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Language Production
http://wuhpnet.googlepages.com/psycholinguisticshttp://groups.google.com/group/linguistics_nwnu
College of Foreign LanguagesNorthwest Normal University
Lanzhou, 2007
Key points highlighted
Language comprehension and language production
Complexity of language production Stages of speech production Models of speech production
Language comprehension and production Language comprehension:
From symbol (visual or aural) to meaning Language production
From meaning to symbol (visual or aural) Speech production is NOT merely the reversal of
comprehension Production use different neural and anatomical structure
Considerable body of research on comprehension, language production not well understood Most of the production processes are outside consciousness. Harder to control output than input
Production…
“Why did Ken set the soggy net on top of his deck?”
?QuickTime™ and a Cinepak decompressor are needed to see this p icture.
00001
Complexity of speech production
How complex? …speaking
“Why did Ken set the soggy net on top of his deck?”
1. Select words that will express the concept• soggy vs. wet; deck vs. patio; set vs. put
2. Arrange them into the appropriate phrases• …set the net on his deck NOT
…set the deck on his net3. Look up and arrange their sound struct
ure• soggy net NOT noggy set
4. Add appropriate prosody• WHY did ken…vs. why DID ken…vs. why did
KEN… 5. Code the final product in motor comm
ands
Complexity of speech production
Speech production
Message source
Speech articulation
Select wordsConstruct phrases
Insert sound structureAdd inflection
Insert prosodic structure
Are these separate levels of processing?
Or handled in one big translation process?
Stages of speech production
Four stages are involved in speech productionConceptualizing a thoughtFormulating a linguistic planArticulating the planMonitoring the speech
Conceptualizing a thought
William JamesSpeech production involves two processes
The thought processes: global and holistic, thinking in mentalese
The speech process: serial and linear assemblage of the units of language
A process of holistic-to-sequential transition
Evidence from eye movement
Griffin and Bock used picture sets Pictures that portrayed active events
The mouse is squirting the turtle with water Pictures that portrayed active-passive events, depending on whe
ther the human is the agent or the patient in the scene. The mailman is being chased by the dog The mailman is chasing the dog
Subjects are asked to describe the pictures under four conditions Extemporaneous speech: describing while viewing the pics. Prepared speech: viewing while preparing, then reporting Patient detection: finding the person or thing being acted upon Inspection: viewing the pics without particular tasks
Evidence from eye movement Findings:
when speaking extemporaneously, speakers begin fixating on the pictured elements less than a second before naming them in their description, consistent with sequential encoding.
Eye movements also anticipate the order of mention despite changes in picture orientation
Speakers’ initial eye-movement and those of subjects performing the nonspeaking patient detection task suggest that response-relevant information is rapidly extracted from the pictures, permitting them to select grammatical subjects based on their comprehension of the event rather than salience. (The inspection task)
The inspectors did not fixate on one region of the picture during the first 1200 ms after the picture onset when they fixated on the patient.
Extemporaneous speakers began fixating on picture elements less than a second before naming the actors in their descriptions, the subject first and then the object.
These suggest that speakers rapidly extracted the event structure and that there is a very orderly linkage between successive fixations during event viewing and word order in speaking.
Formulating a linguistic plan
Generating a framework on which to hang the units of speech.
This process has three phases: Identifying the meaning and finding the wordsSelecting a syntactic structureGenerating an intonation contour.
Finding the words--Findings from picture naming tasks Picture naming
More difficult than word reading since written words have a more direct access to the lexicon than pictures
Involves presentation of two stimuli A picture A spoken or printed distractor word
Semantically related sheep-goat Phononlogi8cally related sheep-street Unrelated: sheep-house Target words: sheep-sheep
Results indicated the naming response was delayed when semantically related distractors were presented, relative to unrelated distractors.
Early distrctors slowed down semantic reaction times but phonological distractors had no effect
With concurrent presentation, semantifc distractors had no effect but phonological distrctors speeded up raction times
At delayed interval, semantic distractors had no effect but phonological distractors speeded up reaction times even more.
Semantics are activated during lexical access before phonological aspects are activated, confirming the serial model.
Finding the words-evidence from TOT phenomenon
Subjects given the definition of an unusual word and asked to name what word fits the definition.
The list of guesses generated in TOT showed how subjects searched memory in lexical selection. TOT is universal, spanning all ages Can be induced in many ways, such as by giving a de
finition and seeking the proper words, showing a face and seeking names, etc.
Words related to the target often come to mind and are usually about 50 percent of TOTs are successfully resolved without about one minute.
TOT findings suggest that lexical access is a two-stage process wherein conceptual semantic and syntactic sources of information are retrieved prior to phonological information.
The slips of the tongue一天,我开车在路上,车胎没气了,问乘车同事哪里有充气的,同事说:“街上到 处都是打胎的啊!”
俺碰到一个心仪已久的女孩从澡堂里出来,想套近乎,憋了半天憋出一句:“你洗澡啊,里面男人多不多啊?”
公司养一狗叫小白。某天大家逗狗,同事甲拿着一饼干对狗说到:“小白,整个办公室只有你喂我哦。”三秒钟后,整个办公室暴笑!
有一次 , 我同学询问我另一个同学在医院是哪一科的 , 我记不太清楚了 , 觉得又像是内科又像是针灸科 , 结果就说她是 : 内疚科的 .
大学时候 , 一同学和我争论问题 , 一时处于下风 , 情急中一拍桌子起身大叫 :你胡说 , 我又不是不傻 !
一小学生 , 看到被老师点到念作文的同学 , 特别羡慕 , 总盼着老师也能让自己念一回 . 机会终于来了 ." 某某 , 把你的作文给大家念一下 ! 小学生 " 腾 " 地一下站起来 :" 我的老师 . 老师 , 我多象你的妈妈 ......"
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Evidence from slips of the tongue
Slips of the tongue as clues to the process of speech production
Lots of different varieties:Anticipations: cuff of coffee (cup of coffee)Perseverations: gave the goy (gave the boy)Exchanges: teep a cape (keep a tape)
with this wing I do red…
*note: don’t plan just one word at a time!
Evidence from slips of the tongue
Slips occur among several different sized units:• Phrases: I wouldn’t buy kids for the macadamia n
uts • Words: I have to fill up the gas with car. • Morphemes: Oh, that’s just a back trucking out. • Syllables: canpakes (pancakes), butterpiller and catt
erfly• Phonemes: fost and lound (lost and found); we’re
going to have to fart very fide (fight very hard)• Features: mity the due teacher (pity the new teacher
; nasal-stop exchange)
*suggests that speech planning is carried out a several different levels of analysis
Slips of the tongue as clues to the process of speech production
Slips can provide information about the size and structure of planning units at the various stages:
• Sound exchanges tend to occur within a clause• Word exchanges can occur across clausal boundaries• Sound exchanges respect syllable structure: onsets exchange
with onsets, rhymes with rhymes, etc., • Sound exchanges do not respect grammatical form class of
words: sounds can exchange between nouns & verbs, etc.• Word exchanges tend to respect grammatical form class, when
exchanges cross phrasal boundaries, but not when they occur within a clause
Implementing the plan: articulation Plan implementation: saying what is intended Planning and implementing plans are alternated,
as is evidenced by the alternation of hesitation and fluency in our speech. Suggesting that we tend to express a portion of our
intended message, pause to plan the next portion, articulate that portion, pause again, and so on.
Linguistic planning is very cognitively demanding and it’s hard to plan an entire utterance at once.
Where do we pause when speaking: Periods of high uncertainty Number of words from which we choose Morphological complexity Lexical ambiguity
Models of plan implementation Incremental processing
If we plan unit x before we articulate unit x, our implementation of linguistic plans is serial.
If we plan unit x+1 units before articulating unit x, the processing is parallel.
What constitute a unit? Clauses, phrases, words, syllables, phonemes? Depending on the amount of resources needed for a given p
ortion of the message An unfamiliar word A cliché or routinized phrase
Two competing viewpoints: Syntactical approach: syntactic structure is laid out in advanc
e than then content words are fitted into the structure. Lexical approach: the production process may begin with wor
ds that are conceptually accessible, which then trigger the syntactic strcture, not the other way around.
Speech monitoring
Self-repairs: overtly monitor, edit and correct our speech. Self interruption: Interrupt after an error is detected
64% of the errors were corrected Interruptions occurs very shortly after the error occurs, usuall
ty made at the first word boundary after the error Editing expressions: Utter one of the various editing e
xpressions Uh, sorry, I mean
Self repairs: Repair the utternce
Models of speech production
The Fromkin Garret Model The Levelt Model The Dell Model
The Fromkin Garret Model
Meaning to be conveyed and intentions of a speaker are chosen
Syntactic structures of the sentence and its constituent slots is created
Intonation contour and what word slots are stressed Lexical selection of content words are selected Affixes and function words are selected Phonological segmetns are selected according to phonol
ogical rules
The Levelt Model
The message level captures the intended meaning and provides output for grammatical encoding
Grammatical encoding combines functional and positional sets of information. Functional processing uses lexical selection, which captures the
lexical concepts that are appropriate to convey the intended meaning, and function assignments, which involves assignment of gramamtical roles or syntactic functions.
Positional processing creates an ordered set of word slots and inflection or morphological slots
The phonological encoding stage creates the phonological structure of the message in terms of phonological units of words.
Levelt’s (1989) “Blueprint for the Speaker”CONCEPTUALIZER
messagegeneration
monitoring
grammaticalencoding
phonologicalencoding
preverbal message
FORMULATOR
LEXICON
lemmas
forms
phonetic plan(internal speech)
ARTICULATOR AUDITION
parsed speech
discourse model,situation knowledge,
encyclopediaetc.
phonetic string
overt speech
SPEECH-COMPREHENSION
SYSTEM
surfacestructure
The Dell Model
A connectionist model of speech production Spreading activation over multiple levels of nodes Words are the main nodes in the network, with connections to
the conceptual words and then to sounds The spreading activation principle is bidirectional, permitting
interactions between semantic and phonological units. During the planning of a sentence, several nodes will be
activated at four different levels. They will remain activated for a while but will eventually degraded to zero activation.
Connectionist ModelsConnectionist Models
N
S
VP
V
NP
det N
SYNTACTIC LEVEL
WORD WORD
Sdet
SN
WORD
Stem
SV Af
MORPHOLOGICAL LEVEL
Co
SYL
RimeOn
Nu
PHONOLOGICAL LEVEL
TACTIC FRAMES
pastVN pl.
Stem
Af1 2
THESdet S
CAT
LEXICAL NETWORK
kOn
æNu
tCo
THE CAT JUMPDet N
Past
V
JUMPSV
–EDAf
-S
sCo
Plural
Af1 2
The End
Thanks.