Language, Education, and Language, Education, and The BorgThe Borg

Identity Politics and the Identity Politics and the Assimilation of Linguistic and Assimilation of Linguistic and

Cultural Minorities Cultural Minorities

Objectives for This TalkObjectives for This Talk To provide context for the discussion of To provide context for the discussion of

speech-language intervention within a speech-language intervention within a diverse population, including:diverse population, including: An examination of the distribution of languages An examination of the distribution of languages

within the U.S., focusing on the status of English within the U.S., focusing on the status of English relative to other languages.relative to other languages.

An exploration of the values which drive the An exploration of the values which drive the debate about language policy.debate about language policy.

An investigation of the intersection between An investigation of the intersection between politics and science with respect to language politics and science with respect to language policies (using AAVE as a specific example).policies (using AAVE as a specific example).

An outline of two complementary approaches to An outline of two complementary approaches to addressing linguistic differences for professionals addressing linguistic differences for professionals working with individuals from non-majority working with individuals from non-majority linguistics communities.linguistics communities.

Languages in the WorldLanguages in the World There are 5000 distinct There are 5000 distinct

languages in the world languages in the world (give or take 1000).(give or take 1000).

There are 201 distinct There are 201 distinct countries in the world countries in the world (give or take 6-8).(give or take 6-8).

With so many With so many languages and so few languages and so few countries, it is not countries, it is not surprising that…surprising that…

Nations typically contain Nations typically contain multiple linguistic multiple linguistic

communities.communities. Some extreme Some extreme

examples:examples: Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea

(850)(850) Indonesia (670)Indonesia (670) Nigeria (410)Nigeria (410) India (380)India (380) Cameroon (270)Cameroon (270) Australia (250)Australia (250)

Time for A JokeTime for A Joke

““What do you call someone who What do you call someone who speaks two languages?”speaks two languages?” ““A bilingual.”A bilingual.”

““What do you call someone who What do you call someone who speaks three languages?”speaks three languages?” ““A trilingual.”A trilingual.”

““What do you call someone who What do you call someone who speaks one language?”speaks one language?”

““An American”An American” In its history, the U.S. has been one of In its history, the U.S. has been one of

the most monolingual societies in the the most monolingual societies in the world. world.

Factors that have contributed to Factors that have contributed to monolingualism:monolingualism: Rapid expansion.Rapid expansion. Displacement of indigenous cultures and Displacement of indigenous cultures and

languages.languages. Universal education.Universal education. Mass Media (especially radio and television).Mass Media (especially radio and television).

The Dominance of EnglishThe Dominance of English

“…“…throughout all of our history as an independent throughout all of our history as an independent country…English has been our dominant language. country…English has been our dominant language. Since the founding of the British colonies in North Since the founding of the British colonies in North America, no other language has come close to America, no other language has come close to challenging or displacing English as the challenging or displacing English as the lingua lingua francafranca of the United States. English is almost the of the United States. English is almost the sole language of government and politics, it is the sole language of government and politics, it is the overwhelmingly dominant language of commerce overwhelmingly dominant language of commerce and education, and it is spoken exclusively in the and education, and it is spoken exclusively in the vast majority of homes and public spaces in civil vast majority of homes and public spaces in civil society in every region of the country.”society in every region of the country.”

Schmidt, R. (2000) Language Policy and Identity Politics in the United States.

What About Immigration?What About Immigration? America has been the America has been the

destination for millions destination for millions upon millions of non-upon millions of non-English-speaking English-speaking immigrants.immigrants. 11stst Wave (1841-1890) Wave (1841-1890)

15 million15 million 22ndnd Wave (1891-1920) Wave (1891-1920)

18 million18 million 33rdrd Wave (1960-1990) Wave (1960-1990)

30+ million30+ million

Battle, D. (1998) Communication Disorders in Multicultural Populations.

Assimilation Assimilation First generation immigrants try First generation immigrants try

to learn English, but still use to learn English, but still use mother language primarily.mother language primarily.

The second generation The second generation typically retains some fluency typically retains some fluency in speech and writing.in speech and writing.

By the third generation, By the third generation, immigrants to the U.S. have immigrants to the U.S. have typically transitioned to typically transitioned to English, and are no longer English, and are no longer fluent in their language of fluent in their language of origin.origin.

Schmidt, R. (2000) Language Policy and Identity Politics in the United States.

““You will be You will be assimilated.”assimilated.”

Things are Changing Things are Changing (Slowly)(Slowly)

The U.S. is on track to The U.S. is on track to become more like other become more like other countries in the world, countries in the world, where (at least) two where (at least) two languages with a languages with a significant number of significant number of speakers coexist within speakers coexist within a single nation.a single nation.

This graphic shows the This graphic shows the percentage of Spanish percentage of Spanish speakers in the US in speakers in the US in 1990 and 2000.1990 and 2000.

2000 Census

1990 Census

More Recent Stats: ’00-02More Recent Stats: ’00-02

There has been a lot of There has been a lot of reporting in the media reporting in the media about the growth of the about the growth of the Hispanic population.Hispanic population.

This graphic shows This graphic shows percentage of growth of percentage of growth of the Hispanic population the Hispanic population between 2000 and between 2000 and 2002.2002.

What kind of story do What kind of story do about absolute about absolute numbers tell?numbers tell?

Number of Speakers per Number of Speakers per Language in the Entire U.S.Language in the Entire U.S.

EnglishEnglish 215,423,557215,423,557

All other langs. comb. All other langs. comb. 46,951,59546,951,595

Spanish Spanish 28,101,05228,101,052

Chinese Chinese 2,022,1432,022,143 French French 1,643,8381,643,838 German German 1,383,4421,383,442 Tagalog Tagalog 1,224,2411,224,241 Vietnamese Vietnamese 1,009,6271,009,627 Italian Italian 1,008,3701,008,370 Korean Korean 894,063894,063 Russian Russian 706,242706,242 Polish Polish 667,414667,414 Arabic Arabic 614,582614,582 Portuguese Portuguese 564,630564,630 Japanese Japanese 477,997477,997 French Creole French Creole 453,368453,368 African languages African languages 418,505418,505

Greek Greek 365,436365,436 Hindi Hindi 317,057317,057 Persian Persian 312,085312,085 Urdu Urdu 262,900262,900 Gujarathi Gujarathi 235,988235,988 Serbo-Croatian Serbo-Croatian 233,865233,865 Other Native N. Am. lgs. Other Native N. Am. lgs. 203,466203,466 Armenian Armenian 202,708202,708 Hebrew Hebrew 195,374195,374 Mon-Khmer, Cambodian Mon-Khmer, Cambodian 181,889181,889 Yiddish Yiddish 178,945178,945 Navajo Navajo 178,014178,014 Miao, Hmong Miao, Hmong 168,063168,063 Scandinavian languages Scandinavian languages 162,252162,252 Laotian Laotian 149,303149,303 Thai Thai 120,464120,464 Hungarian Hungarian 117,973117,973

www.mla.org (2000 Census)

Proportion of U.S. Proportion of U.S. PopulationPopulation

Largest single minority are Spanish speakers:Largest single minority are Spanish speakers: 28 million = 11% of the total population.28 million = 11% of the total population.

No other language is spoken by more than 1% No other language is spoken by more than 1% of the population.of the population.

All languages other than English combined:All languages other than English combined: 47 million = 18% of the total population.47 million = 18% of the total population. 77% of 47 million also speak English “well” or “very 77% of 47 million also speak English “well” or “very

well.”well.” 96% of total U.S. population speaks English.96% of total U.S. population speaks English.

www.mla.org (2000 Census)

Proportion L.E.P. Speakers is Proportion L.E.P. Speakers is Greater for Younger AgesGreater for Younger Ages

Birth rates in the U.S. Birth rates in the U.S. among minority populations among minority populations are typically greater than are typically greater than the majority, English-the majority, English-speaking culture.speaking culture.

Schools are projected to Schools are projected to have a larger proportion of have a larger proportion of students who speak students who speak languages other than languages other than English. English.

Thus, while the impact of Thus, while the impact of the increase in speakers of the increase in speakers of languages other than languages other than English may be hardly English may be hardly noticeable for the noticeable for the population at large…population at large…

For SLPs and SLPAs, For SLPs and SLPAs, this information is this information is highly relevant. highly relevant.

Especially for CA and Especially for CA and TX.TX.

TrendsTrends The number of minority language The number of minority language

speakers is growing. speakers is growing. However, the number of English-However, the number of English-

proficient bilinguals is growing just as proficient bilinguals is growing just as rapidly. rapidly.

There is a direct relationship between There is a direct relationship between English proficiency and length of English proficiency and length of residence in the U.S.residence in the U.S.

The growth of the L.E.P. population is The growth of the L.E.P. population is greater for younger (i.e., school age) greater for younger (i.e., school age) population.population.

Yet, Language Policy is a Very Yet, Language Policy is a Very Contentious IssueContentious Issue

"Tragically, many "Tragically, many immigrants these days immigrants these days refuse to learn English! refuse to learn English! They never become They never become productive members of productive members of society. They remain society. They remain stuck in a linguistic stuck in a linguistic and economic ghetto, and economic ghetto, many living off welfare many living off welfare and costing working and costing working Americans millions of Americans millions of tax dollars every tax dollars every year." year." – English First – English First fundraising letterfundraising letter

"there is no evidence "there is no evidence that there will be long-that there will be long-term advantages or term advantages or disadvantages to disadvantages to teaching limited-teaching limited-English students in the English students in the native language" native language" (Glenn 1997) (Glenn 1997)

…”…”when well-when well-developed, [multiple developed, [multiple language skills] seem language skills] seem to provide cognitive to provide cognitive advantages.” (Hakuta advantages.” (Hakuta 1986)1986)

Language Policy in the Language Policy in the CourtsCourts

Currently, 27 States Currently, 27 States have passed “English have passed “English Only” laws. Only” laws. Two States have Two States have

had laws overturned had laws overturned by the courts.by the courts.

Four States have Four States have laws that specify laws that specify two official two official languages languages (including WA).(including WA).

www.englishfirst.org

The Question is: Why?The Question is: Why?

If English is so dominant as the If English is so dominant as the language of the land, what is this language of the land, what is this “English Only” business all about?“English Only” business all about?

English is under no threat of being English is under no threat of being overthrown as the primary language overthrown as the primary language of the US.of the US.

So why create legislation to enforce a So why create legislation to enforce a situation that already appears to be situation that already appears to be the case?the case?

What Are the Values Being What Are the Values Being Expressed?Expressed?

““Pluralists” focus on: Pluralists” focus on: Individual social justice and oppression.Individual social justice and oppression. Preservation of culture.Preservation of culture.

““Assimilationists” focus on:Assimilationists” focus on: Unity and the greater good for society Unity and the greater good for society

as a whole.as a whole. Advantages of participation in majority Advantages of participation in majority

culture.culture.

Schmidt, R. (2000) Language Policy and Identity Politics in the United States.

Pluralists: Loss of Language = Pluralists: Loss of Language = Loss of CultureLoss of Culture

Language is the main vehicle for culture.Language is the main vehicle for culture. As a people lose their language, they As a people lose their language, they

lose the culturally unique rituals and lose the culturally unique rituals and customs.customs.

They lose access to the literature, They lose access to the literature, stories, and history that is encoded in stories, and history that is encoded in the traditional language.the traditional language.

These cultural connections should be These cultural connections should be protected through the maintenance of protected through the maintenance of language.language.

Pluralists: Social JusticePluralists: Social Justice

Pluralists are also Pluralists are also concerned about concerned about issues like:issues like: Voting in a native Voting in a native

language.language. Education in native Education in native

language.language. Access to essential Access to essential

services such as services such as health care.health care.

Assimilationists: What is an Assimilationists: What is an American?American?

What defines us?What defines us? Not race.Not race. Not ethnicity.Not ethnicity. Not culture.Not culture. Not history.Not history. Not religion.Not religion.

The only thing that we have that binds us The only thing that we have that binds us together is our common language.together is our common language.

Assimilationists: English is the Assimilationists: English is the Glue that Holds Us TogetherGlue that Holds Us Together

Because English is so dominant in the Because English is so dominant in the U.S., it has been possible to identify U.S., it has been possible to identify “American” with speaker of English.“American” with speaker of English.

The cohesion of the U.S. depends on The cohesion of the U.S. depends on the continued status of English as the the continued status of English as the dominant language.dominant language.

Without English to bind us, the U.S. Without English to bind us, the U.S. would disintegrate because nothing would disintegrate because nothing else holds it together.else holds it together.

The Complexity of the The Complexity of the Assimilationist PositionAssimilationist Position

It would be an oversimplification to say It would be an oversimplification to say that the assimiliationist position is just a that the assimiliationist position is just a product of xenophobia.product of xenophobia.

Members of immigrant and minority Members of immigrant and minority populations are often strong advocates of populations are often strong advocates of an “English Only” policy (e.g., Linda an “English Only” policy (e.g., Linda Chavez).Chavez).

They want their children to benefit from They want their children to benefit from the advantages of being fluent in the the advantages of being fluent in the dominant language.dominant language.

They feel that the traditional language will They feel that the traditional language will limit their children’s ability to advance and limit their children’s ability to advance and succeed in the majority culture.succeed in the majority culture.

From a Linguist’s From a Linguist’s PerspectivePerspective

The word “English” itself has at least The word “English” itself has at least two separate meanings:two separate meanings: It may refer to a dialect that is dominant It may refer to a dialect that is dominant

within a country. within a country. ““English is the language of the U.S.”English is the language of the U.S.”

It may also refer to a group of related It may also refer to a group of related dialects, none of which has the status as dialects, none of which has the status as the standard “language”. the standard “language”.

““English is spoken in many parts of the English is spoken in many parts of the world.”world.”

““Language” is a Language” is a Fuzzy ConceptFuzzy Concept

This is not an unusual This is not an unusual situation in science:situation in science: Is Greenland a large island Is Greenland a large island

or a small continent?or a small continent? Is light a particle or a Is light a particle or a

wave?wave? Is Pluto a planet with a Is Pluto a planet with a

large orbit or an asteroid large orbit or an asteroid with a small orbit?with a small orbit?

Language vs. DialectLanguage vs. Dialect

In China, there are In China, there are many dialects.many dialects.

Some dialects are not Some dialects are not mutually intelligible.mutually intelligible. Mandarin-Cantonese:Mandarin-Cantonese:

46.5% mutual 46.5% mutual intelligibilityintelligibility

(www.glossika.com)(www.glossika.com)

Yet, we still call it all Yet, we still call it all the “Chinese” the “Chinese” Language.Language.

Language vs. DialectLanguage vs. Dialect When we compare When we compare

German and Dutch, German and Dutch, the boundaries the boundaries between languages between languages are not so clear.are not so clear.

Eastern Dutch and Eastern Dutch and Low German have Low German have dialects that have dialects that have very high mutually very high mutually intelligibility. intelligibility.

Yet, we call them Yet, we call them separate languages.separate languages.

Dialects in the U.S.Dialects in the U.S.

From a Linguist’s From a Linguist’s PerspectivePerspective

The distinction The distinction between “dialect” between “dialect” and “language” is and “language” is largely not scientific.largely not scientific.

Linguists don’t spend Linguists don’t spend their time their time establishing which establishing which dialects get to be dialects get to be called “a language”.called “a language”.

Such distinctions are Such distinctions are essentially a political essentially a political decision.decision.

Linguistic vs. PoliticalLinguistic vs. Political Linguists answer this problem by Linguists answer this problem by

assuming that everyone speaks a assuming that everyone speaks a dialect. dialect.

A dialect may also happen to be A dialect may also happen to be “language”.“language”.

““Language” is label that usually gets Language” is label that usually gets associated which the dialect that has associated which the dialect that has the most power.the most power.

How Does a Dialect BecomeHow Does a Dialect Become a Language? a Language?

They become the most important They become the most important dialect for certain activities:dialect for certain activities: BusinessBusiness EducationEducation GovernmentGovernment ReligionReligion

Some dialects acquire high status for Some dialects acquire high status for cultural reasons.cultural reasons.

Standard American English Standard American English (SAE)(SAE)

Is a dialect.Is a dialect. Is the dominant dialect in the U.S.Is the dominant dialect in the U.S. SAE is a dialect with the full backing SAE is a dialect with the full backing

of the state.of the state. Thus, we call it a “language.”Thus, we call it a “language.” A “language” is a dialect with an A “language” is a dialect with an

army and a navy.army and a navy.

-- A Brief Summary ---- A Brief Summary -- Language Policy is an issue that is highly Language Policy is an issue that is highly

polarized.polarized. The issue involves several concepts that The issue involves several concepts that

are a bit slippery (language, dialect).are a bit slippery (language, dialect). There are a lot of underlying values and There are a lot of underlying values and

emotions that are being tapped by this emotions that are being tapped by this issue.issue.

We have a media that tends to We have a media that tends to oversimplify complex scientific issues and oversimplify complex scientific issues and dramatize conflict.dramatize conflict.

Sounds like a recipe for Sounds like a recipe for misunderstanding, right?misunderstanding, right?

A Test: EbonicsA Test: Ebonics

In 1996, the Oakland Unified School In 1996, the Oakland Unified School District declared that children entering District declared that children entering school speak a separate and distinct school speak a separate and distinct language called “Ebonics.”language called “Ebonics.”

The OUSD proposed to use Ebonics as The OUSD proposed to use Ebonics as a bridge language to introduce reading, a bridge language to introduce reading, transitioning children gradually to transitioning children gradually to Standard American English (SAE).Standard American English (SAE).

AAVEAAVE ““Ebonics” is a neologism created out Ebonics” is a neologism created out

of two words: “ebony” and “phonics”.of two words: “ebony” and “phonics”. Ebonics refers to a dialect of English Ebonics refers to a dialect of English

that linguists refer to as African that linguists refer to as African American Vernacular English (AAVE)American Vernacular English (AAVE)

AAVE is the most different of all the AAVE is the most different of all the dialects of English spoken in dialects of English spoken in continental North America. continental North America.

William LabovWilliam Labov

““Research in New York, Research in New York, Philadelphia, Washington, Philadelphia, Washington, Florida, Chicago, Texas, Los Florida, Chicago, Texas, Los Angeles, and San Francisco Angeles, and San Francisco shows a remarkably uniform shows a remarkably uniform grammar spoken by African grammar spoken by African Americans who live and work Americans who live and work primarily with other African primarily with other African Americans. Repeated studies by Americans. Repeated studies by teams of black and white teams of black and white researchers show that about researchers show that about 60% of the African American 60% of the African American residents of the inner city speak residents of the inner city speak this dialect in its purest form at this dialect in its purest form at home and with intimate friends.”home and with intimate friends.”

(Testimony submitted to Congress, 1997)

AAVEAAVE

AAVE is characterized by the AAVE is characterized by the following features:following features: Word-Final Consonant Cluster Word-Final Consonant Cluster

Reduction.Reduction. Absence of 3Absence of 3rdrd Person Singular “-s”. Person Singular “-s”. Multiple Negation.Multiple Negation. Copula DeletionCopula Deletion Habitual “be”. Habitual “be”.

Word-Final Consonant Cluster Word-Final Consonant Cluster ReductionReduction

In SAE, reduction is possible when the In SAE, reduction is possible when the following word begins with a consonant:following word begins with a consonant: cold cutscold cuts best kindbest kind

In AAVE, it is also possible to reduce when In AAVE, it is also possible to reduce when the following word begins with a vowel:the following word begins with a vowel: cold eggscold eggs best applebest apple

Compare to consonant deletion in French.Compare to consonant deletion in French.

Absence of 3Absence of 3rdrd Person Singular Person Singular “-s”“-s”

In AAVE, there is an absence of the In AAVE, there is an absence of the suffix “-s” in the following contexts:suffix “-s” in the following contexts:

He He needneed to get a book from the shelf. to get a book from the shelf. She She wantwant us to pass the papers to the us to pass the papers to the

front.front.

Multiple NegationMultiple Negation

In SAE, (a) can be negated by (b) or (c):In SAE, (a) can be negated by (b) or (c): a. I had some lunch.a. I had some lunch. b. I didn’t have any lunch.b. I didn’t have any lunch. c. I had no lunch.c. I had no lunch.

In AAVE, multiple negation is possible:In AAVE, multiple negation is possible: d. I didn’t have no lunch.d. I didn’t have no lunch.

Compare with the Russian or French:Compare with the Russian or French: I never not eat (Russian)I never not eat (Russian) I no have not eaten. (French)I no have not eaten. (French)

Copula DeletionCopula Deletion

The verb “to be” can be deleted The verb “to be” can be deleted under certain conditions in AAVE:under certain conditions in AAVE:

SAE:SAE:He is nice/He’s niceHe is nice/He’s niceThey are mine/They’re mine.They are mine/They’re mine.I am going to do it/I am going to do it/I’m gonna do it.I’m gonna do it.

AAVE:AAVE:He nice.He nice.They mine.They mine.I gonna do it.I gonna do it.

Compare with copula deletion in Compare with copula deletion in Russian or many Creoles.Russian or many Creoles.

Habitual “be”Habitual “be” Where SAE uses “always” or “usually”, Where SAE uses “always” or “usually”,

AAVE can employ habitual “be”:AAVE can employ habitual “be”:

SAE:SAE:The coffee is always The coffee is always cold.cold.Sometimes I get angry.Sometimes I get angry.She is late everyday.She is late everyday.

AAVE:AAVE:The coffee be cold.The coffee be cold.Sometimes I be Sometimes I be angry.angry.She be late She be late everyday.everyday. Compare with Spanish.Compare with Spanish.

Armando es borracho.Armando es borracho. Armando esta borracho.Armando esta borracho.

The Status of AAVEThe Status of AAVE

Linguistic comparison reveals that Linguistic comparison reveals that AAVE:AAVE: Is regular and systematic.Is regular and systematic. Has developed constructions to express Has developed constructions to express

meanings in a highly efficient manner. meanings in a highly efficient manner. Exhibits structural similarities to other Exhibits structural similarities to other

well-studied language such as French, well-studied language such as French, Russian, and many Creoles.Russian, and many Creoles.

What If…What If…

From a linguistic point of view, all From a linguistic point of view, all dialects are equal.dialects are equal.

The selection of the “standard The selection of the “standard dialect” is a political concern.dialect” is a political concern.

For example, if African Americans For example, if African Americans were the majority culture in the U.S., were the majority culture in the U.S., then AAVE would be the standard then AAVE would be the standard language of the country.language of the country.

The Logic of EbonicsThe Logic of Ebonics

The OUSD wanted to recognize that The OUSD wanted to recognize that the children in their schools speak a the children in their schools speak a dialect that is significantly different dialect that is significantly different from SAE. from SAE.

Traditional educational practices Traditional educational practices tend to treat African-American tend to treat African-American Vernacular English as a deficient Vernacular English as a deficient form of SAE rather than as an form of SAE rather than as an independent dialect. independent dialect.

The Logic of EbonicsThe Logic of Ebonics There is evidence that treating a dialect like There is evidence that treating a dialect like

AAVE as a distinct “language” actually AAVE as a distinct “language” actually improves children’s ability to differentiate improves children’s ability to differentiate between their own dialect and the standard between their own dialect and the standard dialect (SAE).dialect (SAE).

The strategy seeks to eliminate the The strategy seeks to eliminate the confusion/frustration that arises among confusion/frustration that arises among children who speak AAVE from being told that children who speak AAVE from being told that their language is English, but not “correct” their language is English, but not “correct” English.English.

Validating the language as they speak it allows Validating the language as they speak it allows children to acquire a different dialect (SAE) children to acquire a different dialect (SAE) without losing or denying their primary dialect. without losing or denying their primary dialect.

Additional MotivationsAdditional Motivations While not explicit in the While not explicit in the

OUSD statement, it is OUSD statement, it is desirable to have an desirable to have an accurate understanding accurate understanding of the grammar that of the grammar that children actually know children actually know and use in order to and use in order to begin teaching a begin teaching a significantly different significantly different dialect.dialect.

Educators need to know what to teach and Educators need to know what to teach and what not to teach.what not to teach.

Research on ReadingResearch on Reading

Learning to read means Learning to read means mastering the mastering the relationship between relationship between speech sounds and speech sounds and spelling. spelling.

The sound system of The sound system of AAVE is significantly AAVE is significantly different than that of different than that of SAE.SAE.

Educators need to be Educators need to be aware of this aware of this information, and who it information, and who it applies to.applies to.

Once Again: Values Drive Once Again: Values Drive the Debatethe Debate

The underlying values that drive the The underlying values that drive the debate are strongly held.debate are strongly held.

Language is so important for so Language is so important for so many reasons, and people care many reasons, and people care about it intensely.about it intensely.

The underlying values, and hence the The underlying values, and hence the debate, are not going to change debate, are not going to change quickly.quickly.

Reactions to EbonicsReactions to Ebonics PluralistsPluralists: focus on the : focus on the

possibility of designing possibility of designing better educational practice better educational practice by recognizing the validity by recognizing the validity of the language that of the language that children speak when they children speak when they come to school.come to school.

AssimilationistsAssimilationists: focus on : focus on the danger of elevating the the danger of elevating the dialect to the status of a dialect to the status of a “language”, fearing that this “language”, fearing that this approach may undermine approach may undermine the motivation to learn the the motivation to learn the standard dialect, resulting in standard dialect, resulting in reduced opportunity and reduced opportunity and isolation. isolation.

Labov (Again)Labov (Again) ““At the heart of the controversy, there are two At the heart of the controversy, there are two

major points of view taken by educators. One is major points of view taken by educators. One is that any recognition of a nonstandard language that any recognition of a nonstandard language as a legitimate means of expression will only as a legitimate means of expression will only confuse children, and reinforce their tendency to confuse children, and reinforce their tendency to use it instead of standard English. The other is use it instead of standard English. The other is that children learn most rapidly in their home that children learn most rapidly in their home language and that they can benefit in both language and that they can benefit in both motivation and achievement by getting a head motivation and achievement by getting a head start in learning to read and write in this way. start in learning to read and write in this way. Both of these views are honestly held and Both of these views are honestly held and deserve a fair hearing. But until now, only the deserve a fair hearing. But until now, only the first has been tried in the American public school first has been tried in the American public school system. The essence of the Oakland school board system. The essence of the Oakland school board resolution is that the first method has not resolution is that the first method has not succeeded and that the second deserves a trial.”succeeded and that the second deserves a trial.”

(Testimony submitted to Congress, 1997)

What’s Our Role?What’s Our Role? As professionals working directly with speech As professionals working directly with speech

and language, we must take linguistic and language, we must take linguistic difference into account.difference into account.

In particular, we must take extreme care not In particular, we must take extreme care not to confuse difference with delay or disorder.to confuse difference with delay or disorder.

Intrinsic features of a different cultural or Intrinsic features of a different cultural or linguistic system can be mistaken for linguistic system can be mistaken for immature or disordered approximations of the immature or disordered approximations of the standard dialect.standard dialect.

Culturally appropriate practice requires that Culturally appropriate practice requires that assessment and intervention techniques take assessment and intervention techniques take into account these differences in the into account these differences in the population.population.

Culturally Appropriate Culturally Appropriate PracticePractice

Two approaches:Two approaches: The Cultural Competence Approach.The Cultural Competence Approach.

While all cultures contain a degree of While all cultures contain a degree of variation, there are some common features variation, there are some common features that clinicians can become aware of.that clinicians can become aware of.

The Linguistically Neutral Approach.The Linguistically Neutral Approach. The core features of language are invariant. The core features of language are invariant.

If we focus on these features, we will remain If we focus on these features, we will remain culturally neutral.culturally neutral.

Cultural CompetenceCultural Competence ““Clinicians should understand and Clinicians should understand and

value the differences that exist among value the differences that exist among clients and should develop an clients and should develop an awareness of the cultural, verbal, and awareness of the cultural, verbal, and nonverbal factors that influence the nonverbal factors that influence the clinical situation. In developing a clinical situation. In developing a cultural awareness, the clinician should cultural awareness, the clinician should ask, ‘what can I do to serve this client ask, ‘what can I do to serve this client in a culturally appropriate manner?’” in a culturally appropriate manner?’”

Battle, D. (1998) Communication Disorders in Multicultural Populations.

Cultural CompetenceCultural Competence Cultural competence entails:Cultural competence entails:

Examining one’s own cultural/linguistic Examining one’s own cultural/linguistic background, and how that is perceived by the background, and how that is perceived by the population you are working with.population you are working with.

Learning culturally specific information about Learning culturally specific information about the population you are working with. the population you are working with.

Understanding the socio-political context that is Understanding the socio-political context that is relevant for that cultural/linguistic group.relevant for that cultural/linguistic group.

This approach is useful even when the This approach is useful even when the language/dialect is not different but the language/dialect is not different but the culture is (i.e., Native American population).culture is (i.e., Native American population).

Linguistically Neutral Linguistically Neutral Assessment and InterventionAssessment and Intervention

The second approach is to identify The second approach is to identify practices that are neutral with respect practices that are neutral with respect to the cultural variables that have to the cultural variables that have been discussed.been discussed.

Linguistic research has shown that Linguistic research has shown that some aspects of language are some aspects of language are universal.universal.

Selective attention to universal Selective attention to universal aspects may avoid culturally specific aspects may avoid culturally specific features of language.features of language.

The Logic of the Linguistically The Logic of the Linguistically Neutral ApproachNeutral Approach

““Modern linguistics has revealed that linguistic Modern linguistics has revealed that linguistic knowledge can be discovered in ‘hidden’ properties of knowledge can be discovered in ‘hidden’ properties of sentences. Even mature adults are not aware they sentences. Even mature adults are not aware they know and use ‘hidden’ rules. In the future, language know and use ‘hidden’ rules. In the future, language assessment tests for children should incorporate assessment tests for children should incorporate these insights to provide a deeper analysis of what these insights to provide a deeper analysis of what children know and don’t know. We argue that these children know and don’t know. We argue that these properties are key to accurate diagnosis and maximal properties are key to accurate diagnosis and maximal intervention. Previous language assessment tools intervention. Previous language assessment tools focus primarily on outdated and low-level descriptive focus primarily on outdated and low-level descriptive accounts of language.”accounts of language.”

de Villiers, J., de Villiers, P., Pearson, B., Roeper, T., & Seymour, H. (2004) “Raising the Standard: New Approaches for Language Assessment”

Universal Features of Universal Features of LanguageLanguage

Grammatical processes that are Grammatical processes that are neutral with respect to culture:neutral with respect to culture: Lexical development (Fast Lexical development (Fast

Mapping)Mapping) Wh-questions (Subjacency)Wh-questions (Subjacency) Definite articles (Presuppositions)Definite articles (Presuppositions) Passives (Agent Restrictions)Passives (Agent Restrictions)

Lexical Development Lexical Development (Fast Mapping)(Fast Mapping)

Children learn the meanings of words Children learn the meanings of words in context by eliminating possible in context by eliminating possible meanings that they already have a meanings that they already have a word for.word for. For example: “He is mooping.”For example: “He is mooping.” When prompted, children will choose a When prompted, children will choose a

picture depicting a novel action as the picture depicting a novel action as the meaning of this utterance rather than a meaning of this utterance rather than a familiar action that already has a familiar action that already has a corresponding verb. corresponding verb.

Wh-questions (Subjacency)Wh-questions (Subjacency)

““Two cousins went to the zoo. A funny monkey Two cousins went to the zoo. A funny monkey came and tickled the little girl’s nose with his came and tickled the little girl’s nose with his tail. She sneezed very hard, and the monkey’s tail. She sneezed very hard, and the monkey’s hat blew right off! After the zoo, the cousins hat blew right off! After the zoo, the cousins went to buy some ice cream. The little girl ate went to buy some ice cream. The little girl ate her ice-cream with a spoon, but the big cousin her ice-cream with a spoon, but the big cousin ate hers from a cone.”ate hers from a cone.”

““How did the girl who sneezed eat the ice How did the girl who sneezed eat the ice cream?”cream?”

Answer: “With a spoon.” Not: “Very hard.”Answer: “With a spoon.” Not: “Very hard.”

Definite Articles Definite Articles (Discourse Knowledge)(Discourse Knowledge)

““A bird and a snake were sitting on a A bird and a snake were sitting on a rock. They were friends. One of rock. They were friends. One of them flew away. them flew away.

““Which one flew away?”Which one flew away?”

Answer: “the bird,” not “a bird.”Answer: “the bird,” not “a bird.”

Passives (Agent Passives (Agent Restrictions)Restrictions)

The present tense passive construction is The present tense passive construction is ambiguous:ambiguous: ““The bear is washed.”The bear is washed.” Could refer to a variety of situations, including Could refer to a variety of situations, including

the bear washing itself.the bear washing itself. In the progressive tense, the passive no In the progressive tense, the passive no

longer has this ambiguity:longer has this ambiguity: ““The bear is being washed.”The bear is being washed.” This sentence only allows a reading in which This sentence only allows a reading in which

the bear is not doing the washing.the bear is not doing the washing.

Culturally Neutral Culturally Neutral AssessmentAssessment

For the all of the items just For the all of the items just described, SAE and AAVE speaking described, SAE and AAVE speaking children who are typically developing children who are typically developing will score equally well.will score equally well.

Children of either dialect who are Children of either dialect who are experiencing a language disorder will experiencing a language disorder will show significantly lower scores.show significantly lower scores.

A Complementary ApproachA Complementary Approach The two approaches to culturally appropriate The two approaches to culturally appropriate

practice are not mutually exclusive.practice are not mutually exclusive. The best approach includes the use of both The best approach includes the use of both

kinds of information.kinds of information. Culturally specific information and Culturally specific information and

understanding of socio-political context are understanding of socio-political context are crucial for appropriate communication.crucial for appropriate communication.

Dialect neutral techniques that measure core Dialect neutral techniques that measure core features of language are crucial for accurate features of language are crucial for accurate assessment and effective intervention.assessment and effective intervention.

ConclusionsConclusions The Borg will not disappear.The Borg will not disappear.

Immigrants will continue to be assimilated into Immigrants will continue to be assimilated into the majority language.the majority language.

For social, cultural, and public policy For social, cultural, and public policy reasons, the debate will continue about reasons, the debate will continue about preservation of and accommodations for preservation of and accommodations for minority languages.minority languages. The values underlying this debate show no sign The values underlying this debate show no sign

of shifting.of shifting. As language professionals, we have a As language professionals, we have a

special obligation to accommodate speakers special obligation to accommodate speakers of non-majority languages.of non-majority languages. The appropriate education and livelihood of The appropriate education and livelihood of

whole populations depend on the accurate whole populations depend on the accurate identification of and appropriate intervention for identification of and appropriate intervention for speech and language disorder. speech and language disorder.

Contact InformationContact Information

Rick McKinnon, Ph.D., CCC-SLPRick McKinnon, Ph.D., CCC-SLP

The Evergreen State CollegeThe Evergreen State College

Olympia, WA 98504Olympia, WA 98504

(253) 471-2727(253) 471-2727

web: www.asapc.orgweb: www.asapc.org

email: rickm@asapc.orgemail: rickm@asapc.org