Land Reform in Pakistan a Critical Issue for Future Development

8/10/2019 Land Reform in Pakistan a Critical Issue for Future Development

1/17

L a n d R e f o r m i n P a k i s t a n :

A

C r i t i c a l I s s u e

f o r

F u t u r e

D e v e l o p m e n t ?

.

Salman Az i z and Thomas

r ay

Thi s paper r evi ews t he l and r ef orms t hat have been i mpl ement ed i n Paki st an (1959 and

1972) and t he ext ent t o whi ch t hey wer e i nst r ument al i n r esol vi ng pr obl ems of i ncome i n-

equal i t i es, r ur al pover t y and unempl oyment , and agr i cul t ur al pr oduct i on. The aut hor s

argue that nei t her t he

1959

or

1972

l and r ef orms have sol ved t hese pr obl ems. I n f act ,

l and owner shi p r emai ns hi ghl y concent r ated.

i i i stence t enant s as wel l as expl oi t i ng l andl ess l abor er s.

was redi st r i but ed as a resul t of t he

1972

r ef or m Si nce both l and r ef orms wer e i mpl e-

ment ed dur i ng per i ods of

r el at i ve soci al unr est , i t suggest s that t he pr i mar y obj ect i ve

of t he ref or ms was not t o achi eve an equi t abl e redi st r i but i on of l and but r at her t o nol l i f y

t he poor peasant s and gar ner t hei r pol i t i cal support ' ' . I n f act , no gr eat agr i cul t ur al

devel opment can be vi sual i zed wi t hi n t he pr esent st r uct ure of l and owner shi p. Onl y a

r adi cal r ef or m ( l and t o t he t i l l er s) cansol ve t he pr obl em of under devel opment . The pos-

s i bl e benef i t s of smal l f ar m ngarespel l ed out i n Sect i on I 11 of t he paper . The aut hor s

adm t t hat t he mat er i al i n t hi s sect i on

i s

pr oj ecti ve and hi ghl y t ent at i ve . I t i s ,

however , based on st udi es t hat pr edi ct sever eener gy shor t ages and envi r onment al probl ems

i n t he near f ut ur e and i s wel l wor t h ser i ous consi der at i on.

Lar ge l andowner s s queeze r ent s out of sub-

Onl y

0 . 5

percent of t he l and

Ther e i s no general l y accept ed

def i ni t i on of what const i t ut es Land Kef om .

Some have def i ned i t nar r owl y as a means t o

pr ovi de l and t o t he l andl ess whi l e ot her s

have concei ved i t br oadl y as a comprehensi ve

pr ogr am f or t he t r ansf or mat i on of t he en-

t i r e agr i cul t ur al economy under t he l abel of

Agr ari an Ref or m . ( Warr i ner

1969,

xi v) For

t hi s s tudy t he t er m r ef er s to publ i c pro-

gr ams t hat seek t o r estr uct ur e equi t abl y

and r at i onal l y a def ect i ve l and- t enur e sys-

t emby c ompul sor y, dr ast i c, and r api d means .

( Tai

1974, 11)

I n t he ent i r e pr ocess

of

l and r ef or m -

f r omi ni t i at i on t o compl et i on

-

t he govern-

ment pl ays a deci si ve r ol e. I n t he wor ds of

Kennet h H. Par sons, ' ' In a ver y deep sense,

l and t enure probl ems ar e power pr obl ems,

pr obl ems of di spar i t y i n econom c, soci al ,

and pol i t i cal power . ( Par sons 1956, 9)

Hence, l and ref or m pr ogr ams ar e di st i nctl y

publ i c pr ogr ams. . . undert aken by publ i c or

gover nment agenci es t o modi f y t he econom c

bas i s of pol i t i cs .

A s

such, am cabl e

SOUTH

ASIA BULLETIN

VoZ

I

No

2 .

Swnmer

1981

arr angement s or vol unt ary t r ansf ers of

l and ar e doomed to f ai l ur e as experi -

enced i n t he Bhoodan movement i n I ndi a.

( J anuzzi 1974, 125-6)

changes. I n an agr i cul t ur al soci et y

wher e l and i s at once the pr i nci pal

sour ce of weal t h, t he f oundati on of po-

l i t i cal power , and t he symbol of soci al

pr est i ge, t he syst emof l and- t enur e i s

not hi ng less than a vi ta l i ns t i t ut i on

t hat deter m nes and al l ocat es t he val ues

of soci ety. Gi ven t hat t here i s ext r eme

concent r at i on i n l and ownershi p pat t er ns,

dr asti c measur es ar e i nevi t abl e to accom

pl i sh t he desi r ed r esul t of l and r ef orm

i . e. r at i onal and equi t abl e r edi s t r i but i o

of l and.

agr ari an changes be ef f ect ed wi t hi n a

shor t span of t i me. ( Tai

1974, 17)

Wher e l and r ef or m

i s

necessary, evol ut i on-

ar y change i s of t en i mpr act i cabl e i f #not

i mpossi bl e. W t h cent ur i esol d t r adi -

t i ons, t he l and t enur e syst ems of l es s

devel oped count r i es have been const ant l y

re i nf orced i n t hei r r i gi di t y. To break

such r i gi di t y, speedy and ef f ect i ve

Land r ef or m al so ent ai l s dr ast i c

F i nal l y, l and r ef or m r equi res t hat

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act i on i s t he panacea - not gradual

adj ust ment s.

OBJ ECTI VES:

of l and r ef orm ar e economc devel opment and

soci al equi t y . ( Hi r sch 1972, 1 3 6 ) Mor e

speci f i cal l y, t hese obj ecti ves coul d be

st at ed i n t he f ol l ow ng manner .

The r het or i c sur r oundi ng the obj ect i ves

Soci o- Econom c Obj ect i ves:

A . mor e equi t abl e di st r i but i on of ownep

shi p and/ or r i ght s t o use l and.

B. mor e equi t abl e di st r i but i on of ear n-

i ng oppor t uni t y and i ncome.

C. an i ncr ease i n agr i cul t ur al produc-

t i on and t he market abl e surpl us t o

saf eguard t he suppl y of domest i c

consumpt i on.

f or t h0s. e engaged i n agr i cul t ur al

pr oduct i on.

D.

i ncr ease of r eal i ncome per capi t a

Al t hough t here ar e many pi t f al l s t o be

f aced i n at t empt i ng t o i mpl ement l and re-

fo rmo a subst ant i ve nat ur e, t hat does not

precl ude t he need and ur gency f or one.

many of t he devel opi ng count r i es wher e a

bi modal di st r i but i on of l and exi st s, t he

probl ems of r ur al pover t y and st agnant agr i -

cul t ur al pr oduct i on can onl y be ser i ousl y

t ackl ed once t here i s a mor e equi t abl e di s-

t r i but i on

of

l and. ( Asi an Devel opment Bank,

1978, 217) .

I n

ascer t ai ni ng t he opt i mum f ar m si ze

( subsi st ence or econom c) i n t he i m

pl ement at i on of l and r ef orm many ana-

l yst s have f ound smal l er f arms t o be

r el at i vel y mor e ef f i ci ent t han l ar ger

f ar ms. Vdr i ous st udi es on f arm si ze and

t he l evel of out put have consi st ent l y

i ndi cat ed that r el at i vel y smal l er f ar ms

have a gr eat er out put per hect are t han

t he l arger f arms or est ates However,

t o general i ze acr oss t he boar d woul d be

somewhat m sl eadi ng, but t he message i s

cl ear . Gi ven good government suppor t i ve

measur es ( i . e. Extensi on Servi ces) , t he

smal l er f arms,

a

pot ent i al consequenceof

l and ref orm can, i n f ac t , - havea

posi t i ve i mpact on pr oduct i on.

f ur t her i ndi cat ed t hat t he mar gi nal pr o-

duct i vi t y of l abor i n agr i cul t ur e i n

LDC'S

i s ver y l ow, and as much as t went y-

f i ve per cent of t he r ur al l abor f or ce i s

ei t her under or unempl oyed. ( Schul t z 1964,

5 4 ) Ther e i s f ur t her evi dence that t he

l ar ger f ar ms t end t o be r el at i vel y capi -

t al - i nt ensi ve whi l e t he smal l er f ar ms

pr act i ce a mor e l abor - i nt ensi ve f or m of

agr i cul t ur e. Gi ven a bi modal

f o r m

of

l and di st r i but i on, t he empl oyment ef f ect s

of a subst ant i ve l and redi st r i but i on

pr ogr am can be qui t e appr eci abl e.

(c)

I ncome Redi st r i but i on.

Redi st r i but i on of l and may not onl y

i ncrease i ncomes of t enant s ( new and ol d)

as a r esul t of t he abol i t i on of shar e-

2

(b) Empl oyment , Studi es have

3

THE CASE FOR LAND REFORM

st r ong case f or l and r ef or m can be made on t i al f or f ur t her i ncr eases r esul t i ng

soci o- econom c gr ounds. The econom c ar gu- par t i al l y f r om owner shi p i ncent i ves.

ment s deal pr i mari l y wi t h pr oduct i on, . i ncome Fur t her more, evi dence suggest s t hat t he

r edi st r i but i on, and empl oyment .

smal l f armers may i n t he aggregat e

cr oppi ng and/ or t enancy rent s, but t he

I n r evi ew ng t he l i t erat ur e, an ext r emel y t r ansf er of owner shi p may pr ovi de a pot en-

save more t han l arger f armers gi ven sui t -

The Econom c Case f or Land Ref orm Land

r ef or m can be ver y i nst r ument al i n r est r uc-

abl e

condi t i on^ ^

The ext ent t o whi ch

t hi s i ncr ease i n savi ngs i s channel l ed

t ur i ng rur al soci et y and consequent l y has a

subst ant i al posi t i ve i mpact on pr oduct i on, t i on, however, woul d be dependen

i ncome r edi st r i but i on, empl oyment , and government t ax and pr i ce pol i cy.

capi t al f or mat i on.

makers of t en have m sgi vi ngs about l and

r ef or m and i t s det r i ment al ef f ect on pr o-

ducti on st emm ng f r om t he i nef f i ci enci es of

smal l f arms. Al t hough f ar m si ze i s a cri t - pl ement at i on of l and ref or m i t woul d

b e

i cal i s sue, and of t en t her e i s di f f i cul t y i n

t owards i nvest ment s or on- f arm consump-

I On

(a) Product i on. Pl anners and pol i cy

LEGI SLATI ON AND I MPLEMENTATI ON

Al t hough t here ar e numerous f act or s

t hat i mpi nge on the l egi sl at i on and i m

usef ul t o hi ghl i ght t he more cr i t i cal

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i ssues. ( War r i ner 1969, 15-21) They are:

(a) who wi l l be the benef i ci ari es; (b) t he

f orm of expr opr i at i on of l and, i . e. wi t h or

wi t hout compensat i on t o t he af f ect ed l and-

l or ds; (c) t he f or m of compensat i on, i . e.

gover nment

sponsor ed or a payment by t he

benef i ci ar i es t o t he l andowners ;

(d)

t he

l egi s l at i on i t sel f t hat m ght i nc l ude pos-

si bl e l oophol es t hr ough pr ovi si ons f or ex-

empt i on cl auses t hus r ef l ect i ng t he degr ee

of gover nment ' s pol i t i cal comm t ment

t o l and

r ef ormmeasur es; (e) t he si ze of t he

r edi st r i but ed par cel s of l and.

I n concl usi on, i t shoul d be emphasi zed

that t he cont r i but i on of l and r ef or m i n al -

l evi at i ng t he econom c and soci al di spar i t i es

r esul t i ng f r om t r adi t i onal l and tenure sys-

t ems i s as l i m t ed/ ext ensi ve as t he gover n-

ment' s i nabi l i t y/ abi l i t y ( and comm t ment ) .

I t

i s a necessar y, but not a suf f i c i ent con-

di t i on f or f ut ur e devel opment obj ecti ves.

I t i s i nst r ument al i n br eaki ng exi st i ng pat -

t erns of power and s et t i ng a st age where

benef i t s of f ut ur e pol i c i es accrue to the

popul ace i n a mor e equi t abl e manner.

11. LAND REFORM I N PAKI STAN

The need f or l and r ef orm i n Paki st an as

a key pr econdi t i on f or r evi t al i z i ng t he ag-

r i cul t ur al sect or was per cei ved by devel op-

ment econom st s mor e t han t wo decades ago.

However , si nce t hen, onl y meager at t empt s

have been made i n t hi s di r ect i on. The r e-

s ul t - Paki s t an i s s t i l l pl agued wi t h a

st agnant agr i cul t ur al sect or, gr eat i ncome

di spar i t i es, and pover t y

of

t he r ur al

masses.

THE TRADI TI ONAL LAND TENURE SYSTEM

i . t exi st ed pr i or t o t he l and ref or ms of

1959, had the f ol l owi ng maj or char act eri s-

t i cs :

A. The Zam ndar or Sover ment i nt er-

The t r adi t i onal l and tenur e syst emas

6

medi ar i es h' ad f ul l pr opr i et or shi p

over l arge est at es and exact ed exor-

bi t ant r ent s f r omt enant s as a

-

sour ce of gover nment r evenue and

personal income .

B. Uni t s of cul t i vat i on ( sual l

C. A bi modal pat t ern of l and owner -

f arms) wer e hi ghl y f r agment ed.

shi p exi st ed wi t h ext r eme con-

cent r at i on of l and owners hi p by

a handf ul of l arge f armer s ( Tabl e

1).

For exampl e,

0.13

percent of

t he l andowner s owned over f i f t een

per cent of t he cul t i vat ed l and

i n par cel s of over 500 acres

each.

D. Extr eme i nsecur i t y of t enant s

and subst ant i al r ack- r ent i ng by

l arge owner s ( Zam ndars) was

pr eval ent .

E. Appr oxi mat el y t en percent of t he

househol ds wer e cl assi f i ed as

l andl ess l abor, and cl ose t o

t went y- t wo percent of t he r ur al

popul at i on was ei t her unempl oyed

or under empl oyed.

F. Most

of

t he benef i t s of devel op-

ment pr ograms accr ued t o t he

l ar ge 1andot mer s, a consequence

of t he power exer ci sed by t hem

at al l l evel s of gover nment . 7

nomena and hi ghl y expl oi t at i ve

soc i al l y and econom cal l y ( f i f ty

percent of t he cr op went t o l and-

owners) .

H. Land on t he l ar ger f ar ms was

gr ossl y under ut i l i zed.

Fol l owi ng t he m l i t ar y coup i n 1959,

a pr ogr amf or l and ref or mwas i nst i t ut ed

by Ayub Khan. However , f r om t he begi n- -

ni ng, he apparent l y had no i nt ent i on

of

r educi ng t he hol di ngs of any but t he

G. Sharecr oppi ng was a common phe-

l ar gest Zam ndar s. 8

THE 1959 LAND REFORMS

Al t hough the of f i c i al l y stated

obj ect i ves of t he 1959 l and r ef orm wer e

i ndeed i mpr essi ve i n t hei r scope and po-

t ent i al i mpact on agr i cul t ur al pr oduct i on,

i ncome r edi st r i but i on, and empl oyment ,

t hei r ef f ect i veness or t he l ack of i t i s

c l ear l y re f l ec ted i n the f orm of l egi s l a-

t i on passed and t he ul t i mate r esul t s of

l and r edi st r i but i on t hat f ol l owed.

L e g i ~l a t i o n: ~ he l egi s l at i on

abol i shed the r ol e of i nt ermedi ari eswi t h t h

gover nment assum ng t he rol e of t ax

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col l - ector . I n addi t i on, i t cal l ed for :

A .

a l and owner shi p cei l i ng of 500

acres of i r r i gat ed or

1000

acr es of

uni r r i gat ed l and, any excess bei ng

r esumed by gover nment wi t h compensa-

t i on t o t he af f ect ed l andowner s.

B.

The benef i ci ar i es wer e t o be ei t her

exi st i ng t enant s or ot her deser vi ng

per sons . I n addi t i on, t he benef i -

ci ar i es woul d f i nance t he compensa-

t i on of t he af f ect ed l andowners by

annual payment s.

Exempt i on cl auses were pr ovi ded f or

l and t r ansf er s t o hei r s and f or

l and used f or orchar ds, st ud f ar ms,

and l i vest ock.

D.

No

f r agment at i on of l and was perm s-

si bl e whi ch woul d resul t i n t he f i nal

area of f r agment ed hol di ngs bei ng

bel ow t wel ve ac r edo , t he aver age

si ze of r edi str i but ed par cel s of

l and.

C.

At t he t i me, t hese r ef orms were hai l ed

as r evol ut i onar y. I n r et r ospect , t hey wer e

si mpl y measur es t hat subdued t he pot ent i al f or

soci al unr est and r et ai ned l andl or d l oyal t y.

Consi der i ng t hehei ght of cei l i ngs i mposed, t he

exempt i ons pr ovi ded, and t he pr i or knowl edge

( si nce

1949)

of t he possi bi l i t y of l and r ef or ms

by t he l andl or ds, i t was no sur pr i se t hat onl y

910

owner s were af f ected; onl y f our per cent

of t he tot al cul t i vat ed l and was expr opr i at ed;

and, f i nal l y, onl y 2. 4 per cent of t he t ot al

l and under cul t i vat i on was r edi st r i but ed

( Tabl e 2).

1959 l and r ef orm many shor t comngs ar e evi -

dent . Fi r st , cl ear l y t he new gover nment

l acked t he pol i t i cal wi l l f or ref or m Second,

t he i nor di nat el y hi gh cei l i ng i mposed, cou-

pl ed w t h t he pr ovi si ons f or exempt i ons,

pr ecl uded the possi bi l i t y of subst ant i al ex-

pr opr i at i on of l and. Thi r d, the i mposi t i on

of bur densome payment s on t he benef i ci ar i es

f or t he acqui r ed l and di d not creat e pr opi t i ous

ci r cumst ances f or them Four t h, t her e wer e no

concr et e pr oposal s i n t he l egi sl at i on t hat

at t acked t he pr obl em of l andl ess l abor. Fi f t h,

al t hough t he Zam ndars were abol i shed, t he

st ate was now t he rent r ecei ver w t h t he t en-

ant s r emai ni ng as t enant s. Si xt h, t he r ef or m

was i mpl ement ed t hr ough a hi ghl y cent r al i zed,

pr ovi nci al , bur eaucrati c adm ni st r at i on t hat

I n r evi ew ng t he f i nal resul t s of t he

l acked the qual i f i cat i ons and i nt egr i t y

f or t he j ob. ( Myrdal 1968, 1330)

Fi nal l y, t her e was no peasant par t i ci pa-

t i on i n t he over al l i mpl ement at i on

of

t he

l and r ef or m

cur bi ng of f r agment at i on of l andhol di ngs

and some i mprovement i n secur i t y of t en-

ant s f romunj ust i f i ed evi ct i ons. (Tai

1974, 345)

The onl y posi t i ve out come was t he

THE 1972

LAND REFORMS

1959 r ef or ms, can be r egarded as a di smal

f ai l ure

i n

t er ms of t hei r i mpact on agr i -

cul t ur al out put , empl oyment , and i ncome

di spar i t i es as di scussed l at er i n t hi s

sect i on.

Law Regul at i on 115 ( MLR) wer e:

The 1972 l and r ef orms, l i ke t he

The mai n pr ovi Ei ons of t he Mar t i al

A A cei l i ng of 150 acres of i r r i -

gat ed, or

300

acres of uni r r i gat ed

l and was i mposed on i ndi vi dual

hol di ngs. Any sur pl uswas t obe

ex-

propr i atedwi t hout compensat i on.

f r ee t o exi st i ng t enant s and

l andl ess l abor .

C. Pr ovi si ons

f o r

t he r i ght t o

t r ansf er l and t o hei r s were made.

D. The l andl ord woul d deci de whi ch

of hi s pl ot s he woul d sur r ender .

E.

Evi ct i ons of t enant s wer e onl y

j ust i f i ed i f r ent was not pai d

by them The l evel of r ent s was

not st i pul at ed. ( Hai der and

Kuhnen 1974, 59)

B. Land was t o be r edi st r i but ed

I n assessi ng t he f i nal i mpact of MLR

115 i n l i ght of t he l egi sl at i on' s mai n

f eat ur es, t her e i s no r eason t o be opt i -

m sti c. Thi s i s f ur t her suppor t ed by

data whi ch i ndi cate t hat onl y 0. 5 percent

of t ot al cul t i vat ed l and was r edi st r i but e

t o onl y 0.1 per cent of t he t ot al r ur al

popul at i on w t h an i ncome redi st r i but i on

ef f ect of onl y t wo percent . ( Her r i ng and

Chaudhr y 1974, 245- 279) cabl e 3). Fur t hermore

t he r ef or mmeasures suf f ered f r ommany of

t he same weaknesses out l i ned under t he

1959 l and ref orm f or many

of

t he same

r easons, i . e. l ack of pol i t i cal comm t ment

r ef l ected i n the i mposi t i on of a f ai r l y

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h ig h c e i l i n g and t h e p r o v i s i on s f o r t h e r i g h t

t o t r a n s f e r l a nd t o h e i r s .

In e v a l u a t i n g t h e i m pa c t of t h e two l a n d

r e f o r m s i n terms of r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of l a n d ,

t h e c o n c l u s i o n

i s

indeed a p e s s i m i s t i c o n e .

The reforms were n o t i n st r u m e nt a l o r e f f e c t i v e

i n r e s t r u c t u r i n g t h e p a t t e r n of l a n d o wn er sh ip

which i s s t i l l h i g h l y c o n c e n t r a t e d . The f a c t

t h a t b o t h l a n d r e fo rm s

(1959

and

1972)

were

i mp le me nt ed d u r in g p e r i o d s o f r e l a t i v e s o c i a l

u n r e s t

seems

t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p ri m ary ob-

j e c t i v e o f t h e r e fo r ms

w a s

n o t t o a c h i ev e an

e q u i t a b l e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l an d b u t r a t h e r

t o m o l l i f y t h e p oo r p e a sa n t s a nd g a r n e r t h e i r

p o l i t i c a l s u p po rt .

A G R I C U L T U W PRODUCTION,

INCOME

D I S T R I B U T I O N ,

AND EMPLOYMENT

A f t e r e x p e r i e n c i n g some s t a g n a t i o n i n

o u t p u t d u r i n g t h e 1950's, Pakistan showed

e x c e p t i o n a l g ro w t h d u r i n g t h e

1960's

w i t h

o u t p u t g ro wi ng f a s t e r t h a n p o p u l a t io n . I1

r e a so n f o r t h i s g ro wt h i n o u t p u t c an l a r g e l y

b e a t t r i b u t e d t t h e Green Revolution .

Dur ing the

1950-65

p e r i o d , i r r i g a t i o n im prove -

ments a lone w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r n e a r l y h a l f

of t h e i n c r e a s e i n o u t p u t . ( S t e r n and F al l o n

1970,

42) I n a d d i t i o n , t h e i i i t ro d u c t io n o f

h i g h y i e l d i n g

varieties (HYV's)

of seeds ,

governmen t su bs id ie s o f

50-75

p e rc e n t o n f e r -

t i l i z e r and p e s t i c i d e s , a nd improved c r e d i t

f a c i l i t i e s ha ve g i v en f u r t h e r i mp et us t o ou t-

p u t i n c re a s e s . (E l k i n g to n

1970,

1)

The absence

of a n e f f i c a c i o u s l an d re fo rm h a s, i n f a c t ,

p r e cl u de d t h e p o s s i b l e b e n e f i t s t h a t c o ul d h av e

b e en a c h i e ve d b y i n c re a s e d o u t p u t , g i v en t h a t

p r o d u c t i v i t y and l an d u t i l i z a t i o n on t h e

smaller farms i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i gh e r t h an on

the

l a rg e r f a rm s ( t w e n t y - f i v e a c r e s a nd o v e r ) .

c a b l e 5) I n es senc e , th e meager l and re fo rms

h av e n o t ha d t h e d e s i r e d i m pa c t on a g r i c u l t u r a l

p ro d u c t io n . Even a f t e r t h e

1972

reforms a l l

o u t p u t i n c re a s e s h av e r e s u l t e d p r i m a r i l y f rom

i n c re a s e d c ro p a c re a g e u n d e r

HYVTs12

and

g r e a t e r f e r t i l i z e r d i s t r i b u t i o n and u se ( t o

la rge l andowners ) . I t should be emphasized

t h a t most of t h e s e o u t p u t i n c r e a s e s a r e h i g h l y

p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e l a r g e r f ar ms o f

a bo ve f i f t y a c re s w hi ch u s e

t w i c e

as much fer-

t i l i z e r a s t h e

smal ler

fa rmers - p r i m a r i l y

b ec au se o f t h e i r s o c i a l p r e s t i g e a nd power t h a t

i s u n q ue s t io n a bl y u s e fu l i n c o n d i t i o n s o f

f e r t i l i z e r s c a r c i t y . l 3

The

Most of th e product io n

b e n e f i t s o f i n c re a s e d g o ve rn me nt s u p p o r t

m ea su re s g r a v i t a t e d t o t h e l a r g e l a nd -

ow ne rs a nd ha v e r e s u l t e d i n g r e a t e r i n -

c o m e d i s p a r i t i e s , as p o p u l a t i o n a n d ru ra l

unemployment have pr og re ss iv el y inc reas ed.

G ive n t h e e x t e n t o f l a n d a c t u a l l y

r e d i s t r i b u t e d

as

a

r e s u l t

of

t h e l a n d

refo rm measures , i t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t

t h e i r employment impact w a s a l s o m i n i -

m al . The p o t e n t i a l t o do

s o ,

however,

e x i s t s , as t h e smaller fa rms no t on ly

h av e a g r e a t e r c ro p pi n g i n t e n s i t y b u t

a re a l s o a l mo st t w i c e as l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e

as t h e l a r g e r f ar ms .@ a bl e

5)

Although

a f t e r t h e 1959 re fo rms a r u r a l w or ks

program was implemented with some success

(1961/62),

s i nc e then governmen t inves t -

ment i n t h i s s e c t o r has been lack ing .14

Fur thermore , th e government sub s id ies on

i n p u t s and c r e d i t , a l on g w i th t h e p o l i c y

of mechan iza t ion and in du s t r i a l funda-

m en ta li sm , h a ve t e n de d t o b e p o s i t i v e

i n c e n t i v e s t o w a rd s a labor-saving form

o f a g r i c u l t u r a l de ve lo pm en t on t h e l a r g e r

farms (Nul ty

1972, 123)

t h u s f u r t h e r ag -

g ra v a t i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n . The c on se qu en ce

h a s be e n o ne of p o l i t i c a l a nd s o c i a l un-

res t i n t h e r u r a l

areas

t h a t i s m a n i fe s t

i n t h e d i s r u p ti o n i n t h e c o un tr y s i n c e

1968,

as

t h e ru ra l -u rb a n m i g ra t i o n h a s

incre ased markedly . Dur ing th e per iod

1961-1972,

t h e urb a n p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e d

by a lmos t s i x mi l l i on . However, of th i s

i n c r e a s e , r u r a l-u rb a n m i g ra t i o n c o n t r i b -

u ted 34.7 p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l o f a p-

p rox imate ly two mi l l io n mig ran t s i n

s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s

r a t e

slowed

because of t he Green Revo lut ion .

The q u e s t i o n o f i ncom e d i s t r i b u t i o n

a n d , h e nc e , p o v e r t y ha s a l s o be en s u b j e c t

t o some of th e same b i a s e s , r e s u l t i n g i n

g r e a t e r i ncome d i s p a r i t i e s a n d p o ve r t y.

Al though there i s no d a t a a v a i l a b l e o n

t h e i ncome r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i mp ac t of t h e

1959

r e f o r m s , t h e r e

i s

r e as on t o b e l i e v e

t h a t t h e i r i m p a c t

w a s

no t much g r ea te r

t h a n t h e two p e rc e n t i ncom e r e d i s t r i b u t i o

impact o f th e 1972 re fo rms (Tab le 3).

A l th o ug h, d a t s on P a k i s t a n ' s ru r a l i ncom e

d i s t r i b u t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e c um ul at iv

inc om e s h a r e s of t h e l o w es t t e n p e rc e n t o f

h o u se h o ld s i n c re a s e d o v e r t h e p e r i o d

1959/61

-

1969/70

(Chaudhry

1973, 250-51),

t h e in com e s h a re o f t h i s g rou p d e c l i n e d

40


6/17

f rom fou r perce nt i n 1966-68 t o 3.7 pe rcen t

i n 1969/70. Over th e same pe r iod , t h e pe r-

c e n tage of r u r a l popu la t ion unde r t h e pove r ty

l i n e of

R s . 300.00 a t

cons tan t 1959/60 pr ic es

a l s o dec l ined f rom 61 pe rcent t o 60 pe rcent .15

On th e oth er hand, th e percentage of popula-

t i o n e a r n i n g

l e s s

th an t h e mean income ( pe r

c a p i t a ) ha s s t e a d i ly inc r e a se d . ( Alaudd in

1975, 436)

The major reason fo r t he dec l i ne i n income

d i s p a r i t i e s d u r in g t h e b r i e f p e r io d o f 1 96 3/ 64

t o 1968/69

was

pr im a r i ly

a

r e s u l t o f t h e ad-

vent of th e Green Revolution coupled wit h a

massive rura l -urban migra t ion pa t te r n . (Burki

1973). By 1969/70, th e r i p p le e f f e c t of th e

Green Revoluti on began t o su bs ide somewhat,

a nd th e popu la t ion p r e s su r e s s i nc e the n have

produced gr ea te r ine qua l i t y and pover ty

as

employment o pp ort uni t ie s have no t kept up wi th

demand. (Population i s now growing

a t

an annua l

r a t e of 3.2 percent . )

The pauc i ty and aggrega te na tur e of d a t a

does not provide a b a s i s f o r c on cl us i ve

evi-

dence t ha t pove r ty ha s inc r e a se d o r de c l ine d .

H o w ev e r ,i f p ov e r ty i s d e f i n e d a s t h e s t a n d a r d o f

l i v i n g w i t h c a l o r i e i n t a k e a s o ne me as ur e

of

pover ty

l e v e l s , t h e n in d e ed t h e r e

i s

e v ide nc e th a t sugge s t s

thatpovertylevelsmayhaveincreased

O v e r t h e

p e r i o d 1 9 4 9 / 5 0 - 1 9 7 1 / 7 2 , t h e a v e r a g e d a i l y c a l o r i e

i n t a k e o f t h e r u r a l p o p ul a t io n h a s sh ow na s t e ad y

d e c l i n e f r o m2 , O l O ca l o ri e s i n 1 9 4 9 / 5 0 t o 1 8 9 8

c a l o r i e s i n 1 9 7 1 / 7 2 .

Insummary, th e land reformmeasures i n

P a k i s t a nh a v e b e e nl a r g e l y i n e f f e c t i v e i n re s t r u c -

t u r i n g t h e e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l s t r a t a o f r u r a l s o c i -

e t y s o a s t o p r o v i d e as u i t a b l e f r am e w o r k f o r e q u i t -

t a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l d ev el op me nt .

111

Land reform i n Pa kis tan h as been meagre

a t

b e s t .

L i t t l e

l a n d h a s be en r e d i s t r i b u t e d .

W e

ha ve t r i e d t o make th e

case

i n t h i s paper

t h a t a n e q u i t a b l e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l a n d

c ou ld r e s u l t i n g r e a t e r p ro du ct io n, g r e a t e r

t o t a l employment, and

a

more equi tab le d is -

t r ib u t io n of income and ea rn ing oppor t uni t ie s .

I nc r e a se d c a p i t a l f o rm a tion i s a l s o a poss i -

b i l i t y . (Adams 1973) The foregoin g di scu ssi on

has tended t o embrace t r ad i t io na l conceptu-

a l i z a t i o n s

of

l a nd r ef or m. I n the ne x t s e c t i on ,

t h e a u t h o r s

w i l l

a tt em pt t o i n t e g r a t e

new ob jec t iv es i n t o land re form measures

by introducing energy and environmental

i s s u e s . W e i n t r oduc e the se c onc e r ns to

sugge st t h e g r a v i ty of f u t u r e im pe r a t ive s

demanding land reforms.

ENERGY,

ENVIRONMENTAL

SIDE EFFECTS

Development plannin g i n Pak ist an has

been charac te r ized as growth now/ equal-

i t y l a t e r .

t i on a nd d i s t r i bu t i on i n a nothe r. (Ham id

1974) Growth ve rsus d i s t r i bu t i on has

c r y s t a l l i z e d i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r

as moderniza t ion of th e la rg es t f a rms.

The na tur e of t h i s modern iza tion has been

l a bo r -s a vi n g, c a p i t a l i n t e n s i v e , and

energy in te ns iv e, (Nulty 1972) The

a u t h o r s s u g g es t t h a t

a

cont inua t ion of

t h i s m ode rn iz at ion o f t h e l a r g e s t f ar ms

w i l l

r e s u l t i n a n i n c r e a s e i n income d i s -

p a r i t i e s , w i l l c o n t r i b ut e t o r i s i n g fo od

p r i c e s , w i l l wor sen unemployment prob lems ,

a nd c ou ld r e su l t i n s w e r e environmental

problems

.

Growth lea ds i n one dir ec-

Energy

T o

acceptandpromulga

a system

of

a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p -

t

ment that i s heavily dependent upon non-

renewable energy

i s

t o assume t h at con-

s i s t e n t a nd a de qua te supp l i e s o f e ner gy

c an be a s su r e d . R ec en t s t ud ie s i n d i c a t e

such ass ura nce s cannot be assumed. The

f u t u r e de p le t ion o f i na n ima te e ne rgy

supp l i e s ha s be e n

w e l l

documented by the

Meadows gro up, Ophuls, and Lov ins . I n

u t i l i z i n g p r o j e c t i o n s by Lo vi ns , B u t t e 1

sugges ts supply

c r i ses w i l l

oc c u r w i th in

th e next two decades. Any ag r i cu lt ur e

t h a t depends upon th es e resourc es does

n o t s t a nd i n i s o l a t i o n f rom t h e s e t r e n d s J 6

Only 60 percent

of Paki s ta n ' s inanima

energy needs

are

produced within

i t s

bor de r s . 7 The th r e e major components of

inanima te energy consumption i n

a

mod-

e r n i z e d ' ' a g r i c u l t u r e

a r e

running machines,

manufac tur ing fe r t i l i z e r s , and manufac-

tu r i ng pe st ic id es . (Oelhaf 1976) The

c ont inue d use of t he se inp u t s i n P a k i s t a n

and e lsewhere can only be i n th e f ace of

inc r e a s ing ly h ighe r p r i c e s . A s t h e s e

p r i c e s c o n t i n u e t o r i s e , o n ly t h e l a r g e s t

farmers w i l l b e a b l e t o a f f o r d t o p ur ch as e

them. The be ne f i t s of h igher y i e l ds f rom

t h e s e i n p u t s

w i l l

l i ke wise be c onc e n t r a t e d

41


7/17

on t h e up pe r en d o f t h e s i z e s c a l e . The

l a r g e r f a r m s w i l l b e a b l e t o g r o s s more w h i l e s c a r c e r , e x p o r t c r o ps i n c r e a s e w h i l e

t h e smaller farms w i l l c o n t in u e t o s t r u g g l e

t o e ke o u t a n e x i s t e n c e . T h i s

i s

g e n e ra l l y Me c ha n iz a ti o n i n p u t s t h e ms e l ve s

t h e ca se pr es en t l y i n devel oping na t i on s . worsen unemployment problems. Mechani-

A s non-renewable energy re so ur ce s become

more and more people may go hungry .

A g r i c u l t u r a l m o de r n iz a t io n

i s

developing

i n a very unequa l manner. In s tea d o f

p r i ma r i l y b e n e f i t t i n g t h e l a r g e masses

of poor fa rmers , i t i s l e a di n g t o t h e

e n ri c hm e nt o f t h e r i c h p e a s a n t s an d t h e

g r e a t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f power i n t h e i r

hands and th os e of o t he r groups which

now c o n t r o l n o t o n l y t h e l a n d b u t a

g r e a t p a r t o f t h e c a p i t a l i n ve s te d i n

t h e l a n d

as

a consequence of modernization. , ,

a gap i s s tead i ly g rowing be tween subs i s -

t e n c e a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e ha nds o f

small

f a rm e rs a nd c om me rc ia l a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e

hands

of

r i c h l and owners who co n t ro l

l an d , c r e d i t , and t echno logy . (Almeida ,

e t a1 1974, 25)

In a n i m a t e e n e rg y s h o r t a g e s are e x pe c te d t o

s im pl y p u l l c u r r e n t c o n d it i o ns i n t o

c a r i c a t u r es of t h e i r pa s t selves .

p r i c e d . P ro d u c t io n i n c r e a s e s f ro m t h e a p-

p l i c a t i o n o f G re en R ev o l ut i o n t e c h n o l og i e s

h a ve a l r e a d y l e v e l e d o f f . H ig he r p r i c e d i n-

pu ts may f or c e some producer s

t o

r e v e r t b ac k

t o t r a d i t i o n a l m et ho ds t h e re b y r e d uc i n g fo od

s u p p l i e s . F u r t h e r , A lm ei da ,

e t a l . ,

sugges t

t h a t i n c o u n t r i e s where t h e r e i s a high con-

ce n t ra t i on o f income, food p roduc ing l and i s

o f t e n co n v e r t e d t o t h e p rod u c t i o n o f e x p o r t

c a s h c ro p s . H un gry p e o p l e c a nn o t a f f o rd t o

buy t h e fo od t h e y n e e d. Th i s i n f l u e n c e s t h e

a t t i t u d e s a nd ec on om ic i n c e n t i v e s o f

a g r i c u l t u r a l p r od uc e rs .

Food w i l l be

e v e n d e a re r a n d h i g h e r

Low income

of

the consumer popu la t ion

a n d u n e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h i s income..

a f f e c t s t he deve lopmen t o f t he marke t. .

( an d l e a d s t o a n )... mbalance between

r e a l

needs and th e ways i n which re-

s o u r c e s a r e used ... t o t h e po i nt t h a t

p r e f e r e n c e i s o f t e n g i v e n

t o

producing

u n e s s e n t i a l c o mm od it ie s f o r e x p o r t t o

c o u n t r i e s t h a t c an a f f o r d t o pa y f o r t hem

r a t h e r t ha n t o u si n g a v a i l a b l e r e s o ur c e s

( b ot h l a n d and c a p i t a l ) f o r pr o du c in g

b a s i c f o o d s t u f f s . The g r e a t m a j o r i t y of

the coun t ry needs t o overcome ch ron i c

undernourishment.(Almeida,

e t a1.1974,25)

z a t i o n d e f i n i t i o n a l l y d i s p l a c e s human

energy,

i . e .

human labor , wi th inan imate

energy. I t a l s o a l lo ws t h e l a r g e r f a r -

mers,

th e ones who can a f f o r d i t , t o

c o n t ro l a n d

t ll

e ve n l a r g e r a c r e a g e s .

Ene rg y s h o r t a g e s c a n o n l y e m p ha si ze t h i s

t r e n d .

A s

a

c a v ea t t o t h e f o r e go i ng , t h e

a u t h o r s w is h t o o f f e r a few comments on

OPEC. Some l e a d e r s of the Third World

hav e h e r a l de d OPEC as prov id ing a b a s e

f o r a ''new in te rn a t io na l o rder and a

g l o b a l r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w e a l th . ( Gi rv en

1975, 145-48) Hammarlund and Lindberg

s u g g e s t t h i s s u p p o r t h a s n o t a nd w i l l n o t

be for thc omi ng Most OPEC n a t i o n s have..

r e j e c t e d a l l p r o p os a l s f o r g ua r an te e d o i l

s u p p l i e s t o t h e most e n e r g y - d e f i c i e n t

d e v el o pi n g n a t i o n s , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of

a t w o - t i e r e d p r i c i n g s y s te m ,

and s imi la r

measures th a t wou ld go beyond th e t ra d i -

t i o n a l a i d programs. (Hammarlund 1976)

I t i s p r e c i s e l y w it h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a i d

p rograms , e .g . In te rn a t io na l Monetary

Fund, The World Bank, and a s i m i l a r OPEC

loa n agency, where a l a r g e p r o p or t i o n o f

OPEC as s i s t an ce d o l la r s have gone .

( W i l l i a m s 1976, 309-23) The amount

of

t h e s e f u nd s h a s b ee n c i t e d

as

d i s a p p o i n t -

in g, (F ar ns wo rt h 1976) Hammarlund makes

t h e c a s e t h a t t h e ma jo r i n t e r n a t i o n a l o u t-

l e t f o r p e t ro - d o ll a r s i s i n t he West.

The West i s t h e ma jo r s o u r c e o f i n d u s t r i -

a l , t e c h n o l o g i c a l , a nd m i l i t a r y s u p p l i e s .

Furthermore, OPEC i s dependent upon the

c o n ti n u ed h e a l t h of t h e West t o t u rn o i l

dep os i t s i n t o o i l revenues. (Hammarlund

1976, 176) Whe the r OPEC

w i l l

b e t h e h ar -

b i n g e r o f t h e d e v el o pe d w o r l d ' s v a r i o u s

e c o - p o l i t i c a l a d v an t a ge s a nd t h e s a v i o r o f

the Third World i s h i g h l y q u e s t i o n a b l e .

The a u t h o r s r e a l i z e t h e r e a r e v a r i o u s

fo r e i g n e x ch an ge i s s u e s i n v o l v e d w i t h i n -

c r ea se d p r i c e s of o i l , f o od , a g r i c u l t u r a l

i n p u t s , a nd o t h e r mater ia l s . Space does

n o t p e rm i t u s t o d e a l w i t h t h e s e i s s u e s

here. However, w e d o s u g g e s t t h a t t w i l

b e d i f f i c u l t f o r r e s o u r c e p oo r n a t i o n s

n o t t o c o n ti n ue t o move i n a d e f i c i t

d i r e c t i o n .

42


8/17

Theaut hor shope t o have i ndi cat ed

t hat an agr i cul t ur al syst embased on ener gy

i nt ensi ve i nput s i s t enuous at best . The

cont i nued avai l abi l i t y of t hese i nput s can-

not be assured. The degr ee t o whi ch i nput s

ar e or ar e not avai l abl e wi l l ef f ect di spar -

i t i es bet ween r i ch and poor . These i nput s

al so af f ect the envi r onment . Probl ems f r om

t he appl i cat i on of t hese i nput s i ncl ude:

1.

decl i ne

of

soi l st r uctur e, organi c

mat t er cont ent , and m crobi ot i c soi l

l i f e,

2.

i ncreased pol l ut i on f romr un- of f ,

3 .

poi soni ng of f ood, soi l , and peopl e,

4 .

i ncreased r i sk of car ci nogeni cef f ect s,

5 monocul t ur i ng t hat aggravates pest

pr obl ems, soi l er osi on, and soi l

s ter i l i ty . (But t e1

1978)

I n summar y, energy shor t ages suggest t hat

unempl oyment , povert y, and hunger wi l l al l i n-

crease. Under t hese condi t i ons, i t i s l i kel y

t hat publ i c quest i oni ng of t he l egi t i macy of

t he st at e wi l l occur , as wel l as quest i oni ng

of t he nat ur e of econom c or gani zat i on; or

t o expr ess t hi s t hought more emphat i cal l y,

t her e may be consi der abl e soci al unr est . We

suggest t hat OPEC cannot be r el i ed upon as a

saf ety val ve. The OPEC nat i ons have al r eady

r ej ect ed a pr oposal t o pr ovi de oi l on l ong

t er m credi t i n cri si s si t uat i ons. ( Hammar l und

1976, 172)

si de ef f ect s of Gr een Revol ut i on t echnol ogi es

cannot be i gnored. The l onger t he t i me span

bef or e ener gy cr i ses occur , t he br oader wi l l

be the appl i cat i on of such i nput s as ar t i f i -

ci al f er t i l i zer s and pest i ci des, and t he mor e

per vasi ve t he envi r onment al damage. A con-

densat i on of t hese envi r onment al probl ems

and t he energy r el ated probl ems seems t o sug-

gest a maj or change i n soci al or gani zati on

i s i n the of f i ng.

sweepi ng l and r ef orm coul d i ncr ease pr oduc-

t i on. Dobb echoes thi s sent i ment i n a di st

cussi on on devel opment and gr owt h/ savi ngs/

di st r i but i on i ssues. He makes t he case t hat

concept ual i zi ng devel opment as l i m t ed

Whi l e l ess obvi ous, t he envi r onment al

We have pr evi ousl y suggest ed t hat a broad

by t he si ze of act ual savi ngs onl y makes

sense on t he assumpt i on that t he margi n

bet ween product i on and consumpt i on can

onl y be enl arged by l ower i ng consumpt i on

and cannot be enl arged. . . by

enl ar gi ng t ot al pr oducti on.

As

soon

as we dr op thi s assumpt i on and al l ow

t he possi bi l i t y of an i ncrease i n

t ot al pr oducti on, t he l i m t upon

devel opment l oses i t s absol ut e char -

acter. ( St i vers

1976)

I ncreased pr oduct i on can come about wi t h-

out savi ngs f i r st but r at her wi t h t he

f ul l er ut i l i zat i on of exi st i ng resources.

( Dobb

1967, 73)

A broad sweepi ng l and

r ef or mwoul d al l ow ut i l i zat i on of t he

massi ve amount s of underut i l i zed l abor

and l and i n r ur al Paki st an.

We have previ ousl y documented t he

gr eat er product i vi t y of smal l er f ar ms.

A br oad sweepi ng l and r ef or m nr i ent ed

t owar d a l abor i nt ensi ve agr i cul t ur e

woul d cont r i but e di r ect l y t o meet i ng

human needs.

pl oyed, and more f ood product i on coul d

r esul t . The cr i t i cal probl ems of peopl e

f eedi ng t hemsel ves do not r evol ve ar ound

t he absol ut e abi l i t i es of i ndi vi dual s i n

t he Thi r d Worl d. Rat her , as Lappe and

Col l i ns st at e, most peopl e i n the Thi r d

Worl d cannot f eed themsel ves adequat el y

because t hey l ack cont r ol over f ood pr o-

duci ng r esour ces. ( Ham d

1976,

4 8 )

To address more di r ect l y t he energy

pr obl em smal l scal e, l abor i nt ensi ve

agr i cul t ur e does not r equi r e l arge, f uel

i nef f i ci ent machi nes. Wher e l arge scal e

mechani zat i on has occurr ed, a l and ref or m

coul d, i n ef f ect , subst i t ut e human ener gy

f or i nani mate energy. The aut hor s do

not suggest a t otal demechi ni zat i on but

r at her t he ut i l i zat i on of smal l scal e

machi nes, possi bl y hand- hel d gar den t r ac-

t or s. By reduci ng t he scal e of t he ma

chi ner y, one i ncreases t he amount of

l abor ener gy ut i l i zed and r educes i nani -

mate energy demands. Si mul t aneousl y,

smal l - scal e machi ner y r etai ns some of

t he work- l i ght eni ng advant ages

of

mechani zat i on.

Art i f i c i al f ert i l i zers have i ncreased

pr oduct i on i n t he Thi r d Wor l d.

Ear l i er i n thi s paper , we advocat ed thei r

ut i l i zat i on on smal l er f ar ms to i ncrease

out put . I n t he cont ext of a sust ai nabl e

soci et y, t hi s woul d be a t emporar y meas-

ure. Art i f i c i al f ert i l i zers ar e energy

Mor e peopl e woul d be em

4


9/17

in te ns iv e ,and cont inuous u se causes seve re run-

of f and s o i l composit ion problems. There are

var ious replacements based on renewable re-

sour ces. Blobaum has provided an ex ce ll en t

summary of t h e case i n China . In th a t coun-

t r y ,

a

treme ndou s amount of human, an im al ,

a nd p l a n twa s t e s are rec ycl ed . Canal, pond,

and r i v e r bot toms

a re s cr ap ed t o c o l l e c t

o r ga n ic material t o s p r e ad on po or s o i l .

S i l t e roded f rom th e l and d ur ing th e monsoon

i s c o l l e c t e d

as

w e l l . Garbage from c i t i e s i s

co l l ec te d , composted, and used as f e r t i l i z e r .

Hogs p l a y an im p or t an t r o l e i n f e r t i l i z e r

produc t ion . Hog fe ed lo ts

are

l oc a t e d c on t i -

guous to food process in g p la n ts . The wastes

f r o m t h e s e p l a n t s , of te n supplemented wi th

some grains,

a re

used as hog fee d. The hog

waste

i s ,

i n t u r n , u se d

as

f e r t i l i z e r . I n-

d u s t r i a l

waste

water

i s used

as

w e l l .

Tech-

niques have been developed and are u s e d t o

remove t h e heavy

metals .

Blobaum makes t h e

case t h a t 75 p e rc en t of C h in a' s f e r t i l i z e r

su pp ly comes from or ga ni c, human, an imal ,

a n d p l a n t

wastes.

Ac co rd in g t o USDA estimates,

t h i s h a s b ee n do ne i n a c o u n t r y t h a t i s pro-

ducing

as

much grain as modernized U . S .

fa rmers . Fur th e r , Chinese fa rmers are r a i s i n g

t h r e e

t i m e s

as many go at s and sh ee p. (Lappe

a nd C o l l in s

1976

O th er l i t e r a t u r e d e a l in g

w it h a l t e rn a t i v e s t o s y n t h e t i c f e r t i l i z e r s

inc l ude He iche l and Fr ink , P imetha l , and

All aby and Al len . (Blobaum, 1975)

Pe s t ic id e use may be

r e duc e d o r e l im ina te d

t hr ou gh t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f va r i o u s

less

eco-

l o g i ca l l y damaging methods. Belden and For te

s u g g es t c r o p r o t a t i o n s a nd i n t e r c r o p p i n g i m -

pr ove e c o l og ic a l d i ve r s i t y a nd na rr ow e c o-

l o g i c a l n i c h e s f o r s p e c i f i c p e s t s an d w ee ds .

Th i s p r e ve n t s e xp los ive pe s t p roblem s th a t

are

i n t r i n s i c

t o monocultur ing. Other

a ppr oac hes inc lude b io lo g i c a l c on t r o l , m ic ro -

b i a l c o n tr o l , s t e r i l e i n s e c t c o nt ro l , t i l l a g e

m a n ipu la t ions , p l a n t ing t i m e adjus tments , use

of

t r a p s t o a t t r a c t i n s e c t s , p ru ni ng , t hi nn in g,

a nd c u t t i ng . l8

A l l of

t h e fo reg oin g methods can improve

s o i l c o n d i t i o n s an d

i t s

a b i l i t y t o p ro du ce

and r e pr oduc e. The a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r

i s

t h e

o n ly s e c t o r t h a t ca n c r e a t e e ne rg y . I f

i t i s

go ing t o c on t inue

t o produce energy

of

v a r i o u s

forms,

the d e l ic a t e agro-ecosys tems must be

p r o te c t e d .

Given pro jec ted energy r ises , t h e

ex ac er ba ti on of unemployment, o f income

d i s t r i bu t i on , a nd food p rob le ms , as w e l l

as environmental stresses, w e hope t o

have provided some rudimentary suggest ions

t o a n a l t e r na t i ve socio- ec onom ic o r ga ni -

z a t ion . Obvious ly ,m ajo r so c i a l - p o l i t i c a l -

economic fo rce s , bo th na t io na l l y and in-

t e r n a t i o n a l l y ,

w i l l

come in to p l a y be f o r e

any major changes i n development or ien -

t a t i on c a n oc c u r. The a u tho r s are pes-

s i mi s t i c

t ha t any volunta ry consensua l

movements w i l l br i ng t h i s about . Hope-

fu l l y , some pos i t iv e changes can be made

b e f o r e t h e h ar s h l o g i c o f n e a r t o t a l de-

p l e t i on o f i na n im a te ene rgy r e sou r ce s

i s

upon us, and class s t r u g g l e t a k e s i t s

m os t v io l e n t

form.

FOOTNOTES

1See

Hung-Chao T a i , Land Reform and

P o l i t i c s , p. 111, where the re i s a com-

p a r is o n o f l a nd p r o d u c t i v it y i n B r a z i l ,

Colombia, Ecuador, In di a, and Mexico.

The range of r e l a t i v e l a nd p r o d u ct i v i t y

ranged from a minimum of

seven pe rcent

for la rg e fa rms i n Colombia t o 130 pe r -

c e n t f o r a fami ly fa rm, wi t h t he sub-

fami ly ( sm al les t ) un i t be ing th e bench-

mark of 100 pe r c e n t . S ee a l so p . 311,

where th e e f fe c ts of land re form on ag-

r i c u l t u r a l p r o du ct io n are c i t e d . F o r

o t h er s t u d i e s , see Pe te r Dorner , The

Economic

Case

f o r Land Reform: EmDlov-

ment, Income, and Pr od uc ti on , Fao, Rome,

No. 1 , 1971, p. 21. T h e r e s u l t s were

con s is ten t wi th th e above s tudy . Another

s tudy

w a s

conducted by John

W.

Mellor

and c i t e d i n hi s book, The Economics

of

Agr icu l tu ra l Deve lopment, I th aca ,

New York, 1 9 6 6 , p. 136-144.

This

s tudy ,

c onduc ted i n I nd ia

( 1959 ) ,

f ound tha t

y i e l d s

were

much h ig h er on two far ms

of

s i z e s 8 and 13

acres as

compared t o two

o t h e r s

of

c am par ab le s o i l c ond i t i ons a nd

ranging i n s i z e from 30-33

acres .

44


10/17

2There i s s t rong ev idence f rom s tud ies

t h a t t h e smaller farms have gre a t er a l l o -

ca t ive e f f i c i en cy t han l a r ge r f a rms, no t on l y

i n f arm ing p r a c ti c e s b ut a l s o i n b e t t e r u t i l -

i z a t i o n o f land . Under and / or unu t i l i ze d

land i s a commonphenomenonon l a r g e

farms

o r

es ta te s .

Solon Barraclough, Agr arian Struc -

t u r e i n L a ti n

America,

Lexington, Lexington

Books, 1973.

3Gunnar Myrdal, Asian

D r a m a

(New York:

Pantheon, 1968 ), p. 1255. I f Japanese methods

of l a b o r i n t e n s i v e r i c e c u l t i v a t i o n were

em-

p loyed i n In d i a , l abo r i np u t s would i nc reas e

by f i f t y pe rc ent and output by 100-200 per -

cen t . However, t h e c r i t i c a l i s s ue o f

mar-

k e t a b l e s u r p l u s i s imp orta nt. This may o r

may no t show a perc ep t i b l e i nc reas e dependi ng

on va r i ous f ac t o r s ,

i . e .

l and p roduc t i v i t y ,

on-farm consumption, s i z e o f ho ld ings , s o i l

cond i t ion s , government suppor t serv ice s ,

e tc .

4World Bank, Land Reform (Washington,

D.C. : July,1974), p . 6 .

See

a l s o Dale W.

Adams, The Economics of Land Reform, Food

R es ea rc h I n s t i t u t e S t u d ie s i n A g r ic u l t ur e ,

Economics, Trade, and Development, Vol.

X I I ,

No. 2 , 1973, p. 134.

5The cases of Taiwan, Japan , and Peo ple 's

Rep ublic of China pro vid e good examples.

6For

a

more de t a i l ed p ersp ect i ve of t enure

cond i t i ons i n Ind i a and Pak i s t an , r e f e r

t o ( a ) D an ie l T ho rn er , b r a r i a n Pr os pe c t i n

Ind ia (Delhi : 1956); (b)

C .M .

Elk ing ton ,

Land Reform i n Pak is tan , Aid S pr ing Review,

1970, p.

6 ;

(c) Government of Pakistan,

Rep ort of t h e Land Reforms Commission fo r

West Pak is ta n (Lahore: Januar y, 1959),

pp. 9-19.

7Herbert Feldman, Revolut ion i n Pakis tan :

A

Study of t he

Martial Law

Adminis t ra t ion

(London: Oxford Un iv er si ty

Press ,

1967).

Approximately 70 perce nt of the p arl iam ent

w a s

c o n t r o l l e d by l an de d i n t e r e s t s a nd t r i b a l

ch i e f s be fo re and a f t e r t he coup.

8Most of th e Mi li ta ry Cadre were drawn

from medium-large s i z e landholding fam il i es

(500-1000

acres per holding) which Ayub Khan

c ou ld n o t a f f o r d t o a l i e n a t e .

gGovernment of Pakistan, Land Reforms

f o r

West

Pakis tan, pp.

24-74 .

T w e l v e acres

w a s cons idered a

s ubs i s t ence l ev e l f a rm p l o t , a s de f i ned bv

t h e Land Reforms Commission of

West

Pak i s t an .

During th e 1950's the populat ion

growth

r a t e w a s 2 . 3

percen t wi th ou tpu t

i n c r e a s i n g a t a

1.8

percent growth ra te .

In th e 1960 's, however, outpu t expanded

a t

a

r a t e of 3 .91 percen t whi l e popula t ion

i nc reas ed

a t

a ra te of t h ree pe rcen t .

U S A I D Sp ri ng Review, p. 13.

12Since 1968169 t o 1978, acr eag e under

wheat

HYV's

alone has in cre ase d from seven

m i l l i o n acres t o 11 .9 mi l l i on acres. The

Pak i s t an

T i m e s ,

Imported Wheat Seed Sown

i n

T i me ' ' ,

December

30,

1978.

l3See a l s o F.R. Fra nke l and

Karl

von

Vorys , The P o l i t i c a l Chal lenge of t he

Green Revolut ion: Sh if t i ng

Patterns

of

P e as an t P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n I n d i a and P a k i s ta n

(Pr ince ton Univers i ty : Center o f In terna -

t i on al Stud ie s , March, 1972) ,

#38, p . 30

(R2 of 0.77).

14Government of Pakistan, Fourth Five-

Year

Pl an , 1970-75, p. 341. The Ru ra l

Works Program red uced r u r a l unemployment

by f i ve percen t . On average s in ce then ,

only 1-2 pe rce nt

of

the government budget

h a s b ee n a l l o c a t e d t o

i t , a

f a r c ry from

t h e

1-2

percen t o f na t ional income tha t

sho uld be used. Off -f a r m Employment ,

Rura l

A s i a

(New York: P raege r , 1978)

-

Asian Development Bank.

I5S.M. Naseem,

Mass

Pover t y i n

Pa kis ta n: Some Pre lim ina ry Findings ,

The Pa ki st an Development Review, Vol.

12,

No. 4, Win te r, 1973, p.

3 2 2 .

No ho us eh ol d

had consumption of under

R s .

250.00

as

such

R s .

300.00 has been used

as a

minimum

subs i s tence l eve l income.

l6Donella Meadows, e t

a l . ,

The L i m i t s

t o Growth (New York: Un ive rs e, 197 2);

W i l l i a m Ophuls , Ecology and th e P o l i t i c s

of

Sc ar ci ty (San Fr an cis co : Freeman, 1977)

45


11/17

Amory Lovi ns, Energy St r ategy: The

Road Not Taken , Fal l ,

1976;

and Fred But t el ,

Agr i cul t ur e i n Tr ansi t i on t o a Sust ai nabl e

Soci et y ( Unpub1i shed paper f or Cornel l

Uni vers i t y, J anuar y,

1978).

I 7Uni t ed Nat i ons :

Handbook

of

I nt erna-

t i onal Tr ade and Devel opment St at i st i cs,

1979.

18G.

Hei chel , Ant i ci pat i ng t he Ener gy

Needs of Amer i can Agr i cul t ur e , J our nal of

Soi l and Water Conser vat i on,

30

J anuar y-

Febr uar y,

1975.

See al so Davi d Pi ment el ,

Food Pr oduct i on and t he Ener gy Cr i si s ,

Sci ence,

182,

November ,

1973;

and M chael

Al l ahy and Fl oyd Al l en, Robots Behi nd t he

Pl ow ( Emmaus, Pennsyl vani a: Rodal e Pr ess ,

1974).

BI BLI OGRAPHY

Adam Dal e W

1973

The Econqm , cs

of Land Ref or m

Food Research I nst i t ut e St udi es

I n Agr i cul t ur al Econom cs, Tr ade,

and Devel opment ,

Vol .

XI I ,

No.

2.

Al l auddi n, Tal at

1975

Mass Pover t y i n Paki stan' '

The Paki st an DeVehDment Revi ew

~~ ~ ~-

Vol. X I V , N o .

4 , Wnter.

Al mei da, Si l vi o, et al .

1974

Wor l d Hunger : Causes and Remedi es

Washi ngt on, D. C. : Transnat i onal

I nst i t ut e/ I nst i tut e f or Pol i cy

St udi es.

Bar r acl ough,

Sol on

1973

Agr ar i an St r uct ur e i n Lat i n

Amer i ca

Lexi ngt on: Lexi ngt on Books.

Burk i ,

S . J .

1973

Rapi d Popul at i on Gr owt h and

Ur bani zat i on: The Case

of

Paki st an -

Paki st an Econom c and Soci al

Revi ew, Vol . XI ,

0.3,

Aut umn.

But t el , Fr ed

1978 I

Agr i cul t ur e i n Tr ansi t i on

to

a Sust ai nabl e Soci et y

I t haca, New Yor k: Cor nel l

Uni vers i t y,

1978.

Unpubl i shed

paper .

Chaudhr y

M G o

1973

Rur al I ncome Di st r i but i on i n

Paki st an i n t he Gr een Revol ut i on

Per spect i ve

The Paki st an Devel opment Revi ew,

Vol . XI I , No.

3,

Aut umn.

Dobb, Maur i ce

1967

Papers on Capi t al i sm Devel opment ,

ad - Pl anni ng, p. 73.

Lon on

Rout l edge and Kegan Paul .

Dor ner , Pet er and Don Kanel

1971

The Econom c Case f or Land Ref orm

Empl oyment , I ncome, and Pr oduct i o

No. 1.

Rome: FAO.

El ki ngt on, Char l es M

1970 Land Ref or m i n Paki st an

Agency

f o r

I nt er nat i onal

Devel opment . Spr i ng Revi ew.

Far nswort h, Cl aude

OPEC Set s up Ai d

of $800

M l l i on

New Yor k Ti mes, J anuar y 12.

1976

Fel dman, Herber t

1967

Revol ut i on i n Paki st an: A Case

Studv

of

t he Mart i al Law

Adm ni str at i on.

London: Oxf or d Uni ver si t y Press.

46


12/17

Fr ankel , F. R. and K. V. Vorys

1972 The Pol i t i cal Chal l enge of t he

Gr een Revol ut i on: Shi f t i ng

Myr dal , Gunnar

1968 Asi an Dr ama: An I nqui r y i nt o

t he Pover t v of Nat i ons

Pat t er ns of Peasant Par t i ci pat i on

i n I ndi a and Paki st an

Pr i ncet on Uni ver si t y: Cent er of

I nt er nat i onal St udi es, Mar ch.

Hai der, A. S. and Fri t hj of Kuhnen

1974

Land Tenure and Rural Devel opment

i n Paki st an

Land Ref orm Land Set t l ement . and

Cooperat i ves, No. 1 /2 .

FA0

Ham d, Naved

1974

Her r i ng,

1974

Al t er nat i ve Devel opment St r at egi es

Mont hl y Revi ew, Oct ober .

Ronal d and Ghaf f ar

M

Chaudhry

The

1972

Land Ref orms i n Paki st an

and Thei r Econom c I mpl i cat i ons:

A Pr el i m nar y Anal ysi s

The Paki st an Devel opment Revi ew, 13,

No.

3,

Aut umn.

Hi r sch, G. P.

1972

Some Fundament al s of Land Ref or m

Oxf or d Agr ar i an St udi es, Vol . 1,

No. 2.

J annuzzi , F. Tomasson

1974

Agr ar i an Cr i si s i n I ndi a: The Case

of Bi har

Aust i n: Uni ver si t y of Texas Pr ess.

Lappe, Frances Moor e and J oseph Col l i ns

Washi ngt on, D. C. : I nst i t ut e f or Food

and Devel opment Pol i cy.

1976

Food Fi r st

L i ppi t , Vi ctor D.

1974

Land Ref orm and Econom c

Devel opment i n Chi na

Whi t e Pl ai ns, New Yor k: I nt er nat i onal

Ar t s and Sci ences Press.

Mel l or , J ohn W

1966

The Econom cs of Agr i cul t ur al

Deve oDment

I t haca, New Yor k: Cor nel l Uni ver si t y

Press.

New York: Pant heon.

Naseem Muhammad

Cr edi t Avai l abi l i t y and t he

Vi abi l i t y of Smal l Far ms i n

t he Paki st ani Puni ab

~- ~~ ~

Acts Fi l e No.

646 .

Nul t y, Les l i e

1972

The Gr een Revol ut i on i n West

Paki st an. I mDl i cat i ons

of

Technol ogi cal Channe

New Yor k: Praeger Publ i shers.

Oel haf , Rober t

1976 The Econom cs of Or gani c

Far m ng

Unpubl i shed Ph. D. Di sser t at i on

Depar t ment of Econom cs,

Uni ver si t y of Mar yl and.

Paki st an, Gover nment of

1959

Repor t of t he Land Ref or ms

Comm ssi on f or West Paki st an

Lahor e: J anuar y.

Per el man, M chael

1977

Far m ng f or Pr of i t i n a Hungr y

Moncl ai r , New J er sey: Al l anhel d

Osmun.

Wor l d

St er n, J oseph J . and Wal t er P. Fal con

1970

Gr owt h and Devel opment i n

Paki st an

Har var d Cent er f or I nt er nat i onal

Af f ai r s , No.

23,

Apr i l .

St i ver s, Rober t L.

1976 The Sust ai nabl e Soci et y: Et hi cs

and Econom c Gr owt h

Phi l adel phi a: West m nst er Pr ess.

Tai , Hong- Chao

1974

Land Ref or m and Pol i t i cs:

A

Comparat i ve Anal ysi s

Ber kel ey: Uni ver si t y of Cal i f or ni a

Pr ess.

47


13/17

Thorner , Daniel

(Addend)

1956 A g ra r i a n P ro s p e c t i n In d i a

D e l hi : U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

Warriner, Doreen

1969 Land Reform: I n P r i n c i p l e and

P r a c t i c e

Oxford: Oxford Un ive rs i ty Press .

W i l l i a m s Maurice J .

The Aid Programs of t h e OPEC

Count r ies

F o rei g n A f fa i r s , J a n ua ry .

1976

Parsons , Kenneth H. (ed . )

1956

Land Tenure

Madison, Wisconsin.

S c h u l t z , T.W.

1964 Transfo rming Tr ad i t io na l

A g r i c u l t u r e

New Haven.

A Z I Z

and

GRAY

CONTINUED

(Tab les , p . 49-52)

8


14/17

AZI Z and GRAY

TABLE 1

2,524

LANDOWNERSHI P PATTERN I N

PAKI STAN (1960 CENSUS) a)

WEST

PAKI STAN

/I

of Owners 000)

%

of

Owner s

Area Owned

000 Acres)

%

of Area Owned

PUN

JAB b)

/I of

Owner s

000)

%

of Owners

Ar ea Owned

000 Acres)

of

Ar ea Owned

NWFP

(c)

I of Owner s

000)

%

of Owners

Ar ea Owned

000 Acres)

of

Ar ea Owned

SI ND( ~)

/I

of Owner s 000)

%

of Owners

Ar ea Owned

% of

Ar ea Owned

3,266

64

7,427

15

2,312

67

4,332

16

7,700

70

2,506

32

93

30

343

3

1,452

29

15,438

32

968

28

10,285

39

237

22

1,984

25

142

45

1,786

18

25-100

Acr es

286

6

10,616

22

1 3 1

3.8

5,642

2 1

76

7

1,546

19

5 1

17

2,311

23

100-500

Acr es

57

1.2

7,671

16

17

0.5

3,493

13

11

1

854

10

23

8

I 25

Over

50(

Acr es

6

:

7,490

15.6

1.7

.

2,566

10

07

.

[

975

12

3

1

2,963

29

TOTAL

5,067

100

48,642

100

1,433,078

100

26,321

100

096,777

100

I 868,407

314

100

9,989

(a) Dat a compi l ed

by

t he Government of Paki st an, pl anni ng comm ssi on, and suppl i ed

(b)

Dat a f or

1954 /55

(c) Dat a f or 1955

d )

Dat a f or

1946 /47

SOURCE:

Lesl i e Nul t y, The Gr een Revol ut i on i n West Paki st an, New York: . Praeger ,

1972.

49


15/17

TABLE 2

RESULTS OF LAND REDI STRI BUTI ON I N

WEST PAKI STAN

1 9 5 9 - 1 9 6 5 )

THE 1 9 5 8

LAND REFORM

Uni t of Land: Acr e

Landowner shi p on t he eve of

Red i s r but on

Tot al of owner s

Tot al ar ea of owned l and ( acres)

Expect ed Cover age of Redistribution/Expropriation

Number of l andowner s

Ar ea of l and owned ( acres)

Act ual I mpact of

Redistribution/Expropriation

Number

of

owners act ual l y af f ect ed

Tot al ar ea of l and owned by af f ect ed owner s

Tot al ar ea of l and t r ansf er r ed t o hei r s/ dependent s

**Tot al ar ea of l and acqui r ed by government

Types of Gover nment - Acqui r ed Land

Cul t i vat ed l and

Uncul t i vat ed l anda

Di sposi t i on of Gover nment - Acqui r ed Land

Land l eased ( acres)

Land sol d t o t enant s ( acres)

Land auct i oned and sol d t o ot her s ( acres)

Tot al ar ea of l and r edi st r i but ed

Number of f ar mer s purchased l and

5 , 0 6 8 , 3 7 6

4 8 , 6 4 2 , 5 3 0

6 , 0 6 1

7 , 4 9 0 , 9 3 3

9 1 0

6 , 1 0 6 , 6 3 1

5 0 5 , 6 9 5

2 , 2 2 0 , 7 1 8

8 2 3 , 0 6 2

1 , 0 8 0 , 7 2 6

3 6 , 6 4 3

6 6 2 , 1 9 9

2 2 6 ,2 5 8

9 9 3 , 4 8 9

5 6 , 9 0 6

(a) I nc l udes uncul t i vabl ewast e, f or est , under r i ver .

SOURCE: Hung- Chao Tai , Land Ref or m and Pol i t i cs: A Comparat i ve Anal ysi s, Berkel ey:

Uni ver s i t y of Cal i f orni a Pr ess , 1 9 7 4 .

50


16/17

TABLE

3

RESULTS OF LAND

REFORM

( 1972)

I N PAKI STAN, TO 31 MARCH 1974

Expect ed Cover age

of Expropriation/Redistribution

Number

of

Owner s

Act ual I mpact of

Expropriation/Redistribution

Number of Owner s

Area Owned by Owners ( acres)

Total Ar ea Acqui r ed by Gover nment ( acres)

Di sposi t i on of Government - Acqui r ed Land ( acres)

Tot al Ar ea Di sposed of (acres)

Number of f armers and t enant s

al l ot t ed l and

Tot al Ar ea Tr ansf err ed as a

of

Tot al

Cul t i vat ed Ar ea i n Paki st an

Tot al Ar ea Resumed

by

Gover nment as a

% of

Tot al Cul t i vat ed Ar ea i n Paki st an

I ncome Redi st r i but ed as

a

%

of Nat i onal

Agr i cul t ur al I ncome

11, 990

2, 048

1, 754, 926

850, 150

267, 989

40, 194

0.55

1. 7%

2. 0%

SOURCE: Uni t ed Nat i ons: Progr ess i n Land Ref orm 6th Report , New Yor k,

1976, pp. 70.

51


17/17

TABLE

4

OUTPUT AND LABOR INPUT

P E R A CR E BY S I Z E OF HOLDINGS

I N P A K I S T A N

S I Z E

OF

HOLDING

S m a l l H o l d i n g

(0 - 1 2 . 5

A c r e s )

M e d i u m H o l d i n g

1 2 . 6 - 2 5 . 0

A c r e s )

Large

H o l d i n g

2 5 . 1

-

5 0 . 0

A c r e s )

V e r y L a r g e H o l d i n g

( A b o v e 5 0 . 0 A c r e s )

VALUE OF OUTPU T LABOR IN PU T (MAN-DAYS)

PE R CULTIVATED ACRE PE R CULTIVATED ACRE

( R U P E E S )

(MAN-DAY S

4 6 7 . 7 8 8 3 . 8

3 9 1 . 5 1 4 8 . 4

258.99 45 .6

134 . 5 --

S O U R C E : C h a u d h r y

and

H e r r i n g , op. c i t . , p p . 2 6 1 , 2 6 4 .

TABLE 5

D A I L Y P E R C A P I T A C A L O RI E I NT A KE I N

THE RURAL AREAS I N PAKISTA N

* D a t a t a ke n f r o m G u n n a r Myrdal ' s A s i a n D r a m a , N ew Y o r k :

Pantheon, 1 9 6 8 , p . 5 4 4 .

YEAR

AVERAGE CALORIE

INTAKE

( T o t a l R u r a l A r e a )

1 9 4 9 / 5 0 * 2 , 0 1 0

CALORIE INTAKE (AVERAGE)

BY POOR WITH INCOME

L E S S THAN R s .

250

P E R

A U M

--

1 9 5 7 / 5 9 * 1 , 9 8 0 --

1 9 6 3 / 6 4 1 , 9 8 8 1 , 8 97

1 9 6 8 1 6 9 1 , 9 7 4 1 , 8 5 7

1 9 6 9 / 7 0 1 , 9 8 3 1 , 8 15

1 9 7 0 1 7 1 1,950 1 , 8 1 0

1 9 7 1 / 7 2 1 , 8 9 8 1 , 73 6

SOURCE:

Tala t

A l l a u d d i n , M a s s

Pove r ty i n P a k i s t a n , P a k i s t a n

D e v e l o p m e n t

R e v i e w , V o l . X I V , N o .

4 ,

p .

4 4 4 .

Winter ,

1 9 7 5 .

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Land Reform in Pakistan a Critical Issue for Future Development

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