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Acknowledgments
&Disclaimer
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A long history
A mature debate
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Gravel finding
Redd digging
Mate choosing
Male competition
Timed emergenceStream rearing
Territorial
Drift feeding
Slow growing
Predator avoiding
Raceway ripening
Egg stripping
Random mating
Milt squirting
Free emergencePond rearing
Schooling
Search foraging
Fast growing
Predator free
egg size/number
emergence time
behaviour
body size/shape/colour
energy allocation
life history
FITNESS
PHENOTYPE
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Crespi & Fulton 2004
Pacifictrout
Pacific
salmon
charr
Atlanticsalmon,trout
crazy
relatives
Atlantic salmon steelhead
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Hood River, Oregon
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Science 2007(318):100-103
Generations in captivity
Reproductive
Success
Relative
to wild fish
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PNAS 2012:238-242
Number of adults produced by
wild broodstock bred in the hatchery
Average number
of adults produced by
theiroffspring
breeding in the wild
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year after year
but so what?
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CJFAS 2011:511-522
94 POPULATIONS
32 steelhead, 26 coho, 36 chinook
?
STOCK
RECRUITMENT
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Proportion hatchery spawners
Population
productivity
recruits/spawner
the impact of hatchery fish from wild typehatchery
brood-stocks was no less adversethan hatchery fish
from traditional, domesticated brood-stocks
The Catch-22of stocking
steelhead
coho, chinook
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Stocking damages salmon populations
So why do it?
STOCK
RECRUIT
MENT
DEGRADATION + STOCKING
HABITAT DEGRADATION
PRISTINE
Reisenbichler 1997
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Angling...
STOCK
RE
CRUITM
ENT
DEGRADATION + STOCKING
HABITAT DEGRADATION
PRISTINE
?
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62 rivers,15 yearseach with a Conservation Limit (eggs)
42 rivers with at least
one stocking event
between 1995-2009
adultsat time 1
adults
at
time 2
Atlantic salmon steelhead
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FIRST CONTROL FOR:-region
-Conservation Limit
-year
-net fisheries
THEN ASK:
Does MEAN rod catch go up
with MEAN stocking effort?
Does ANNUAL rod catch go up
with ANNUAL stocking effort?
DOES STOCKING IMPROVE
ROD CATCHES?
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-1
1
0
2 40 6 8 10
Mean total stocking effort (% CL)
Meanrod catch
NO: STOCKED CATCHMENTSDO NOT HAVE HIGHER ROD CATCHES
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FOR 42 STOCKED CATCHMENTS
DOES ANNUALSTOCKING EFFORT
AFFECT ANNUALROD CATCH?
Correlation coefficient varies -1 to 1
stocking effort
subse
quentcatch
r= -0.80
r= 0.80
r= 0
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Correlationwith annual
rod catch
Type of annual stocking effort
-1
1
0
Total YOY Parr Smolt
42 38 29 18
NO: ANNUAL STOCKING EFFORT IS NOTRELATED TO ANNUAL ROD CATCH
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Do rivers with positive annual
correlations have improved mean
rod catches?
BONUS QUESTION
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-1
1
0
Annual correlation
total stocking effort -v- rod catch
-1 10
Catch-22 Take 2
Meanrod catch
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The damage from stocking is not
balanced by detectable fishery benefits
STOCK
RE
CRUITM
ENT
DEGRADATION + STOCKING
HABITAT DEGRADATION
PRISTINE
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When do the benefits
balance the damage?...
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blank
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artificial breeding programmes should be used only as a
last resort when populations face imminent extirpation
Neff et al. 2011
Lande 2002
TO RESCUE SMALL POPULATIONS
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Levins 1969, Young 1999
= mp(1-p)ep,dp
dt
dp
dt= 0, p*= 1-e/m
p= proportion occupied
m= migration rate from
occupied patches
e= extinction rate of
occupied patches
TO RESCUE FRAGMENTED METAPOPULATIONS
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TO PROTECT WILD POPULATIONS FROM ANGLERS
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Rand et al. 2012
TO SUPPORT LARGE COMMERCIAL FISHERIES
Palm et al 2012
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Statements from the (100 delegate) workshop
1. Releases should not be performed in wild salmon rivers
with viable populations.
Palm et al. 2012
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we summarized 266 peer-reviewed papers that were
published in the last 50 years, which describe empirical
case studies on ecology and genetic of hatchery stocks
and their effects on stock enhancement
results suggest that negative effects of hatchery rearingare not just a concern but undeniably present
scientific data supporting the positive effect on stock
enhancement are largely missingat this moment
2010
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1. consider stocking only for populations
at imminent risk of extirpation AND
protected by no-harvest regulations
2. review/revise/revoke legally mandatedmitigationstocking programmes
3. promote and support alternative activities
for anglers to contribute to salmon & sea troutconservation efforts
Where the status of wild salmon
is a management priority
KNOWLEDGE, COMMUNICATION, COURAGE
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Levin et al. 2001
hatchery programmes that produce increasingly higher numbers
of fish may hinder the recovery of depleted populations
Chilcote et al. 2003
removal rather than addition of hatchery fish may be themost effective strategy to improve productivity and resilience
Blanchet et al. 2008supportive breeding programmes do not meet the criteria
necessary to ensure preserving the genetic and ecological
integrity of wild populations
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blank
Atl ti l l 101
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Atlantic salmon ecology 101anadromous, semel(itero)parous
5,000Marine
density
independent
survival
500
Freshwater
densitydependent
survival
100
50
2
# time 1
#time2
# time 1
#time2
1-4 years
1-4 years
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1991
THE 4 Hs
Harvest, Hydropower, Habitat, Hatcheries
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Rand et al. 2012
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Horrero et al. 2012
The estimated cost of each salmon caughtwas higher than4000.
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River Spey stocking under review
1.1 million fry released annually
120,000 annually
In 2009 stocking contributed:
43/8626 rod caught fish = 0.5%
2,791 per rod caught fish*
*1.1m/5000 = 220 females = 440 adults = 44 fish removed from fishery!
http://www.asfb.org.uk/river-spey-stocking-under-review/
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Many complex processes
Two simple principles
ECOLOGICAL
Predation
Predator attraction
CompetitionParasites
Diseases
EVOLUTIONARY
Genetic drift
Founder effects
Genetic bottlenecksInbreeding depression
Relaxed selection
Artificial selection
Modified selectionOutbreeding depression
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1. ADDING INDIVIDUALS TO A POPULATION
REDUCES POPULATION GROWTH RATE
Wilson & Bossart 1971
K = carrying capacity
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IN ATLANTIC SALMON
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IN ATLANTIC SALMON
Einum & Nislow 2010
eggs/nest
survivalrate
tofry
Hindar et al. 2010
Stockeggs/m2
Recuitment
adultsx103PRODUCTIVITY
K
STOCK RECRUITMENT IN ATLANTIC SALMON
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Hindar et al. 2010Stockeggs/m2
R
ecuitment
adultsx103
PRODUCTIVITY K
STOCK-RECRUITMENT IN ATLANTIC SALMON
2 ADDING MISMATCHED PHENOTYPES REDUCE
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2. ADDING MISMATCHED PHENOTYPESREDUCE
POPULATION GROWTH RATE MORE
HATCHERIES CREATE MISMATCHED PHENOTYPES
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HATCHERIES CREATE MISMATCHED PHENOTYPES
Redd digging
Mate choosing
Emergence timingStream rearing
Territorial
Drift feeding
Slow growing
Predator avoiding
Egg stripping
Random mating
Free emergencePond rearing
Schooling
Search foraging
Fast growing
Predator free
natural selection
PHENOTYPEegg size/number
emergence time
behaviour
metabolism
body size/shape
energy allocation
life history
F
ITNESS
relaxed selection
stocking
AND FISH THAT ARE LESS FIT IN THE WILD
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18 studies, 1977-2008, NMFS 2009
AND FISH THAT ARE LESS FIT IN THE WILD
Relat
iveReprodu
ctiveSucce
ss
Generations in Captivity
vs
P di A l i
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Pedigree Analysis
e.g. river spey
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A multi generation reciprocal transplantexperiment
ENVIRONMENT
FTINESS
lineages favoured by artificial selection in the hatchery
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offspring produced by
wild broodstock in the hatchery
o
ffspringproducedbytheir
offspring
inthewild
lineages favoured by artificial selectionin the hatchery
do poorly under natural selectionin the wild
adaptation to the hatchery environment
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Generations in hatchery
Fitnessinhatc
hery
(numberofadultsp
roduced)
adaptation to the hatchery environment
occurs in a single generation
Christie et al. 2011
And the effect lasts.wild broodstock produce crap grandkids
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Araki et al. 2009
p p g
parental [grand parental] historyRelativeRe
productiveS
uccess
males females
?
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-1 1 20
log10(Conservation Limit x 106eggs)
Catch Per License Day
0
0.25
0.5
0
1
2
3
4
Total rod catch (log10
)
ANGLER CATCH STATISTICS 1995-2009
-1 1 20
MEAN STOCKING EFFORT 1995 2009
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N
umberofcatchments
0
5
10
Years with stocking
1 5 10 15
0
20
30
10
Total stocking effort (% CL)
0 5 10 20
Fry stocking effort (% CL) Parr stocking effort (% CL) Smolt stocking effort (% CL)
0
20
30
10
00
20
30
10
0
20
30
10
5 10 20 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 5
00 1 52 3 4 6
Total stocking effort (log10+1)
20
30
10
MEAN STOCKING EFFORT 1995-2009
STOCKED CATCHMENTS
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2 40 6 8 10
-0.2
0.2
0
-1
1
0
2 40 6 8 10
Catchment mean total stocking effort (% CL)
Mean rod catch Mean CPLD
STOCKED CATCHMENTS
DO NOT HAVE BETTER FISHING
FOR 42 STOCKED CATCHMENTS
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FOR 42 STOCKED CATCHMENTS
DOES ANNUALSTOCKING EFFORT
AFFECT ANNUALANGLER CATCH STATS?
Correlation coefficient varies -1 to 1
stocking effort
subsequentcatch r= -0.80 r= 0.80r= 0
ANNUAL STOCKING EFFORT IS NOT
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-1
1
0
C
orrelation
with
annualcatch
statistic
Type of annual stocking effort
Total YOY Parr Smolt Total YOY Parr Smolt
42 38 29 18 42 38 29 18
ANNUAL STOCKING EFFORT IS NOT
RELATED TO ANNUAL CATCH STATS
rod catch CPLD
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Mea
nlog10
(rod
catch)
-1
1
0
Annual correlation
stocking effort -v- rod catch
-1 10
r = -0.48, P= 0.002
Catch-22 Take-2
genetic drift: change in the genetic composition of a population due
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genetic drift:change in the genetic composition of a population due
to chance or random events. One of four (natural/sexual selection,
mutation, migration) principle mechanisms of evolution.
ALWAYS OPERATES. Only important in small populations.
founder effect: populations founded by only a few individuals will have
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founder effect: populations founded by only a few individuals will have
lower, and non-representative, levels of genetic diversity than the original
population
0
population bottleneck: occurs when population size is small for at least
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population bottleneck: occurs when population size is small for at least
one generation, genetic drift can result in a loss of genetic variation.
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inbreeding depression: reduced individual/population fitness as a result of breeding
among related individuals. The risk increases in small population sizes
outbreeding depression: offspring from crosses between individuals
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outbreeding depression: offspring from crosses between individuals
from different populations have lower fitness than offspring from crosses
between individuals from the same population:
1. retards local adaptation
2. breaks down coadapted gene complexes
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to promote and open discussion of their merits and risks
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-1 1 20
log10(Conservation Limit x 106eggs)
Catch Per License Day
0
0.25
0.5
0
1
2
3
4 Total rod catch (log10)
WHICH OBSERVATIONS HAD STOCKING?
-1 1 20
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Kostow 2012
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Chilcote 03
Proportion wild fish
Productiv
ity
recruits/spawner
slope of
SR curve
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Hilborn & Eggers 2000, 2001; Neff et al. 2011
year
runsize
stocked
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Stocking in E & W does not
appear to improve angling(the ONLY good answer)
And so againwhy do it?