the concentration level in I99 I was observed.
As shown in Table 7, the maximum increase in the SOz concentration in Dhahran was in July 1991, which amounted to 270% compared to the values measured in July 1989 and 1990. In June 1991, the mean concentration of SO2 increased by 260% com- pared to the values measured in previous years. In
Table 7 Percentage Increase in mean monthly SO, concen- tration in 1991
Months Dhahran Abqaiq Rahimah
January February March April May June July August September October November December % increase during March- October 1991
Abqaiq, the percentage increase of SO, was found to be 100% in June and August 1991, while in Rahima, the mean concentration of SO, in July 1991 was 340%.
Since the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia was affected by the Kuwaiti plumes mainly from March to October 1991, the percentage increase in the mean concentration of SO, was calculated for this period. The analysis shows the increase in the concentration by 134.62, and 125% of SO, in Dhahran, Abqaiq, and Rahimah, respectively, during an 8-month period (March-October 1991).
Since mean yearly concentration values of other parameters such as NO,, O,, and H,S was available
7776 M. B. Ahlllri and T. H~Is.\I>
since 1981 in Dhahran. Abaaiu. and Rahima moni- Gardner D. E. ( IYXJl Oxldanr-Induced enhanced sensitivity
toring stations. it wxs therefore decided to compare IO Infccllon in ammal models and their ex(rapolation IO
the concentration in 1991 with the available historical man. J. ~;J\-I~~I~/ cnrlr l//r/l 13. 473 439.
data. The analysis shows the increase of SO2 by loO”~. (;~~ldm~~h J. R and Frlhcr\ 7’. S. (19771 Etl’ccts of air
NO2 by 5”,0,. while the overall mean concentration of pollu~lun 011 1111111;111 hc;ll~h. 111 .Ilr I ‘~dlurffw I .rd. /I (edited b! Srcrn .4, C‘ I, pp -157 hill .Acadm~c Prcsb, Neu 1’ork.
0, decreased by 20’0 in Dhahran in 1991. In Abqaiq Hcch \\‘. W. ;~nd Brandr (‘ S. I 1977) l?lTecl on icgetation:
and Rahimah. the SO, in 1991 increased by 80% nal~ve. cr<,p\. and C[,rcrl\. In -Irr I’~~//~tr~f~n 1’111. I/ IedIted by
compared to the mean values measured since 1982. Stern 4. (‘.I. pp. I57 22Y .Academlc Prcsb. New York.
The increase of NO? in Abqaiq was estimated to be Hcll’rcr J. L (I9SO) Air Rc\IIurcc L;lh~,rarorle$ Atmospheric
Transp~‘rt and Dlspcrhlon hl~,del (ARL ATAD). Llnited 36%. There was no significant change in the concen- Srarcb’ Narlonal Oicanlc and Atm~~sphcrlc Admlnlstra- tration of H2S In Abqaiq. II~,~, Tschnlcal hlcm<l.. FRI ?RI-XI. 24 pp.
HLIS~III T. (l994al Kuwalrl (111 lirc?. source e.\tlmaleS
10. CONCLL’sIONS
The following conclusions are drawn from this Husaln T. (I994bl E\tlngulshlng of Kuwatti 011 tire- chal-
Icns+. Icchnolog!. and buccc\. :tr,n~~.\p/tcr~c En~%.or~tnrnt section: 2x. lli9~2117
Husaln T. and Khan S. M. (I993a) Enilronmental impact of I. The concentrations of SO?. HIS. NO? and 0, Ku\ra~l~ oil lircs rcglonal transport and dispersion
were within the MEPA’s permissible limits during the model. .-lr~rh10rr .I Sc.1 En~/fi+ 18. I57m I7 I.
period of study (March-November 1991) at locations Husaln T ;Ind Khan S. M (1994) Impact assessment and
monitored by the Saudi Aramco. and the Royal Iorcca.\rlng 0C s~>~~I rrom Ku~alti OII lireb using modeling
Commission for Jubail and Yanbu in the Eastern approach. .Irtn~~.\pll~~ri~. Enr.lr~In,n~,nr 28. 7 175-Z 196.
Husaln T. and Amln M. B. (1994) Kuaaiti 011 fires- Province of Saudi Arabia. *arliculalc monll~,rlng .4r,,lrlrphrrrl~ t‘tlrlrrlllnlenr 28,
2. Comparing the values with previous years. the 27.s,24s.
mean monthly concentration in the Eastern Province IARC. International Agency for Research on Cancer (1982)
of Saudi Arabia has increased significantly. The ex- Evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to human health. Lyon. France. IARC. Monograph No. 29.
posure of the population with the elevated level Of KFUPM R[ (1991) Atmospheric Pollutjon and Research pollutants for several months need further investiga- Program. Second lnrcrim Report 1992.
tion using an appropriate risk analysis and human Lance A. W. (1991) Volatile organic compounds. In Indoor
3. The concentration of S02. H2S. NO, and 0, J. M. and Spengler J. D.). pp. X-272. The Johns Hopkins Universltv Press.
were relatively high during May-July 1991 compared to other months of the year.
4. The concentration of NO, measured at Reqa in Kuwait was occasionally high. At other locations (Al- Mansooriyah and Al-Sabaheeah). the concentration was found relatively low.
A~k,lo~~,/rdyr,,lrnrs- The support of the Research Institute ol King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals is grate- fully acknowledged. The authors are grateful to the Met- eorology and Environmental Protection Administration for their linancial and technical support. Saudi Aramco and the Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu supplied air quality data.
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