London Review of Education DOI1018546LRE14210Volume14Number2September2016
Language planning and education of adult immigrants in Canada Contrasting the provinces of Quebec and British Columbia and the cities of Montreal and Vancouver
CatherineEllysonBem amp Co
CarolineAndrewandRichardCleacutementUniversity of Ottawa
CombiningpolicyanalysiswithlanguagepolicyandplanninganalysisourarticlecomparativelyassessestwomodelsofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationintwoverydifferentprovincesofthesamefederalcountryInordertodosowefocusspecificallyontwoquestionslsquoWhydogovernmentsprovidelanguageeducationtoadultsrsquoandlsquoHow is itprovidedintheconcretesettingof twoof thebiggestcities inCanadarsquoBeyonddescribing the twomodelsofadultimmigrantsrsquo language education in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largestcitiesourarticleponderswhetherandinwhatsensedemographylanguagehistoryandthecommonfederalframeworkcanexplainthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetwoThesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchunderstandingwilleventuallyallowforproperreformsintermsofcitiesrsquoresponsibilitiesregardingimmigration
Keywords multilingualcitiesmulticulturalismadulteducationimmigrationlanguagelaws
Introduction
Canada is a very large country with much variation between provinces and cities in manydimensionsOnesuchaspectwhichremainsacurrenthottopicfordemographicandhistoricalreasons is languagemorespecificallywhyandhow languageplanningandpolicyareenactedthroughoutthecountryWhereastheprovinceofQuebecanditsmostimportantcityndashMontrealndashhasFrenchastheonlyofficiallanguagethefederalgovernmenthasbothEnglishandFrenchandmostprovincesandcitieshaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguageFurthermore213percentofCanadians781percentofQueacutebeacutecoisand13percentofBritishColumbianshaveFrenchastheirmothertongue(StatisticsCanada2011a)
LinguisticdiversityacrossCanadaisfurtherincreasedasaresultofcontinuinghighratesofimmigrationIndeedduringthepastdecadeCanadahasmaintainedoneofthehighestpercapitaimmigrationratesintheworld(CIC2012)Closeto250000immigrantsarriveeachyearsettlingmostlyintheprovincesofOntario(42percentin2012)Quebec(19percentin2012)andBritishColumbia(16percentin2012)(ibid)andinthecitiesofToronto(32percentin2010)Montreal(17percentin2010)andVancouver(14percentin2010)(FCM2011)Asof2011more thanone infiveCanadians (206percent)were foreign-born aproportionwellaboveotherG8countrieslikeGermanyandtheUnitedStates(botharound13percentin2010)(StatisticsCanada2011b)
Correspondingauthorndashemailrclementuottawaca copyCopyright2016EllysonAndrewandCleacutementThis isanOpenAccessarticledistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicencewhichpermitsunrestrictedusedistributionandreproductioninanymediumprovidedtheoriginalauthorandsourcearecredited
London Review of Education 135
Such high rates of immigration imply that important efforts and resources need to beinvestedinthesettlementandintegrationofnewcomersincludinginprovidingeducationinthelocallanguageIndeedmanystudiesemphasizehowlocallanguageproficiencyisacrucialpartofintegrationinthevariousspheresoflife(egseeAdamuti-Trache2012)includinginrelationtotransportationandhousing(Kilbrideet al2011)tothejobmarket(DerwingandWaugh2012Chiswick2008)andtohealthcare(Nget al2011Battagliniet al2007GagnonandSaillant2000Olazabalet al2010SouliegraveresandOuellette2012)
WhileCanadianprovincesoperatewithinonesinglerelativelyinfluentialfederalstructuretheirdemographyandlinguistichistoryvaryinsuchawaythatonewouldconfidentlyexpectimportant variation inprovincesrsquo languagepolicies and inwhy andhow languageeducation isprovided to adult immigrants Moreover the Canadian constitution allocates education as aprovincialjurisdictionandimmigrationasasharedjurisdictionbetweenthefederalandprovincialgovernments
TakingintoconsiderationthecontextualelementsatplayourarticledescribesandtriestounderstandthesimilaritiesanddifferencesastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsintwoverydifferentprovincesandtheirbiggestcitiesndashtheprovinceofQuebecandthecityofMontrealandtheprovinceofBritishColumbiaandthecityofVancouver
Comparing adult immigrantsrsquo language education Framework approach and context
InthisfirstsectionwepresenttheanalyticalframeworkourapproachtotheresearchquestionsandthemaincontextualelementsatplaytounderstandvariationsinlanguagepolicyandplanninginCanada
The analytical framework
AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationsitsatthecrossroadsofvariouspolicydomainscitizenshipandimmigrationeducationeconomicpolicyandemployabilityAsGazzolaandGrinputitlsquojustlikepublicpoliciesarearesponsetoldquopublicproblemsrdquo languagepoliciescanbeviewedasaresponse toldquolanguageproblemsrsquorsquorsquo (20105)Asonecomponentofabroader languagepolicyadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationcanbeassessedasanyotherpublicpolicythatisinrelationto thedifferentphasesof thepolicyprocesspolicy formulation implementationcompliancereaction evaluationmodification (Morris 2010 379ndash83) Similarly researchers in the fieldoflanguage policy and planning asklsquoWhat actors attempt to influencewhat behaviour ofwhichpeopleforwhatendsunderwhatconditionsbywhatmeansthroughwhatdecision-making processwithwhateffectsrsquo(Cooper19898)Amongthemainandcentralgoalsofusingcomparativeapproachesisthatoflsquoassessingrivalexplanationsrsquoonagivenpublicpolicy(Collier1993105)
The approach
InordertoassessthetwomodelsofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationourarticlefocusesspecificallyontwoquestionslsquoWhydogovernmentsprovidelanguageeducationtoadultsrsquoandlsquoHowisitprovidedintheconcretesettingoftwoofthelargestcitiesinCanadarsquo
136 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Why
AreportbytheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipdefinessettlementandintegrationasacontinuumthatinvolvesmeetingtheneedsoftheimmigrants(iehousingeducationnutritionandhealthcare)fullandgratifyingparticipationinthelabourmarketandorlocaleconomycivicandcommunityparticipation anda senseofbelonging in thecommunity (Murphy201011)Similarly Omidvar and Richmond (2003) define social integration as the lsquorealization of fullandequalparticipationintheeconomicsocialculturalandpoliticaldimensionsoflifein[theimmigrantsrsquo]newcountryrsquo(DerwingandWaugh20123)Inevaluatingresearchonwhylanguageeducation isprovided to immigrantsweprimarilynote thatproficiency in the local languageisonevery importantaspectofsettlementand integration Indeedthelsquolackofknowledgeofone ofCanadarsquos official languageswas still themost serious problem faced by refugees andothereconomicimmigrants4yearsafterlandingrsquo(Xue2007asquotedbyDerwingandWaugh20127)Moreoverlsquoacriticalingredientofnewcomersrsquoactiveparticipationinthehostsocietyaretheirlanguageskillsrsquo(Adamuti-Trache2012103)Inshortthreemainstreamsofreasonsastowhylanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrantsarefoundintheliteraturendashthatisreasonsrelatingto(1)citizenshipandnationalism(2)jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsofimmigrationand(3)socialwelfareandintegration(Cleghorn 2000)
First local language competency is often amarker of national identity andor belonging(Clarkson 2014) and thusproficiency in the local language is conceivedas aprerequisite inordertolsquounderstandthenormsofthehostsociety[andto]likelygrowasenseofattachmentto[thehost society]rsquo(Adamuti-Trache2012109)AsSimpsonandWhitesideput itlsquotheonenationonelanguageideologyisinterlacedwithotherbeliefsaboutnationalidentityforexamplethe ideal that thenation state shouldbe ashomogeneous aspossible and that adimensionof that homogeneity ismonolingualismrsquo (2015 2) Following this ideology proficiency in thelocal language alonewould allow full belonging and participation in the community FurtherimmigrationndashandthuslocallanguageeducationndashisrelatedtocitizenshipandnationalisminthecontextofdecliningfertilityandcurrentpopulationageingAbodyofliteraturendashoftenwrittenby francophones fromQuebec Ontario and New Brunswick ndash stresses the importance offrancophoneimmigrationandoflinguisticandsocialintegrationofimmigrantsintofrancophonecommunitiesinstoppingthesteadydemographicdeclineofthesecommunitiesinCanada(egseeBelkhodja2008Bursteinet al2014Ferron2008Fourot2016FraserandBoileau2014MarmenetCorbeil1999VatzLaaroussi2008)InordertoachievethisobjectivehowevernotonlydoimmigrantshavetochooseFrenchastheirpreferredofficiallanguagendashandeventuallyfortheirlinguistictransferndashbuttheyhavetostayinQuebecorinotherfrancophonecommunitiesLearningthelocallanguagewouldthusbeafirststepforimmigrantstocontributeinthisgrandcollectiveobjectiveForotherauthorslsquoadesiretolearnCanadarsquostwoofficiallanguagesmaybegroundedinimmigrantsrsquopursuitofastrongersenseofbelongingrsquo(BurtonandPhipps2010asquotedbyMadyandTurnbull2012132)orofgreatereconomicwellbeing(PicotandSweetman2005ibid)
Second adult immigrantsrsquo language education is often justified as crucial in achievingimmigrantsrsquofulleconomicpotentialIntegrationonthejobmarkethasoftenbeensingledoutasthemostimportantaspectofimmigrantsrsquointegrationintotheirnewsocietyStudiesshowthatimmigrantsrsquogreaterlocallinguisticskillsareassociatedwithfewerdifficultiesfindingajobandhigherearningsandproductivity(Chiswick2008)Anotherreportstatesthatin2003inCanadatheemploymentratesforindividualswithpoorandweakliteracyinthelocallanguagewere57percentand70percentrespectivelylsquocomparedto76forthedesiredlevelofliteracyrsquo(TDBankFinancialGroup200911)Finallyeconomistsarguethatgreaterlocallinguisticskillsare
London Review of Education 137
associatedwithincreasedproductivityofotherinvestmentinhumancapitalincludingeducationandtraining(Chiswick2008)
Thethirdmainsetofreasonsforproviding languageeducationtoadult immigrants isasaprerequisiteforgreatersocialwelfareandintegrationinthecommunityOneelementoftenemphasized in the literature ishowa lackofknowledgeorproficiency in the local languageis connected to smaller and less diversified personal networks (Rose 2006Thomas 2011)Thesenetworksconveypoorer information leading todisadvantages in a varietyof spheresDamarisRose(2006)arguesforexamplethatimmigrantswithsmallerandmoreundiversifiednetworkshavegreaterdifficultiesfindingsuitablehousingProficiencyinthelocallanguagealsohaspositivebenefitswithregardtoeducationParentsrsquolinguisticskillshavebeenassociatedwitha similar levelof successat school in theirchildren (GouvernementduQueacutebec2014TCRI2011) Further a higher level of language proficiency is associatedwith greater engagementinpost-secondaryeducationuponarrival(Adamuti-Trache2012109)whichinturnprovidesgreaterjobsandsocialintegrationopportunities(DerwingandWaugh20127)Lowlevelsoflocallanguageskillsalsohavenegativeimpactsonself-reportedhealth(Nget al201119)andonimmigrantsrsquoaccesstothehealthcaresystem(Battagliniet al2007GagnonandSaillant2000Olazabalet al2010SouliegraveresandOuellette2012)Lowlanguageproficiencyisalsoidentifiedasariskfactoroffamilyviolenceamongimmigrantwomen(Ahmadet al2004Rinfret-Raynoret al20136)Finallystudiesshowthatimmigrantsrsquogreaterlocallinguisticskillsareassociatedwithgreaterpoliticalinvolvement(Chiswick2008)
How
Differences and similarities in the reasons why language education is provided to adultimmigrantsdonotnecessarily translate intocorrespondingdifferencesandsimilarities in thewaythiseducationisprovidedonthegroundIndeedwhilethesereasonsmaydiffer(andcanbeexplainedpartlybythedifferencesindemographyandlanguagehistory) it ispossiblethatmanycomponentsremainthesameatthelevelofserviceprovision(andcanbeexplainedinlargepartbyacommonhistoryofsettlementservicesandfederalframework)ThuswhatlevelofgovernmentndashamongthefederalprovincialandlocallevelsndashisresponsibleforprovidinglocallanguageeducationtoadultimmigrantsWhatactorsareconsultedinelaboratingandmakingdecisions over service provisionWhat language is taught Finallywhat actors are providinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants
In sum beyond exploring to what extent reasons andmotivations to provide languageeducationtoadultimmigrantsvarybetweenprovincesweexplorewhetherthesevariationsareaccompaniedbycorrespondingvariationsinhowthiseducationisprovided
The context
InadditiontodescribingthemodelsofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationinQuebecBritishColumbiaandtheirbiggestcitiesourarticleponderswhetherandinwhatsensedemographylanguagehistoryandthecommonfederalframeworkcanexplainthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetwoprovinces
Demography and language history
Asmentionedintheintroductiondemographyandlanguagehistoryvarygreatlyfromonepartof the country to another potentially impactingon languagepolicy andplanning andon the
138 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
language education provided to adult immigrantsTable 1 outlines the linguistic compositioninCanadaQuebec (and its largest cityMontreal) andBritishColumbia (and its largest cityVancouver)intermsofmothertonguesin2011
Table 1Mothertonguebyprovincesandcensusmetropolitanarea(CMA)
Mother tongues
English French Other Multiple
Quebec Total 77 781 123 19
Montreal(CMA) 116 633 220 31
BritishColumbia Total 703 13 265 19
Vancouver(CMA) 560 11 403 27
Canada Total 569 213 198 20
StatisticsCanada(2011d)Table 2 shows that it is not only the proportionof people having French and a non-officiallanguageastheirmothertonguethatvariesacrossCanadaandbetweencitiesbutalsothenon-officiallanguagesspokenthemselves
Table 2MostspokenmothertonguesinMontrealandVancouver
CMA Montreal Vancouver
English 2(116) 1(560)
French 1(633) 11(11)
Spanish 4(29) 9(14)
Italian 5(29)
Chinese(nototherwisespecified) 7(10) 4(49)
Cantonese 3(56)
Mandarin 5(39)
Punjabi 2(61)
Tagalog 6(21)
Arabic 3(34)
Creoles 6(13)
StatisticsCanada(2011d)
IndeedwhileChineselanguagesandPunjabiarebyfarthemostfrequentinVancouvertheyrankmuchlowerinMontrealConverselyArabicSpanishandItalianarethemostspokennon-officiallanguagesinMontreal
Behind these numbers come important variations in terms of the linguistic history ofCanadaFirsttheoriginalsettlersandcolonizersofCanadacameverylargelyfromtwoEuropeancountries speaking different languages French and English Although aboriginal people andlanguagesarenotdiscussedinourarticleitisusefultoberemindedthatCanadawasestablishedbyEuropeansettlersonalandinhabitedpriortocolonizationbyindigenouspeopleOneimpactof European colonization of theCanadian territory ndash beyond the dramatic decrease of theaboriginalpopulationitselfndashhasbeentheneardisappearanceofmostindigenouslanguagesIn2011only63000personsdeclaredanindigenouslanguageastheirmothertongueinCanadaandonly172percentofindigenouspersonsreportedbeingabletoconverseinanindigenous
London Review of Education 139
languageFurthertheproportionofindigenouspersonsabletodosodecreasedby2percentbetween2006and2011while theirpopulation grewby awhole201per cent in the sameperiod(StatisticsCanada2011c)
TheBritishconquestofFrenchNorthAmericain1760wasfollowedbymultipleattemptsat assimilating French-speaking residentsWhereas the pursuit of the linguistic and culturalassimilationoftheFrenchCanadianslessenedonceCanadawascreatedin1867thedemographicweightofFrenchasamothertongueamongtheCanadianpopulationhasbeensteadilydecliningForexamplea1912regulationbannedelementaryschoolteachersfromspeakingFrenchforwhichOntariorsquospremierKathleenWynneissuedaformalapologytofrancophonesthroughtheprovinciallegislatureinFebruary2016lsquoRegulation17showedadisregardforFranco-OntarianidentityandequalityandonbehalfofthegovernmentofOntarioIofferanapologyrsquo(The Canadian Press2016)
Frenchspeakersrepresented29percentofthepopulationin1951and217percentin2011ForthecityofMontrealalone(notthemetropolitanarea)themajorityofresidentswithFrenchasamothertonguehasbeendecliningaswellfrom68percentin1951to524percentin2011(DominionBureauofStatistics1953VilledeMontreacutealnd)withtheproportionbeing635percentfortheentiremetropolitanarea(StatisticsCanada2016)ThedemographicweightofQuebecamongallCanadianprovinceshasalsobeendecliningfrom279percentin1971to23percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceQuebecseatsinthefederalparliamentdecreasedfrom266percentin1976to233percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)
InadditiontoahistoryofconquestandasteadydemographicdeclineofbothfrancophonesacrossthecountryandofQuebecrsquosweightamongtheprovincesthehistoryofsocioeconomicinequalities experienced by francophones ndash even in Quebec ndash must be mentioned Indeeduntilthe1960sdespiteamajorityoffrancophonesintheprovinceofQuebecthelanguageofcommerceandofworkwasmainlyEnglishIndeedfrancophoneswerelessinstructedunder-representedamonghigherprofessionallevelsandgainedsmallerrevenues(DickinsonandYoung2008PCO1970)
FinallyasafrancophoneprovincewithinnotonlyamajorityEnglish-speakingcountrybutanevenlargermajorityEnglish-speakingNorthAmericancontinentQuebecstrugglestoconveytoitsnewcomerstheimportanceofpreservingFrenchasthecommonlanguageUntilthe1970s90percentofnewcomerstoQuebecchoselsquoto integrate intotheminorityEnglishspeakingcommunityrsquo(Bouffard201550)TheappealofEnglishremainsunderstandabletodayinacountryandlsquoinacontinentwheretheoverwhelmingmajorityspeaksnotonlyadifferentlanguagebut thelanguageofglobalizationrsquo(ibid49)
In sum the history of conquest and of socioeconomic inequalities the harsh reality oflinguisticdemographicdeclineandthehistoricaltendencyofimmigrantstointegrateintotheanglophonecommunityhavehad verydeep impacts inQuebec In thatprovince the fearofEnglishandndashtoacertainextentndashofotherlanguageshasbeenquitestrongparticularlyregardingitsmostpopulatedcityandmainreceiverofimmigrationMontreal
TheBritishColumbian linguistichistory isverydifferentTheFrenchminorityhasalwaysbeenverysmallinnumberItaccountedfor1percentofthepopulationin1951andstilldoestodayTheFrenchndashEnglish strugglehas thusbeenmuchquieterndash if not absentWhereas thepercentageofBritishColumbianswithEnglishastheirmothertonguehasdeclinedsubstantiallymost notably inVancouver (from 86 per cent in 1951 to 56 per cent in 2011) the Englishlanguage has never been fundamentally threatenedCompared to French inQuebec Englishremains incontestably thefirstofficial language learnedby immigrants inBritishColumbia IntermsofdemographicweightamongCanadianprovincesBritishColumbiarsquosgrewfrom102per
140 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
centin1971to131percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceBritishColumbiarsquosseatsinthefederalparliamentincreasedfrom7percentin1976to125percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)
In sum we observe extremely different demographic and language histories inQuebecandBritishColumbiaThesemajordifferencescanclearlybeexpectedtohaveimpactsoneachprovincersquoslanguagepolicyandplanning
The federal framework and immigration
InCanadabeing a federationofprovinces jurisdictions are allocated toone levelor sharedbetween two Immigration is shared whereas education and municipal affairs come underprovincialjurisdiction
MajortransformationshavetakenplacewithregardtoimmigrationinCanadainthelastdecadesFirsttheimmigrantselectionprocesswasalteredfollowingtheadoptionoftheBillofRights1960whichmade inevitablelsquotheremovalof immigrationregulationsrestrictingaccessofnon-Europeansrsquo(CardozoandPendakur200823)Referencestoraceorregionsoforiginwerethusreplacedintheselectioncriteriawithskillsandqualificationsand incertaincaseslanguages spoken (ibid) Second the ideaofmulticulturalismemerged in the1960s andwasformalizedintheCanadianMulticulturalismAct adoptedin1971AllCanadianprovinceshavesinceembracedimmigrationasasourceofhumananddemographicaswellasfinancialcapital(Paquet2016)Furtherlsquothefederalgovernmentandseveralofitsprovincialcounterpartshaveplaced a priority on immigrationmatters in recent years linking it to amultitude of otherprominent policy areasrsquo (Tolley et al 2011 3 as quoted byGunn 2012 3) In otherwordsquestions relating to immigration were introduced in many policy domains outside that ofcitizenshipandimmigrationperseincludingeducationworkandeconomyMostimportantlywhereasprovincialgovernmentshadbeenquiteshytoundertakeresponsibilitiesregardingtheshared jurisdiction of immigration they have becomemore interested in the field since the1970s(Gunn20123)andincreasinglyactivesincethe1990sIndeed ledbytheinterventionof the province ofQuebec all Canadian provinces have sincewith the federal governmentsigned bilateral agreements regarding immigration adopted immigration policies taken partintheselectionof immigrantsandcontributedtotheestablishmentofvariousorganizationspromotinggreaterintegrationamongnewcomers(Paquet2016)
ProvinceshavefurtherdevelopedvariousprogrammesforthesettlementandintegrationofimmigrantsAsdiscussedbelowadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationisoneimportantaspectofthesemodelsDespiteallthisthefederalagencyoverseeingsettlementandintegrationinthecountryisCitizenshipandImmigrationCanada(CIC)AlthoughQuebecManitobaandBritishColumbialsquoareresponsibleforthedesigndeliveryandadministrationofsettlementservicesrsquothisresponsibilityistransferredwiththelsquoobjectiveofachievingcomparablenewcomersrsquosettlementoutcomesrsquo (CICnd(a))ThebilateralaccordshaveattributedQuebecaspecialright fortheintegrationofnewcomers in theprovinceFinancialcompensationsareprovided forQuebectoprovideintegrationandsettlementserviceslsquoaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountryandaslongasallpermanentresidentsoftheprovincewhethertheywereselectedbyQuebecornotcanhaveaccesstothemrsquo(HouseofCommonsofCanada20101)
London Review of Education 141
Municipal affairs
In Canada the 1867 Constitutional Act assigned to the provincial governments exclusivejurisdictionovermunicipalitiesThusmunicipalitiesarenotconstitutionallyrecognizedanddonotndashat least formallyndashconstituteanorderofgovernmentof theirown inCanada (Young2009 106) One impact of this provincially exclusive jurisdiction is that provincial-municipalsystems vary considerably across the countryWhileCanadianmunicipalities have no formalresponsibilities except in Ontario regarding education healthcare and social services ndash allprovincialjurisdictionsndashtheyareoftenkeyactorsinimplementingfederalandprovincialpoliciesandprogrammes (ibid 115) Immigration is clearlyoneof thepolicydomains inwhich localgovernmentsandmunicipalitieshavebeenincreasinglyactiveIndeedmostimmigrantstoCanadachoosetosettleinbigcitiesTheFederationofCanadianMunicipalitiesstressedthatin2010two-thirdsofimmigrantssettledinCanadarsquosthreemostimportantmetropolitanareasTorontoMontrealandVancouverIn201117percentofimmigrantstoCanada(FCM2011)and76percentofimmigrantstoQuebecchosetosettleinMontreal(EmploiNexus2016)makingup344percentoftheresidentsofthecityofMontrealInthesameyear14percentofimmigrantstoCanadachosetosettleinVancouver(FCM2011)
Inpractice itmeansthatlsquoday-to-day issuesofmulticulturalismare renegotiatedandsettledin only a few citiesrsquo (Good 2008 1)Thus Canadarsquos biggest cities are active in the field ofimmigrationbecausetheyarelsquothefirstpointofcontactbetweennewcomersandgovernmentdue to the day-to-day dependence of immigrants on various local public servicesrsquo (Gunn20121)AccordingtoGood(2008)somemunicipalitieshavebeenveryresponsivetoincreasingnumbersofnewcomersintheirterritoriesndashforexamplethroughcontributinglsquotocommunitycapacitybuildingbyfundingcommunityorganizationsthatserveimmigrantsandethno-culturalminoritiesrsquothroughestablishinglsquoseparateunitsintheircivilservicetofacilitateaccessandequityin governance and service delivery aswell as tomanage diversityrsquo and through establishinglsquogovernancerelationshipsthatsupporttheireffortsinequitypolicyrsquoincludingwiththebusinesscommunity(ibid7)
Despitethefactthatmunicipallsquofront-lineserviceprovidersarekeyplayersinthesuccessfulsettlementattractionandretentionofimmigrantsmunicipalitieshavebeenleftonthesidelinesofimmigrantpolicyandfundingdecisionsrsquo(Gunn20124ndash5)withseniorlevelsofgovernmentsdealingmore frequentlywithlsquospecial-purpose non-profit societiesrsquo (Kataoka andMagnusson200720)
Finallyalthoughmunicipalitiesareformallyajurisdictionoftheprovincesthereisageneraltrend towardsmore direct relationships betweenmunicipalities and the federal government(Andrew 2014 Stoney andGraham 2009)Multiple reasons explain this trend including theimportanceofcontemporaryurbanchallengesandtheexplosionofmunicipalcostsasapartialconsequence of decentralization and of relatively low recent investments in infrastructure(Lalonde2016)Reviewingtheliteratureonthetopicofmunicipal-federalrelationshipsLalondenotes that most federal funding transits in provincial hands before landing in municipalitiesFurthermoremunicipalitiesrsquorolesandrelationshipwithfederalagencieslargelydependontherelationshipbetweentheirrespectiveprovincialgovernmentandthefederalgovernment(ibid)
InsumwhiletheCanadianfederalframeworkcanbeaunifyingfactoritleavesroomforconsiderablevariationndash forexample in thefieldsof immigrationandmunicipal affairsndashandevenforprovincialemulationThesepossibilitieshaveimpactsonlanguagepolicyandplanningndashandmostimportantlyforusintermsofwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrants
142 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
The analytical framework A summary
FollowingpolicyanalysisframeworksandspecificallylanguagepolicyandplanningourenquiryintolanguageeducationforadultimmigrantscompareswhyandhowitisprovidedinQuebecandBritishColumbiatwoverydifferentprovincesofCanadaandintheirbiggestcitiesOurultimategoal istopondertheimpactsofdemography languagehistoryandthefederalframeworkonthesepoliciesTable 3summarizestheelementsaddressedhere
Table 3Analyticalframeworkandapproach
Describing and comparing Pondering the impacts of vectors of differences and similarities
WhyWhatarethemainreasonsforprovidinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants
bull Citizenshipandnationalismreasons
bull Jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsreasons
bull Socialwelfareandintegrationreasons
Demography and language history
bull Languagersquosminorityormajoritystatusinthecountryandcontinent
bull Languagersquospowerofattractionasfirstofficiallanguagelearned
bull LanguagersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull ProvincersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull Otherhistoricalelements(historyofconquestandofsocio-
economicdomination)
Federalism as vector of differences
bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Increasedprovincialinterventiono Bilateralaccordsbetweenprovincesandthefederal
governmento Provincialchoiceofcriteriafortheselectionof
immigrants(levelandtypeofskillslanguagesspokenetc)
bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipalitiesascreaturesoftheprovinces
Federalism as vector of similarities
bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Billofrightso MulticulturalismActo CICinterventions
bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipal-federalrelationshipo Municipalitiesconceivedasalevelofgovernmento Municipalitiesrsquoexclusionofpolicydesign
HowWhatarethemaininternalfeaturesofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducation
bull Languagetaughtbull Responsiblelevelof
governmentbull Languageeducationservice
providers
Language education for adult immigrants in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largest cities
WiththeaboveframeworkandapproachinmindwenowturntodescribingandcomparingwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecBritishColumbiaMontrealandVancouver
London Review of Education 143
Language laws and official languages
InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat
TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada
(SLMCnd(a))
Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)
InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces
144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage
British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))
Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education
The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself
towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry
(Beacutechard20113)
London Review of Education 145
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)
AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)
TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration
InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople
(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)
ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)
InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))
WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites
TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture
(CICnd(c))
InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria
ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding
146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)
Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin
London Review of Education 147
BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture
TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related
English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec
British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)
In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices
Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding
148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)
Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants
Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation
Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries
Conclusion
AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants
London Review of Education 149
Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy
ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec
ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues
Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the
150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated
Notes on the contributors
Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012
CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa
RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada
References
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AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82
AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49
BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)
Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)
BelkhodjaC(2008)lsquoIntroductionImmigrationetdiversiteacutedanslescommunauteacutesfrancophonesensituationminoritairersquo In BelkhodjaC (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaire Thegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies3ndash6
BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65
BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)
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Canadian Press(2016)lsquoPremierWynneapologizesfor1912regulationbanningFrenchinOntarioschoolsrsquoOnlinewwwthecanadianpresscomenglishonlineOnlineFullStoryaspxfilename=DOR-MNN-CPd2732aaf15964e269a42e66a46cec9daCPKEY2008111303ampnewsitemid=36470080amplanguageid=1(accessed1March2016)
CardozoAandPendakurR(2008)Canadarsquos Visible Minority Population 1967ndash2017WorkingpaperseriesVancouver Metropolis British Columbia Online httpmbcmetropolisnetassetsuploadsfileswp2008WP08-05pdf(accessed1March2016)
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Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)
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ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)
CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (nd) Vancouver City Local Immigration PartnershipVancouver Community Services Online httpvancouvercafilescovvancouver-city-local-immigration-partnership-overviewpdf (accessed 6 April2016)
ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)
ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress
CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)
CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20
CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants
Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)
Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise
DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)
DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS
152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)
ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)
EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant
settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19
FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario
Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan
GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45
GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)
GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)
ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)
Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)
GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)
GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)
HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)
InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)
London Review of Education 153
KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)
KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)
LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)
MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)
Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada
McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)
MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)
MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)
MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)
MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress
MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec
154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)
PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook
3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)
Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)
RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge
SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)
SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)
Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)
ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)
StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI
London Review of Education 155
Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)
ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
London Review of Education 135
Such high rates of immigration imply that important efforts and resources need to beinvestedinthesettlementandintegrationofnewcomersincludinginprovidingeducationinthelocallanguageIndeedmanystudiesemphasizehowlocallanguageproficiencyisacrucialpartofintegrationinthevariousspheresoflife(egseeAdamuti-Trache2012)includinginrelationtotransportationandhousing(Kilbrideet al2011)tothejobmarket(DerwingandWaugh2012Chiswick2008)andtohealthcare(Nget al2011Battagliniet al2007GagnonandSaillant2000Olazabalet al2010SouliegraveresandOuellette2012)
WhileCanadianprovincesoperatewithinonesinglerelativelyinfluentialfederalstructuretheirdemographyandlinguistichistoryvaryinsuchawaythatonewouldconfidentlyexpectimportant variation inprovincesrsquo languagepolicies and inwhy andhow languageeducation isprovided to adult immigrants Moreover the Canadian constitution allocates education as aprovincialjurisdictionandimmigrationasasharedjurisdictionbetweenthefederalandprovincialgovernments
TakingintoconsiderationthecontextualelementsatplayourarticledescribesandtriestounderstandthesimilaritiesanddifferencesastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsintwoverydifferentprovincesandtheirbiggestcitiesndashtheprovinceofQuebecandthecityofMontrealandtheprovinceofBritishColumbiaandthecityofVancouver
Comparing adult immigrantsrsquo language education Framework approach and context
InthisfirstsectionwepresenttheanalyticalframeworkourapproachtotheresearchquestionsandthemaincontextualelementsatplaytounderstandvariationsinlanguagepolicyandplanninginCanada
The analytical framework
AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationsitsatthecrossroadsofvariouspolicydomainscitizenshipandimmigrationeducationeconomicpolicyandemployabilityAsGazzolaandGrinputitlsquojustlikepublicpoliciesarearesponsetoldquopublicproblemsrdquo languagepoliciescanbeviewedasaresponse toldquolanguageproblemsrsquorsquorsquo (20105)Asonecomponentofabroader languagepolicyadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationcanbeassessedasanyotherpublicpolicythatisinrelationto thedifferentphasesof thepolicyprocesspolicy formulation implementationcompliancereaction evaluationmodification (Morris 2010 379ndash83) Similarly researchers in the fieldoflanguage policy and planning asklsquoWhat actors attempt to influencewhat behaviour ofwhichpeopleforwhatendsunderwhatconditionsbywhatmeansthroughwhatdecision-making processwithwhateffectsrsquo(Cooper19898)Amongthemainandcentralgoalsofusingcomparativeapproachesisthatoflsquoassessingrivalexplanationsrsquoonagivenpublicpolicy(Collier1993105)
The approach
InordertoassessthetwomodelsofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationourarticlefocusesspecificallyontwoquestionslsquoWhydogovernmentsprovidelanguageeducationtoadultsrsquoandlsquoHowisitprovidedintheconcretesettingoftwoofthelargestcitiesinCanadarsquo
136 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Why
AreportbytheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipdefinessettlementandintegrationasacontinuumthatinvolvesmeetingtheneedsoftheimmigrants(iehousingeducationnutritionandhealthcare)fullandgratifyingparticipationinthelabourmarketandorlocaleconomycivicandcommunityparticipation anda senseofbelonging in thecommunity (Murphy201011)Similarly Omidvar and Richmond (2003) define social integration as the lsquorealization of fullandequalparticipationintheeconomicsocialculturalandpoliticaldimensionsoflifein[theimmigrantsrsquo]newcountryrsquo(DerwingandWaugh20123)Inevaluatingresearchonwhylanguageeducation isprovided to immigrantsweprimarilynote thatproficiency in the local languageisonevery importantaspectofsettlementand integration Indeedthelsquolackofknowledgeofone ofCanadarsquos official languageswas still themost serious problem faced by refugees andothereconomicimmigrants4yearsafterlandingrsquo(Xue2007asquotedbyDerwingandWaugh20127)Moreoverlsquoacriticalingredientofnewcomersrsquoactiveparticipationinthehostsocietyaretheirlanguageskillsrsquo(Adamuti-Trache2012103)Inshortthreemainstreamsofreasonsastowhylanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrantsarefoundintheliteraturendashthatisreasonsrelatingto(1)citizenshipandnationalism(2)jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsofimmigrationand(3)socialwelfareandintegration(Cleghorn 2000)
First local language competency is often amarker of national identity andor belonging(Clarkson 2014) and thusproficiency in the local language is conceivedas aprerequisite inordertolsquounderstandthenormsofthehostsociety[andto]likelygrowasenseofattachmentto[thehost society]rsquo(Adamuti-Trache2012109)AsSimpsonandWhitesideput itlsquotheonenationonelanguageideologyisinterlacedwithotherbeliefsaboutnationalidentityforexamplethe ideal that thenation state shouldbe ashomogeneous aspossible and that adimensionof that homogeneity ismonolingualismrsquo (2015 2) Following this ideology proficiency in thelocal language alonewould allow full belonging and participation in the community FurtherimmigrationndashandthuslocallanguageeducationndashisrelatedtocitizenshipandnationalisminthecontextofdecliningfertilityandcurrentpopulationageingAbodyofliteraturendashoftenwrittenby francophones fromQuebec Ontario and New Brunswick ndash stresses the importance offrancophoneimmigrationandoflinguisticandsocialintegrationofimmigrantsintofrancophonecommunitiesinstoppingthesteadydemographicdeclineofthesecommunitiesinCanada(egseeBelkhodja2008Bursteinet al2014Ferron2008Fourot2016FraserandBoileau2014MarmenetCorbeil1999VatzLaaroussi2008)InordertoachievethisobjectivehowevernotonlydoimmigrantshavetochooseFrenchastheirpreferredofficiallanguagendashandeventuallyfortheirlinguistictransferndashbuttheyhavetostayinQuebecorinotherfrancophonecommunitiesLearningthelocallanguagewouldthusbeafirststepforimmigrantstocontributeinthisgrandcollectiveobjectiveForotherauthorslsquoadesiretolearnCanadarsquostwoofficiallanguagesmaybegroundedinimmigrantsrsquopursuitofastrongersenseofbelongingrsquo(BurtonandPhipps2010asquotedbyMadyandTurnbull2012132)orofgreatereconomicwellbeing(PicotandSweetman2005ibid)
Second adult immigrantsrsquo language education is often justified as crucial in achievingimmigrantsrsquofulleconomicpotentialIntegrationonthejobmarkethasoftenbeensingledoutasthemostimportantaspectofimmigrantsrsquointegrationintotheirnewsocietyStudiesshowthatimmigrantsrsquogreaterlocallinguisticskillsareassociatedwithfewerdifficultiesfindingajobandhigherearningsandproductivity(Chiswick2008)Anotherreportstatesthatin2003inCanadatheemploymentratesforindividualswithpoorandweakliteracyinthelocallanguagewere57percentand70percentrespectivelylsquocomparedto76forthedesiredlevelofliteracyrsquo(TDBankFinancialGroup200911)Finallyeconomistsarguethatgreaterlocallinguisticskillsare
London Review of Education 137
associatedwithincreasedproductivityofotherinvestmentinhumancapitalincludingeducationandtraining(Chiswick2008)
Thethirdmainsetofreasonsforproviding languageeducationtoadult immigrants isasaprerequisiteforgreatersocialwelfareandintegrationinthecommunityOneelementoftenemphasized in the literature ishowa lackofknowledgeorproficiency in the local languageis connected to smaller and less diversified personal networks (Rose 2006Thomas 2011)Thesenetworksconveypoorer information leading todisadvantages in a varietyof spheresDamarisRose(2006)arguesforexamplethatimmigrantswithsmallerandmoreundiversifiednetworkshavegreaterdifficultiesfindingsuitablehousingProficiencyinthelocallanguagealsohaspositivebenefitswithregardtoeducationParentsrsquolinguisticskillshavebeenassociatedwitha similar levelof successat school in theirchildren (GouvernementduQueacutebec2014TCRI2011) Further a higher level of language proficiency is associatedwith greater engagementinpost-secondaryeducationuponarrival(Adamuti-Trache2012109)whichinturnprovidesgreaterjobsandsocialintegrationopportunities(DerwingandWaugh20127)Lowlevelsoflocallanguageskillsalsohavenegativeimpactsonself-reportedhealth(Nget al201119)andonimmigrantsrsquoaccesstothehealthcaresystem(Battagliniet al2007GagnonandSaillant2000Olazabalet al2010SouliegraveresandOuellette2012)Lowlanguageproficiencyisalsoidentifiedasariskfactoroffamilyviolenceamongimmigrantwomen(Ahmadet al2004Rinfret-Raynoret al20136)Finallystudiesshowthatimmigrantsrsquogreaterlocallinguisticskillsareassociatedwithgreaterpoliticalinvolvement(Chiswick2008)
How
Differences and similarities in the reasons why language education is provided to adultimmigrantsdonotnecessarily translate intocorrespondingdifferencesandsimilarities in thewaythiseducationisprovidedonthegroundIndeedwhilethesereasonsmaydiffer(andcanbeexplainedpartlybythedifferencesindemographyandlanguagehistory) it ispossiblethatmanycomponentsremainthesameatthelevelofserviceprovision(andcanbeexplainedinlargepartbyacommonhistoryofsettlementservicesandfederalframework)ThuswhatlevelofgovernmentndashamongthefederalprovincialandlocallevelsndashisresponsibleforprovidinglocallanguageeducationtoadultimmigrantsWhatactorsareconsultedinelaboratingandmakingdecisions over service provisionWhat language is taught Finallywhat actors are providinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants
In sum beyond exploring to what extent reasons andmotivations to provide languageeducationtoadultimmigrantsvarybetweenprovincesweexplorewhetherthesevariationsareaccompaniedbycorrespondingvariationsinhowthiseducationisprovided
The context
InadditiontodescribingthemodelsofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationinQuebecBritishColumbiaandtheirbiggestcitiesourarticleponderswhetherandinwhatsensedemographylanguagehistoryandthecommonfederalframeworkcanexplainthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetwoprovinces
Demography and language history
Asmentionedintheintroductiondemographyandlanguagehistoryvarygreatlyfromonepartof the country to another potentially impactingon languagepolicy andplanning andon the
138 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
language education provided to adult immigrantsTable 1 outlines the linguistic compositioninCanadaQuebec (and its largest cityMontreal) andBritishColumbia (and its largest cityVancouver)intermsofmothertonguesin2011
Table 1Mothertonguebyprovincesandcensusmetropolitanarea(CMA)
Mother tongues
English French Other Multiple
Quebec Total 77 781 123 19
Montreal(CMA) 116 633 220 31
BritishColumbia Total 703 13 265 19
Vancouver(CMA) 560 11 403 27
Canada Total 569 213 198 20
StatisticsCanada(2011d)Table 2 shows that it is not only the proportionof people having French and a non-officiallanguageastheirmothertonguethatvariesacrossCanadaandbetweencitiesbutalsothenon-officiallanguagesspokenthemselves
Table 2MostspokenmothertonguesinMontrealandVancouver
CMA Montreal Vancouver
English 2(116) 1(560)
French 1(633) 11(11)
Spanish 4(29) 9(14)
Italian 5(29)
Chinese(nototherwisespecified) 7(10) 4(49)
Cantonese 3(56)
Mandarin 5(39)
Punjabi 2(61)
Tagalog 6(21)
Arabic 3(34)
Creoles 6(13)
StatisticsCanada(2011d)
IndeedwhileChineselanguagesandPunjabiarebyfarthemostfrequentinVancouvertheyrankmuchlowerinMontrealConverselyArabicSpanishandItalianarethemostspokennon-officiallanguagesinMontreal
Behind these numbers come important variations in terms of the linguistic history ofCanadaFirsttheoriginalsettlersandcolonizersofCanadacameverylargelyfromtwoEuropeancountries speaking different languages French and English Although aboriginal people andlanguagesarenotdiscussedinourarticleitisusefultoberemindedthatCanadawasestablishedbyEuropeansettlersonalandinhabitedpriortocolonizationbyindigenouspeopleOneimpactof European colonization of theCanadian territory ndash beyond the dramatic decrease of theaboriginalpopulationitselfndashhasbeentheneardisappearanceofmostindigenouslanguagesIn2011only63000personsdeclaredanindigenouslanguageastheirmothertongueinCanadaandonly172percentofindigenouspersonsreportedbeingabletoconverseinanindigenous
London Review of Education 139
languageFurthertheproportionofindigenouspersonsabletodosodecreasedby2percentbetween2006and2011while theirpopulation grewby awhole201per cent in the sameperiod(StatisticsCanada2011c)
TheBritishconquestofFrenchNorthAmericain1760wasfollowedbymultipleattemptsat assimilating French-speaking residentsWhereas the pursuit of the linguistic and culturalassimilationoftheFrenchCanadianslessenedonceCanadawascreatedin1867thedemographicweightofFrenchasamothertongueamongtheCanadianpopulationhasbeensteadilydecliningForexamplea1912regulationbannedelementaryschoolteachersfromspeakingFrenchforwhichOntariorsquospremierKathleenWynneissuedaformalapologytofrancophonesthroughtheprovinciallegislatureinFebruary2016lsquoRegulation17showedadisregardforFranco-OntarianidentityandequalityandonbehalfofthegovernmentofOntarioIofferanapologyrsquo(The Canadian Press2016)
Frenchspeakersrepresented29percentofthepopulationin1951and217percentin2011ForthecityofMontrealalone(notthemetropolitanarea)themajorityofresidentswithFrenchasamothertonguehasbeendecliningaswellfrom68percentin1951to524percentin2011(DominionBureauofStatistics1953VilledeMontreacutealnd)withtheproportionbeing635percentfortheentiremetropolitanarea(StatisticsCanada2016)ThedemographicweightofQuebecamongallCanadianprovinceshasalsobeendecliningfrom279percentin1971to23percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceQuebecseatsinthefederalparliamentdecreasedfrom266percentin1976to233percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)
InadditiontoahistoryofconquestandasteadydemographicdeclineofbothfrancophonesacrossthecountryandofQuebecrsquosweightamongtheprovincesthehistoryofsocioeconomicinequalities experienced by francophones ndash even in Quebec ndash must be mentioned Indeeduntilthe1960sdespiteamajorityoffrancophonesintheprovinceofQuebecthelanguageofcommerceandofworkwasmainlyEnglishIndeedfrancophoneswerelessinstructedunder-representedamonghigherprofessionallevelsandgainedsmallerrevenues(DickinsonandYoung2008PCO1970)
FinallyasafrancophoneprovincewithinnotonlyamajorityEnglish-speakingcountrybutanevenlargermajorityEnglish-speakingNorthAmericancontinentQuebecstrugglestoconveytoitsnewcomerstheimportanceofpreservingFrenchasthecommonlanguageUntilthe1970s90percentofnewcomerstoQuebecchoselsquoto integrate intotheminorityEnglishspeakingcommunityrsquo(Bouffard201550)TheappealofEnglishremainsunderstandabletodayinacountryandlsquoinacontinentwheretheoverwhelmingmajorityspeaksnotonlyadifferentlanguagebut thelanguageofglobalizationrsquo(ibid49)
In sum the history of conquest and of socioeconomic inequalities the harsh reality oflinguisticdemographicdeclineandthehistoricaltendencyofimmigrantstointegrateintotheanglophonecommunityhavehad verydeep impacts inQuebec In thatprovince the fearofEnglishandndashtoacertainextentndashofotherlanguageshasbeenquitestrongparticularlyregardingitsmostpopulatedcityandmainreceiverofimmigrationMontreal
TheBritishColumbian linguistichistory isverydifferentTheFrenchminorityhasalwaysbeenverysmallinnumberItaccountedfor1percentofthepopulationin1951andstilldoestodayTheFrenchndashEnglish strugglehas thusbeenmuchquieterndash if not absentWhereas thepercentageofBritishColumbianswithEnglishastheirmothertonguehasdeclinedsubstantiallymost notably inVancouver (from 86 per cent in 1951 to 56 per cent in 2011) the Englishlanguage has never been fundamentally threatenedCompared to French inQuebec Englishremains incontestably thefirstofficial language learnedby immigrants inBritishColumbia IntermsofdemographicweightamongCanadianprovincesBritishColumbiarsquosgrewfrom102per
140 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
centin1971to131percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceBritishColumbiarsquosseatsinthefederalparliamentincreasedfrom7percentin1976to125percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)
In sum we observe extremely different demographic and language histories inQuebecandBritishColumbiaThesemajordifferencescanclearlybeexpectedtohaveimpactsoneachprovincersquoslanguagepolicyandplanning
The federal framework and immigration
InCanadabeing a federationofprovinces jurisdictions are allocated toone levelor sharedbetween two Immigration is shared whereas education and municipal affairs come underprovincialjurisdiction
MajortransformationshavetakenplacewithregardtoimmigrationinCanadainthelastdecadesFirsttheimmigrantselectionprocesswasalteredfollowingtheadoptionoftheBillofRights1960whichmade inevitablelsquotheremovalof immigrationregulationsrestrictingaccessofnon-Europeansrsquo(CardozoandPendakur200823)Referencestoraceorregionsoforiginwerethusreplacedintheselectioncriteriawithskillsandqualificationsand incertaincaseslanguages spoken (ibid) Second the ideaofmulticulturalismemerged in the1960s andwasformalizedintheCanadianMulticulturalismAct adoptedin1971AllCanadianprovinceshavesinceembracedimmigrationasasourceofhumananddemographicaswellasfinancialcapital(Paquet2016)Furtherlsquothefederalgovernmentandseveralofitsprovincialcounterpartshaveplaced a priority on immigrationmatters in recent years linking it to amultitude of otherprominent policy areasrsquo (Tolley et al 2011 3 as quoted byGunn 2012 3) In otherwordsquestions relating to immigration were introduced in many policy domains outside that ofcitizenshipandimmigrationperseincludingeducationworkandeconomyMostimportantlywhereasprovincialgovernmentshadbeenquiteshytoundertakeresponsibilitiesregardingtheshared jurisdiction of immigration they have becomemore interested in the field since the1970s(Gunn20123)andincreasinglyactivesincethe1990sIndeed ledbytheinterventionof the province ofQuebec all Canadian provinces have sincewith the federal governmentsigned bilateral agreements regarding immigration adopted immigration policies taken partintheselectionof immigrantsandcontributedtotheestablishmentofvariousorganizationspromotinggreaterintegrationamongnewcomers(Paquet2016)
ProvinceshavefurtherdevelopedvariousprogrammesforthesettlementandintegrationofimmigrantsAsdiscussedbelowadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationisoneimportantaspectofthesemodelsDespiteallthisthefederalagencyoverseeingsettlementandintegrationinthecountryisCitizenshipandImmigrationCanada(CIC)AlthoughQuebecManitobaandBritishColumbialsquoareresponsibleforthedesigndeliveryandadministrationofsettlementservicesrsquothisresponsibilityistransferredwiththelsquoobjectiveofachievingcomparablenewcomersrsquosettlementoutcomesrsquo (CICnd(a))ThebilateralaccordshaveattributedQuebecaspecialright fortheintegrationofnewcomers in theprovinceFinancialcompensationsareprovided forQuebectoprovideintegrationandsettlementserviceslsquoaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountryandaslongasallpermanentresidentsoftheprovincewhethertheywereselectedbyQuebecornotcanhaveaccesstothemrsquo(HouseofCommonsofCanada20101)
London Review of Education 141
Municipal affairs
In Canada the 1867 Constitutional Act assigned to the provincial governments exclusivejurisdictionovermunicipalitiesThusmunicipalitiesarenotconstitutionallyrecognizedanddonotndashat least formallyndashconstituteanorderofgovernmentof theirown inCanada (Young2009 106) One impact of this provincially exclusive jurisdiction is that provincial-municipalsystems vary considerably across the countryWhileCanadianmunicipalities have no formalresponsibilities except in Ontario regarding education healthcare and social services ndash allprovincialjurisdictionsndashtheyareoftenkeyactorsinimplementingfederalandprovincialpoliciesandprogrammes (ibid 115) Immigration is clearlyoneof thepolicydomains inwhich localgovernmentsandmunicipalitieshavebeenincreasinglyactiveIndeedmostimmigrantstoCanadachoosetosettleinbigcitiesTheFederationofCanadianMunicipalitiesstressedthatin2010two-thirdsofimmigrantssettledinCanadarsquosthreemostimportantmetropolitanareasTorontoMontrealandVancouverIn201117percentofimmigrantstoCanada(FCM2011)and76percentofimmigrantstoQuebecchosetosettleinMontreal(EmploiNexus2016)makingup344percentoftheresidentsofthecityofMontrealInthesameyear14percentofimmigrantstoCanadachosetosettleinVancouver(FCM2011)
Inpractice itmeansthatlsquoday-to-day issuesofmulticulturalismare renegotiatedandsettledin only a few citiesrsquo (Good 2008 1)Thus Canadarsquos biggest cities are active in the field ofimmigrationbecausetheyarelsquothefirstpointofcontactbetweennewcomersandgovernmentdue to the day-to-day dependence of immigrants on various local public servicesrsquo (Gunn20121)AccordingtoGood(2008)somemunicipalitieshavebeenveryresponsivetoincreasingnumbersofnewcomersintheirterritoriesndashforexamplethroughcontributinglsquotocommunitycapacitybuildingbyfundingcommunityorganizationsthatserveimmigrantsandethno-culturalminoritiesrsquothroughestablishinglsquoseparateunitsintheircivilservicetofacilitateaccessandequityin governance and service delivery aswell as tomanage diversityrsquo and through establishinglsquogovernancerelationshipsthatsupporttheireffortsinequitypolicyrsquoincludingwiththebusinesscommunity(ibid7)
Despitethefactthatmunicipallsquofront-lineserviceprovidersarekeyplayersinthesuccessfulsettlementattractionandretentionofimmigrantsmunicipalitieshavebeenleftonthesidelinesofimmigrantpolicyandfundingdecisionsrsquo(Gunn20124ndash5)withseniorlevelsofgovernmentsdealingmore frequentlywithlsquospecial-purpose non-profit societiesrsquo (Kataoka andMagnusson200720)
Finallyalthoughmunicipalitiesareformallyajurisdictionoftheprovincesthereisageneraltrend towardsmore direct relationships betweenmunicipalities and the federal government(Andrew 2014 Stoney andGraham 2009)Multiple reasons explain this trend including theimportanceofcontemporaryurbanchallengesandtheexplosionofmunicipalcostsasapartialconsequence of decentralization and of relatively low recent investments in infrastructure(Lalonde2016)Reviewingtheliteratureonthetopicofmunicipal-federalrelationshipsLalondenotes that most federal funding transits in provincial hands before landing in municipalitiesFurthermoremunicipalitiesrsquorolesandrelationshipwithfederalagencieslargelydependontherelationshipbetweentheirrespectiveprovincialgovernmentandthefederalgovernment(ibid)
InsumwhiletheCanadianfederalframeworkcanbeaunifyingfactoritleavesroomforconsiderablevariationndash forexample in thefieldsof immigrationandmunicipal affairsndashandevenforprovincialemulationThesepossibilitieshaveimpactsonlanguagepolicyandplanningndashandmostimportantlyforusintermsofwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrants
142 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
The analytical framework A summary
FollowingpolicyanalysisframeworksandspecificallylanguagepolicyandplanningourenquiryintolanguageeducationforadultimmigrantscompareswhyandhowitisprovidedinQuebecandBritishColumbiatwoverydifferentprovincesofCanadaandintheirbiggestcitiesOurultimategoal istopondertheimpactsofdemography languagehistoryandthefederalframeworkonthesepoliciesTable 3summarizestheelementsaddressedhere
Table 3Analyticalframeworkandapproach
Describing and comparing Pondering the impacts of vectors of differences and similarities
WhyWhatarethemainreasonsforprovidinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants
bull Citizenshipandnationalismreasons
bull Jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsreasons
bull Socialwelfareandintegrationreasons
Demography and language history
bull Languagersquosminorityormajoritystatusinthecountryandcontinent
bull Languagersquospowerofattractionasfirstofficiallanguagelearned
bull LanguagersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull ProvincersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull Otherhistoricalelements(historyofconquestandofsocio-
economicdomination)
Federalism as vector of differences
bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Increasedprovincialinterventiono Bilateralaccordsbetweenprovincesandthefederal
governmento Provincialchoiceofcriteriafortheselectionof
immigrants(levelandtypeofskillslanguagesspokenetc)
bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipalitiesascreaturesoftheprovinces
Federalism as vector of similarities
bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Billofrightso MulticulturalismActo CICinterventions
bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipal-federalrelationshipo Municipalitiesconceivedasalevelofgovernmento Municipalitiesrsquoexclusionofpolicydesign
HowWhatarethemaininternalfeaturesofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducation
bull Languagetaughtbull Responsiblelevelof
governmentbull Languageeducationservice
providers
Language education for adult immigrants in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largest cities
WiththeaboveframeworkandapproachinmindwenowturntodescribingandcomparingwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecBritishColumbiaMontrealandVancouver
London Review of Education 143
Language laws and official languages
InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat
TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada
(SLMCnd(a))
Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)
InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces
144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage
British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))
Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education
The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself
towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry
(Beacutechard20113)
London Review of Education 145
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)
AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)
TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration
InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople
(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)
ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)
InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))
WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites
TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture
(CICnd(c))
InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria
ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding
146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)
Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin
London Review of Education 147
BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture
TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related
English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec
British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)
In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices
Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding
148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)
Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants
Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation
Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries
Conclusion
AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants
London Review of Education 149
Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy
ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec
ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues
Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the
150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated
Notes on the contributors
Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012
CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa
RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada
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152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
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FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
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VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
136 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Why
AreportbytheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipdefinessettlementandintegrationasacontinuumthatinvolvesmeetingtheneedsoftheimmigrants(iehousingeducationnutritionandhealthcare)fullandgratifyingparticipationinthelabourmarketandorlocaleconomycivicandcommunityparticipation anda senseofbelonging in thecommunity (Murphy201011)Similarly Omidvar and Richmond (2003) define social integration as the lsquorealization of fullandequalparticipationintheeconomicsocialculturalandpoliticaldimensionsoflifein[theimmigrantsrsquo]newcountryrsquo(DerwingandWaugh20123)Inevaluatingresearchonwhylanguageeducation isprovided to immigrantsweprimarilynote thatproficiency in the local languageisonevery importantaspectofsettlementand integration Indeedthelsquolackofknowledgeofone ofCanadarsquos official languageswas still themost serious problem faced by refugees andothereconomicimmigrants4yearsafterlandingrsquo(Xue2007asquotedbyDerwingandWaugh20127)Moreoverlsquoacriticalingredientofnewcomersrsquoactiveparticipationinthehostsocietyaretheirlanguageskillsrsquo(Adamuti-Trache2012103)Inshortthreemainstreamsofreasonsastowhylanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrantsarefoundintheliteraturendashthatisreasonsrelatingto(1)citizenshipandnationalism(2)jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsofimmigrationand(3)socialwelfareandintegration(Cleghorn 2000)
First local language competency is often amarker of national identity andor belonging(Clarkson 2014) and thusproficiency in the local language is conceivedas aprerequisite inordertolsquounderstandthenormsofthehostsociety[andto]likelygrowasenseofattachmentto[thehost society]rsquo(Adamuti-Trache2012109)AsSimpsonandWhitesideput itlsquotheonenationonelanguageideologyisinterlacedwithotherbeliefsaboutnationalidentityforexamplethe ideal that thenation state shouldbe ashomogeneous aspossible and that adimensionof that homogeneity ismonolingualismrsquo (2015 2) Following this ideology proficiency in thelocal language alonewould allow full belonging and participation in the community FurtherimmigrationndashandthuslocallanguageeducationndashisrelatedtocitizenshipandnationalisminthecontextofdecliningfertilityandcurrentpopulationageingAbodyofliteraturendashoftenwrittenby francophones fromQuebec Ontario and New Brunswick ndash stresses the importance offrancophoneimmigrationandoflinguisticandsocialintegrationofimmigrantsintofrancophonecommunitiesinstoppingthesteadydemographicdeclineofthesecommunitiesinCanada(egseeBelkhodja2008Bursteinet al2014Ferron2008Fourot2016FraserandBoileau2014MarmenetCorbeil1999VatzLaaroussi2008)InordertoachievethisobjectivehowevernotonlydoimmigrantshavetochooseFrenchastheirpreferredofficiallanguagendashandeventuallyfortheirlinguistictransferndashbuttheyhavetostayinQuebecorinotherfrancophonecommunitiesLearningthelocallanguagewouldthusbeafirststepforimmigrantstocontributeinthisgrandcollectiveobjectiveForotherauthorslsquoadesiretolearnCanadarsquostwoofficiallanguagesmaybegroundedinimmigrantsrsquopursuitofastrongersenseofbelongingrsquo(BurtonandPhipps2010asquotedbyMadyandTurnbull2012132)orofgreatereconomicwellbeing(PicotandSweetman2005ibid)
Second adult immigrantsrsquo language education is often justified as crucial in achievingimmigrantsrsquofulleconomicpotentialIntegrationonthejobmarkethasoftenbeensingledoutasthemostimportantaspectofimmigrantsrsquointegrationintotheirnewsocietyStudiesshowthatimmigrantsrsquogreaterlocallinguisticskillsareassociatedwithfewerdifficultiesfindingajobandhigherearningsandproductivity(Chiswick2008)Anotherreportstatesthatin2003inCanadatheemploymentratesforindividualswithpoorandweakliteracyinthelocallanguagewere57percentand70percentrespectivelylsquocomparedto76forthedesiredlevelofliteracyrsquo(TDBankFinancialGroup200911)Finallyeconomistsarguethatgreaterlocallinguisticskillsare
London Review of Education 137
associatedwithincreasedproductivityofotherinvestmentinhumancapitalincludingeducationandtraining(Chiswick2008)
Thethirdmainsetofreasonsforproviding languageeducationtoadult immigrants isasaprerequisiteforgreatersocialwelfareandintegrationinthecommunityOneelementoftenemphasized in the literature ishowa lackofknowledgeorproficiency in the local languageis connected to smaller and less diversified personal networks (Rose 2006Thomas 2011)Thesenetworksconveypoorer information leading todisadvantages in a varietyof spheresDamarisRose(2006)arguesforexamplethatimmigrantswithsmallerandmoreundiversifiednetworkshavegreaterdifficultiesfindingsuitablehousingProficiencyinthelocallanguagealsohaspositivebenefitswithregardtoeducationParentsrsquolinguisticskillshavebeenassociatedwitha similar levelof successat school in theirchildren (GouvernementduQueacutebec2014TCRI2011) Further a higher level of language proficiency is associatedwith greater engagementinpost-secondaryeducationuponarrival(Adamuti-Trache2012109)whichinturnprovidesgreaterjobsandsocialintegrationopportunities(DerwingandWaugh20127)Lowlevelsoflocallanguageskillsalsohavenegativeimpactsonself-reportedhealth(Nget al201119)andonimmigrantsrsquoaccesstothehealthcaresystem(Battagliniet al2007GagnonandSaillant2000Olazabalet al2010SouliegraveresandOuellette2012)Lowlanguageproficiencyisalsoidentifiedasariskfactoroffamilyviolenceamongimmigrantwomen(Ahmadet al2004Rinfret-Raynoret al20136)Finallystudiesshowthatimmigrantsrsquogreaterlocallinguisticskillsareassociatedwithgreaterpoliticalinvolvement(Chiswick2008)
How
Differences and similarities in the reasons why language education is provided to adultimmigrantsdonotnecessarily translate intocorrespondingdifferencesandsimilarities in thewaythiseducationisprovidedonthegroundIndeedwhilethesereasonsmaydiffer(andcanbeexplainedpartlybythedifferencesindemographyandlanguagehistory) it ispossiblethatmanycomponentsremainthesameatthelevelofserviceprovision(andcanbeexplainedinlargepartbyacommonhistoryofsettlementservicesandfederalframework)ThuswhatlevelofgovernmentndashamongthefederalprovincialandlocallevelsndashisresponsibleforprovidinglocallanguageeducationtoadultimmigrantsWhatactorsareconsultedinelaboratingandmakingdecisions over service provisionWhat language is taught Finallywhat actors are providinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants
In sum beyond exploring to what extent reasons andmotivations to provide languageeducationtoadultimmigrantsvarybetweenprovincesweexplorewhetherthesevariationsareaccompaniedbycorrespondingvariationsinhowthiseducationisprovided
The context
InadditiontodescribingthemodelsofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationinQuebecBritishColumbiaandtheirbiggestcitiesourarticleponderswhetherandinwhatsensedemographylanguagehistoryandthecommonfederalframeworkcanexplainthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetwoprovinces
Demography and language history
Asmentionedintheintroductiondemographyandlanguagehistoryvarygreatlyfromonepartof the country to another potentially impactingon languagepolicy andplanning andon the
138 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
language education provided to adult immigrantsTable 1 outlines the linguistic compositioninCanadaQuebec (and its largest cityMontreal) andBritishColumbia (and its largest cityVancouver)intermsofmothertonguesin2011
Table 1Mothertonguebyprovincesandcensusmetropolitanarea(CMA)
Mother tongues
English French Other Multiple
Quebec Total 77 781 123 19
Montreal(CMA) 116 633 220 31
BritishColumbia Total 703 13 265 19
Vancouver(CMA) 560 11 403 27
Canada Total 569 213 198 20
StatisticsCanada(2011d)Table 2 shows that it is not only the proportionof people having French and a non-officiallanguageastheirmothertonguethatvariesacrossCanadaandbetweencitiesbutalsothenon-officiallanguagesspokenthemselves
Table 2MostspokenmothertonguesinMontrealandVancouver
CMA Montreal Vancouver
English 2(116) 1(560)
French 1(633) 11(11)
Spanish 4(29) 9(14)
Italian 5(29)
Chinese(nototherwisespecified) 7(10) 4(49)
Cantonese 3(56)
Mandarin 5(39)
Punjabi 2(61)
Tagalog 6(21)
Arabic 3(34)
Creoles 6(13)
StatisticsCanada(2011d)
IndeedwhileChineselanguagesandPunjabiarebyfarthemostfrequentinVancouvertheyrankmuchlowerinMontrealConverselyArabicSpanishandItalianarethemostspokennon-officiallanguagesinMontreal
Behind these numbers come important variations in terms of the linguistic history ofCanadaFirsttheoriginalsettlersandcolonizersofCanadacameverylargelyfromtwoEuropeancountries speaking different languages French and English Although aboriginal people andlanguagesarenotdiscussedinourarticleitisusefultoberemindedthatCanadawasestablishedbyEuropeansettlersonalandinhabitedpriortocolonizationbyindigenouspeopleOneimpactof European colonization of theCanadian territory ndash beyond the dramatic decrease of theaboriginalpopulationitselfndashhasbeentheneardisappearanceofmostindigenouslanguagesIn2011only63000personsdeclaredanindigenouslanguageastheirmothertongueinCanadaandonly172percentofindigenouspersonsreportedbeingabletoconverseinanindigenous
London Review of Education 139
languageFurthertheproportionofindigenouspersonsabletodosodecreasedby2percentbetween2006and2011while theirpopulation grewby awhole201per cent in the sameperiod(StatisticsCanada2011c)
TheBritishconquestofFrenchNorthAmericain1760wasfollowedbymultipleattemptsat assimilating French-speaking residentsWhereas the pursuit of the linguistic and culturalassimilationoftheFrenchCanadianslessenedonceCanadawascreatedin1867thedemographicweightofFrenchasamothertongueamongtheCanadianpopulationhasbeensteadilydecliningForexamplea1912regulationbannedelementaryschoolteachersfromspeakingFrenchforwhichOntariorsquospremierKathleenWynneissuedaformalapologytofrancophonesthroughtheprovinciallegislatureinFebruary2016lsquoRegulation17showedadisregardforFranco-OntarianidentityandequalityandonbehalfofthegovernmentofOntarioIofferanapologyrsquo(The Canadian Press2016)
Frenchspeakersrepresented29percentofthepopulationin1951and217percentin2011ForthecityofMontrealalone(notthemetropolitanarea)themajorityofresidentswithFrenchasamothertonguehasbeendecliningaswellfrom68percentin1951to524percentin2011(DominionBureauofStatistics1953VilledeMontreacutealnd)withtheproportionbeing635percentfortheentiremetropolitanarea(StatisticsCanada2016)ThedemographicweightofQuebecamongallCanadianprovinceshasalsobeendecliningfrom279percentin1971to23percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceQuebecseatsinthefederalparliamentdecreasedfrom266percentin1976to233percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)
InadditiontoahistoryofconquestandasteadydemographicdeclineofbothfrancophonesacrossthecountryandofQuebecrsquosweightamongtheprovincesthehistoryofsocioeconomicinequalities experienced by francophones ndash even in Quebec ndash must be mentioned Indeeduntilthe1960sdespiteamajorityoffrancophonesintheprovinceofQuebecthelanguageofcommerceandofworkwasmainlyEnglishIndeedfrancophoneswerelessinstructedunder-representedamonghigherprofessionallevelsandgainedsmallerrevenues(DickinsonandYoung2008PCO1970)
FinallyasafrancophoneprovincewithinnotonlyamajorityEnglish-speakingcountrybutanevenlargermajorityEnglish-speakingNorthAmericancontinentQuebecstrugglestoconveytoitsnewcomerstheimportanceofpreservingFrenchasthecommonlanguageUntilthe1970s90percentofnewcomerstoQuebecchoselsquoto integrate intotheminorityEnglishspeakingcommunityrsquo(Bouffard201550)TheappealofEnglishremainsunderstandabletodayinacountryandlsquoinacontinentwheretheoverwhelmingmajorityspeaksnotonlyadifferentlanguagebut thelanguageofglobalizationrsquo(ibid49)
In sum the history of conquest and of socioeconomic inequalities the harsh reality oflinguisticdemographicdeclineandthehistoricaltendencyofimmigrantstointegrateintotheanglophonecommunityhavehad verydeep impacts inQuebec In thatprovince the fearofEnglishandndashtoacertainextentndashofotherlanguageshasbeenquitestrongparticularlyregardingitsmostpopulatedcityandmainreceiverofimmigrationMontreal
TheBritishColumbian linguistichistory isverydifferentTheFrenchminorityhasalwaysbeenverysmallinnumberItaccountedfor1percentofthepopulationin1951andstilldoestodayTheFrenchndashEnglish strugglehas thusbeenmuchquieterndash if not absentWhereas thepercentageofBritishColumbianswithEnglishastheirmothertonguehasdeclinedsubstantiallymost notably inVancouver (from 86 per cent in 1951 to 56 per cent in 2011) the Englishlanguage has never been fundamentally threatenedCompared to French inQuebec Englishremains incontestably thefirstofficial language learnedby immigrants inBritishColumbia IntermsofdemographicweightamongCanadianprovincesBritishColumbiarsquosgrewfrom102per
140 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
centin1971to131percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceBritishColumbiarsquosseatsinthefederalparliamentincreasedfrom7percentin1976to125percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)
In sum we observe extremely different demographic and language histories inQuebecandBritishColumbiaThesemajordifferencescanclearlybeexpectedtohaveimpactsoneachprovincersquoslanguagepolicyandplanning
The federal framework and immigration
InCanadabeing a federationofprovinces jurisdictions are allocated toone levelor sharedbetween two Immigration is shared whereas education and municipal affairs come underprovincialjurisdiction
MajortransformationshavetakenplacewithregardtoimmigrationinCanadainthelastdecadesFirsttheimmigrantselectionprocesswasalteredfollowingtheadoptionoftheBillofRights1960whichmade inevitablelsquotheremovalof immigrationregulationsrestrictingaccessofnon-Europeansrsquo(CardozoandPendakur200823)Referencestoraceorregionsoforiginwerethusreplacedintheselectioncriteriawithskillsandqualificationsand incertaincaseslanguages spoken (ibid) Second the ideaofmulticulturalismemerged in the1960s andwasformalizedintheCanadianMulticulturalismAct adoptedin1971AllCanadianprovinceshavesinceembracedimmigrationasasourceofhumananddemographicaswellasfinancialcapital(Paquet2016)Furtherlsquothefederalgovernmentandseveralofitsprovincialcounterpartshaveplaced a priority on immigrationmatters in recent years linking it to amultitude of otherprominent policy areasrsquo (Tolley et al 2011 3 as quoted byGunn 2012 3) In otherwordsquestions relating to immigration were introduced in many policy domains outside that ofcitizenshipandimmigrationperseincludingeducationworkandeconomyMostimportantlywhereasprovincialgovernmentshadbeenquiteshytoundertakeresponsibilitiesregardingtheshared jurisdiction of immigration they have becomemore interested in the field since the1970s(Gunn20123)andincreasinglyactivesincethe1990sIndeed ledbytheinterventionof the province ofQuebec all Canadian provinces have sincewith the federal governmentsigned bilateral agreements regarding immigration adopted immigration policies taken partintheselectionof immigrantsandcontributedtotheestablishmentofvariousorganizationspromotinggreaterintegrationamongnewcomers(Paquet2016)
ProvinceshavefurtherdevelopedvariousprogrammesforthesettlementandintegrationofimmigrantsAsdiscussedbelowadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationisoneimportantaspectofthesemodelsDespiteallthisthefederalagencyoverseeingsettlementandintegrationinthecountryisCitizenshipandImmigrationCanada(CIC)AlthoughQuebecManitobaandBritishColumbialsquoareresponsibleforthedesigndeliveryandadministrationofsettlementservicesrsquothisresponsibilityistransferredwiththelsquoobjectiveofachievingcomparablenewcomersrsquosettlementoutcomesrsquo (CICnd(a))ThebilateralaccordshaveattributedQuebecaspecialright fortheintegrationofnewcomers in theprovinceFinancialcompensationsareprovided forQuebectoprovideintegrationandsettlementserviceslsquoaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountryandaslongasallpermanentresidentsoftheprovincewhethertheywereselectedbyQuebecornotcanhaveaccesstothemrsquo(HouseofCommonsofCanada20101)
London Review of Education 141
Municipal affairs
In Canada the 1867 Constitutional Act assigned to the provincial governments exclusivejurisdictionovermunicipalitiesThusmunicipalitiesarenotconstitutionallyrecognizedanddonotndashat least formallyndashconstituteanorderofgovernmentof theirown inCanada (Young2009 106) One impact of this provincially exclusive jurisdiction is that provincial-municipalsystems vary considerably across the countryWhileCanadianmunicipalities have no formalresponsibilities except in Ontario regarding education healthcare and social services ndash allprovincialjurisdictionsndashtheyareoftenkeyactorsinimplementingfederalandprovincialpoliciesandprogrammes (ibid 115) Immigration is clearlyoneof thepolicydomains inwhich localgovernmentsandmunicipalitieshavebeenincreasinglyactiveIndeedmostimmigrantstoCanadachoosetosettleinbigcitiesTheFederationofCanadianMunicipalitiesstressedthatin2010two-thirdsofimmigrantssettledinCanadarsquosthreemostimportantmetropolitanareasTorontoMontrealandVancouverIn201117percentofimmigrantstoCanada(FCM2011)and76percentofimmigrantstoQuebecchosetosettleinMontreal(EmploiNexus2016)makingup344percentoftheresidentsofthecityofMontrealInthesameyear14percentofimmigrantstoCanadachosetosettleinVancouver(FCM2011)
Inpractice itmeansthatlsquoday-to-day issuesofmulticulturalismare renegotiatedandsettledin only a few citiesrsquo (Good 2008 1)Thus Canadarsquos biggest cities are active in the field ofimmigrationbecausetheyarelsquothefirstpointofcontactbetweennewcomersandgovernmentdue to the day-to-day dependence of immigrants on various local public servicesrsquo (Gunn20121)AccordingtoGood(2008)somemunicipalitieshavebeenveryresponsivetoincreasingnumbersofnewcomersintheirterritoriesndashforexamplethroughcontributinglsquotocommunitycapacitybuildingbyfundingcommunityorganizationsthatserveimmigrantsandethno-culturalminoritiesrsquothroughestablishinglsquoseparateunitsintheircivilservicetofacilitateaccessandequityin governance and service delivery aswell as tomanage diversityrsquo and through establishinglsquogovernancerelationshipsthatsupporttheireffortsinequitypolicyrsquoincludingwiththebusinesscommunity(ibid7)
Despitethefactthatmunicipallsquofront-lineserviceprovidersarekeyplayersinthesuccessfulsettlementattractionandretentionofimmigrantsmunicipalitieshavebeenleftonthesidelinesofimmigrantpolicyandfundingdecisionsrsquo(Gunn20124ndash5)withseniorlevelsofgovernmentsdealingmore frequentlywithlsquospecial-purpose non-profit societiesrsquo (Kataoka andMagnusson200720)
Finallyalthoughmunicipalitiesareformallyajurisdictionoftheprovincesthereisageneraltrend towardsmore direct relationships betweenmunicipalities and the federal government(Andrew 2014 Stoney andGraham 2009)Multiple reasons explain this trend including theimportanceofcontemporaryurbanchallengesandtheexplosionofmunicipalcostsasapartialconsequence of decentralization and of relatively low recent investments in infrastructure(Lalonde2016)Reviewingtheliteratureonthetopicofmunicipal-federalrelationshipsLalondenotes that most federal funding transits in provincial hands before landing in municipalitiesFurthermoremunicipalitiesrsquorolesandrelationshipwithfederalagencieslargelydependontherelationshipbetweentheirrespectiveprovincialgovernmentandthefederalgovernment(ibid)
InsumwhiletheCanadianfederalframeworkcanbeaunifyingfactoritleavesroomforconsiderablevariationndash forexample in thefieldsof immigrationandmunicipal affairsndashandevenforprovincialemulationThesepossibilitieshaveimpactsonlanguagepolicyandplanningndashandmostimportantlyforusintermsofwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrants
142 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
The analytical framework A summary
FollowingpolicyanalysisframeworksandspecificallylanguagepolicyandplanningourenquiryintolanguageeducationforadultimmigrantscompareswhyandhowitisprovidedinQuebecandBritishColumbiatwoverydifferentprovincesofCanadaandintheirbiggestcitiesOurultimategoal istopondertheimpactsofdemography languagehistoryandthefederalframeworkonthesepoliciesTable 3summarizestheelementsaddressedhere
Table 3Analyticalframeworkandapproach
Describing and comparing Pondering the impacts of vectors of differences and similarities
WhyWhatarethemainreasonsforprovidinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants
bull Citizenshipandnationalismreasons
bull Jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsreasons
bull Socialwelfareandintegrationreasons
Demography and language history
bull Languagersquosminorityormajoritystatusinthecountryandcontinent
bull Languagersquospowerofattractionasfirstofficiallanguagelearned
bull LanguagersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull ProvincersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull Otherhistoricalelements(historyofconquestandofsocio-
economicdomination)
Federalism as vector of differences
bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Increasedprovincialinterventiono Bilateralaccordsbetweenprovincesandthefederal
governmento Provincialchoiceofcriteriafortheselectionof
immigrants(levelandtypeofskillslanguagesspokenetc)
bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipalitiesascreaturesoftheprovinces
Federalism as vector of similarities
bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Billofrightso MulticulturalismActo CICinterventions
bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipal-federalrelationshipo Municipalitiesconceivedasalevelofgovernmento Municipalitiesrsquoexclusionofpolicydesign
HowWhatarethemaininternalfeaturesofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducation
bull Languagetaughtbull Responsiblelevelof
governmentbull Languageeducationservice
providers
Language education for adult immigrants in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largest cities
WiththeaboveframeworkandapproachinmindwenowturntodescribingandcomparingwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecBritishColumbiaMontrealandVancouver
London Review of Education 143
Language laws and official languages
InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat
TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada
(SLMCnd(a))
Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)
InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces
144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage
British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))
Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education
The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself
towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry
(Beacutechard20113)
London Review of Education 145
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)
AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)
TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration
InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople
(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)
ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)
InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))
WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites
TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture
(CICnd(c))
InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria
ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding
146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)
Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin
London Review of Education 147
BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture
TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related
English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec
British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)
In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices
Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding
148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)
Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants
Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation
Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries
Conclusion
AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants
London Review of Education 149
Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy
ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec
ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues
Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the
150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated
Notes on the contributors
Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012
CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa
RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada
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BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)
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BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65
BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)
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ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)
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ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress
CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)
CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20
CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants
Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)
Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise
DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)
DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS
152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)
ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)
EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant
settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19
FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario
Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan
GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45
GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)
GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)
ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)
Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)
GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)
GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)
HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)
InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)
London Review of Education 153
KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)
KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)
LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)
MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)
Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada
McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)
MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)
MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)
MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)
MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress
MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec
154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)
PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook
3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)
Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)
RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge
SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)
SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)
Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)
ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)
StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI
London Review of Education 155
Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)
ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
London Review of Education 137
associatedwithincreasedproductivityofotherinvestmentinhumancapitalincludingeducationandtraining(Chiswick2008)
Thethirdmainsetofreasonsforproviding languageeducationtoadult immigrants isasaprerequisiteforgreatersocialwelfareandintegrationinthecommunityOneelementoftenemphasized in the literature ishowa lackofknowledgeorproficiency in the local languageis connected to smaller and less diversified personal networks (Rose 2006Thomas 2011)Thesenetworksconveypoorer information leading todisadvantages in a varietyof spheresDamarisRose(2006)arguesforexamplethatimmigrantswithsmallerandmoreundiversifiednetworkshavegreaterdifficultiesfindingsuitablehousingProficiencyinthelocallanguagealsohaspositivebenefitswithregardtoeducationParentsrsquolinguisticskillshavebeenassociatedwitha similar levelof successat school in theirchildren (GouvernementduQueacutebec2014TCRI2011) Further a higher level of language proficiency is associatedwith greater engagementinpost-secondaryeducationuponarrival(Adamuti-Trache2012109)whichinturnprovidesgreaterjobsandsocialintegrationopportunities(DerwingandWaugh20127)Lowlevelsoflocallanguageskillsalsohavenegativeimpactsonself-reportedhealth(Nget al201119)andonimmigrantsrsquoaccesstothehealthcaresystem(Battagliniet al2007GagnonandSaillant2000Olazabalet al2010SouliegraveresandOuellette2012)Lowlanguageproficiencyisalsoidentifiedasariskfactoroffamilyviolenceamongimmigrantwomen(Ahmadet al2004Rinfret-Raynoret al20136)Finallystudiesshowthatimmigrantsrsquogreaterlocallinguisticskillsareassociatedwithgreaterpoliticalinvolvement(Chiswick2008)
How
Differences and similarities in the reasons why language education is provided to adultimmigrantsdonotnecessarily translate intocorrespondingdifferencesandsimilarities in thewaythiseducationisprovidedonthegroundIndeedwhilethesereasonsmaydiffer(andcanbeexplainedpartlybythedifferencesindemographyandlanguagehistory) it ispossiblethatmanycomponentsremainthesameatthelevelofserviceprovision(andcanbeexplainedinlargepartbyacommonhistoryofsettlementservicesandfederalframework)ThuswhatlevelofgovernmentndashamongthefederalprovincialandlocallevelsndashisresponsibleforprovidinglocallanguageeducationtoadultimmigrantsWhatactorsareconsultedinelaboratingandmakingdecisions over service provisionWhat language is taught Finallywhat actors are providinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants
In sum beyond exploring to what extent reasons andmotivations to provide languageeducationtoadultimmigrantsvarybetweenprovincesweexplorewhetherthesevariationsareaccompaniedbycorrespondingvariationsinhowthiseducationisprovided
The context
InadditiontodescribingthemodelsofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationinQuebecBritishColumbiaandtheirbiggestcitiesourarticleponderswhetherandinwhatsensedemographylanguagehistoryandthecommonfederalframeworkcanexplainthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetwoprovinces
Demography and language history
Asmentionedintheintroductiondemographyandlanguagehistoryvarygreatlyfromonepartof the country to another potentially impactingon languagepolicy andplanning andon the
138 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
language education provided to adult immigrantsTable 1 outlines the linguistic compositioninCanadaQuebec (and its largest cityMontreal) andBritishColumbia (and its largest cityVancouver)intermsofmothertonguesin2011
Table 1Mothertonguebyprovincesandcensusmetropolitanarea(CMA)
Mother tongues
English French Other Multiple
Quebec Total 77 781 123 19
Montreal(CMA) 116 633 220 31
BritishColumbia Total 703 13 265 19
Vancouver(CMA) 560 11 403 27
Canada Total 569 213 198 20
StatisticsCanada(2011d)Table 2 shows that it is not only the proportionof people having French and a non-officiallanguageastheirmothertonguethatvariesacrossCanadaandbetweencitiesbutalsothenon-officiallanguagesspokenthemselves
Table 2MostspokenmothertonguesinMontrealandVancouver
CMA Montreal Vancouver
English 2(116) 1(560)
French 1(633) 11(11)
Spanish 4(29) 9(14)
Italian 5(29)
Chinese(nototherwisespecified) 7(10) 4(49)
Cantonese 3(56)
Mandarin 5(39)
Punjabi 2(61)
Tagalog 6(21)
Arabic 3(34)
Creoles 6(13)
StatisticsCanada(2011d)
IndeedwhileChineselanguagesandPunjabiarebyfarthemostfrequentinVancouvertheyrankmuchlowerinMontrealConverselyArabicSpanishandItalianarethemostspokennon-officiallanguagesinMontreal
Behind these numbers come important variations in terms of the linguistic history ofCanadaFirsttheoriginalsettlersandcolonizersofCanadacameverylargelyfromtwoEuropeancountries speaking different languages French and English Although aboriginal people andlanguagesarenotdiscussedinourarticleitisusefultoberemindedthatCanadawasestablishedbyEuropeansettlersonalandinhabitedpriortocolonizationbyindigenouspeopleOneimpactof European colonization of theCanadian territory ndash beyond the dramatic decrease of theaboriginalpopulationitselfndashhasbeentheneardisappearanceofmostindigenouslanguagesIn2011only63000personsdeclaredanindigenouslanguageastheirmothertongueinCanadaandonly172percentofindigenouspersonsreportedbeingabletoconverseinanindigenous
London Review of Education 139
languageFurthertheproportionofindigenouspersonsabletodosodecreasedby2percentbetween2006and2011while theirpopulation grewby awhole201per cent in the sameperiod(StatisticsCanada2011c)
TheBritishconquestofFrenchNorthAmericain1760wasfollowedbymultipleattemptsat assimilating French-speaking residentsWhereas the pursuit of the linguistic and culturalassimilationoftheFrenchCanadianslessenedonceCanadawascreatedin1867thedemographicweightofFrenchasamothertongueamongtheCanadianpopulationhasbeensteadilydecliningForexamplea1912regulationbannedelementaryschoolteachersfromspeakingFrenchforwhichOntariorsquospremierKathleenWynneissuedaformalapologytofrancophonesthroughtheprovinciallegislatureinFebruary2016lsquoRegulation17showedadisregardforFranco-OntarianidentityandequalityandonbehalfofthegovernmentofOntarioIofferanapologyrsquo(The Canadian Press2016)
Frenchspeakersrepresented29percentofthepopulationin1951and217percentin2011ForthecityofMontrealalone(notthemetropolitanarea)themajorityofresidentswithFrenchasamothertonguehasbeendecliningaswellfrom68percentin1951to524percentin2011(DominionBureauofStatistics1953VilledeMontreacutealnd)withtheproportionbeing635percentfortheentiremetropolitanarea(StatisticsCanada2016)ThedemographicweightofQuebecamongallCanadianprovinceshasalsobeendecliningfrom279percentin1971to23percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceQuebecseatsinthefederalparliamentdecreasedfrom266percentin1976to233percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)
InadditiontoahistoryofconquestandasteadydemographicdeclineofbothfrancophonesacrossthecountryandofQuebecrsquosweightamongtheprovincesthehistoryofsocioeconomicinequalities experienced by francophones ndash even in Quebec ndash must be mentioned Indeeduntilthe1960sdespiteamajorityoffrancophonesintheprovinceofQuebecthelanguageofcommerceandofworkwasmainlyEnglishIndeedfrancophoneswerelessinstructedunder-representedamonghigherprofessionallevelsandgainedsmallerrevenues(DickinsonandYoung2008PCO1970)
FinallyasafrancophoneprovincewithinnotonlyamajorityEnglish-speakingcountrybutanevenlargermajorityEnglish-speakingNorthAmericancontinentQuebecstrugglestoconveytoitsnewcomerstheimportanceofpreservingFrenchasthecommonlanguageUntilthe1970s90percentofnewcomerstoQuebecchoselsquoto integrate intotheminorityEnglishspeakingcommunityrsquo(Bouffard201550)TheappealofEnglishremainsunderstandabletodayinacountryandlsquoinacontinentwheretheoverwhelmingmajorityspeaksnotonlyadifferentlanguagebut thelanguageofglobalizationrsquo(ibid49)
In sum the history of conquest and of socioeconomic inequalities the harsh reality oflinguisticdemographicdeclineandthehistoricaltendencyofimmigrantstointegrateintotheanglophonecommunityhavehad verydeep impacts inQuebec In thatprovince the fearofEnglishandndashtoacertainextentndashofotherlanguageshasbeenquitestrongparticularlyregardingitsmostpopulatedcityandmainreceiverofimmigrationMontreal
TheBritishColumbian linguistichistory isverydifferentTheFrenchminorityhasalwaysbeenverysmallinnumberItaccountedfor1percentofthepopulationin1951andstilldoestodayTheFrenchndashEnglish strugglehas thusbeenmuchquieterndash if not absentWhereas thepercentageofBritishColumbianswithEnglishastheirmothertonguehasdeclinedsubstantiallymost notably inVancouver (from 86 per cent in 1951 to 56 per cent in 2011) the Englishlanguage has never been fundamentally threatenedCompared to French inQuebec Englishremains incontestably thefirstofficial language learnedby immigrants inBritishColumbia IntermsofdemographicweightamongCanadianprovincesBritishColumbiarsquosgrewfrom102per
140 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
centin1971to131percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceBritishColumbiarsquosseatsinthefederalparliamentincreasedfrom7percentin1976to125percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)
In sum we observe extremely different demographic and language histories inQuebecandBritishColumbiaThesemajordifferencescanclearlybeexpectedtohaveimpactsoneachprovincersquoslanguagepolicyandplanning
The federal framework and immigration
InCanadabeing a federationofprovinces jurisdictions are allocated toone levelor sharedbetween two Immigration is shared whereas education and municipal affairs come underprovincialjurisdiction
MajortransformationshavetakenplacewithregardtoimmigrationinCanadainthelastdecadesFirsttheimmigrantselectionprocesswasalteredfollowingtheadoptionoftheBillofRights1960whichmade inevitablelsquotheremovalof immigrationregulationsrestrictingaccessofnon-Europeansrsquo(CardozoandPendakur200823)Referencestoraceorregionsoforiginwerethusreplacedintheselectioncriteriawithskillsandqualificationsand incertaincaseslanguages spoken (ibid) Second the ideaofmulticulturalismemerged in the1960s andwasformalizedintheCanadianMulticulturalismAct adoptedin1971AllCanadianprovinceshavesinceembracedimmigrationasasourceofhumananddemographicaswellasfinancialcapital(Paquet2016)Furtherlsquothefederalgovernmentandseveralofitsprovincialcounterpartshaveplaced a priority on immigrationmatters in recent years linking it to amultitude of otherprominent policy areasrsquo (Tolley et al 2011 3 as quoted byGunn 2012 3) In otherwordsquestions relating to immigration were introduced in many policy domains outside that ofcitizenshipandimmigrationperseincludingeducationworkandeconomyMostimportantlywhereasprovincialgovernmentshadbeenquiteshytoundertakeresponsibilitiesregardingtheshared jurisdiction of immigration they have becomemore interested in the field since the1970s(Gunn20123)andincreasinglyactivesincethe1990sIndeed ledbytheinterventionof the province ofQuebec all Canadian provinces have sincewith the federal governmentsigned bilateral agreements regarding immigration adopted immigration policies taken partintheselectionof immigrantsandcontributedtotheestablishmentofvariousorganizationspromotinggreaterintegrationamongnewcomers(Paquet2016)
ProvinceshavefurtherdevelopedvariousprogrammesforthesettlementandintegrationofimmigrantsAsdiscussedbelowadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationisoneimportantaspectofthesemodelsDespiteallthisthefederalagencyoverseeingsettlementandintegrationinthecountryisCitizenshipandImmigrationCanada(CIC)AlthoughQuebecManitobaandBritishColumbialsquoareresponsibleforthedesigndeliveryandadministrationofsettlementservicesrsquothisresponsibilityistransferredwiththelsquoobjectiveofachievingcomparablenewcomersrsquosettlementoutcomesrsquo (CICnd(a))ThebilateralaccordshaveattributedQuebecaspecialright fortheintegrationofnewcomers in theprovinceFinancialcompensationsareprovided forQuebectoprovideintegrationandsettlementserviceslsquoaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountryandaslongasallpermanentresidentsoftheprovincewhethertheywereselectedbyQuebecornotcanhaveaccesstothemrsquo(HouseofCommonsofCanada20101)
London Review of Education 141
Municipal affairs
In Canada the 1867 Constitutional Act assigned to the provincial governments exclusivejurisdictionovermunicipalitiesThusmunicipalitiesarenotconstitutionallyrecognizedanddonotndashat least formallyndashconstituteanorderofgovernmentof theirown inCanada (Young2009 106) One impact of this provincially exclusive jurisdiction is that provincial-municipalsystems vary considerably across the countryWhileCanadianmunicipalities have no formalresponsibilities except in Ontario regarding education healthcare and social services ndash allprovincialjurisdictionsndashtheyareoftenkeyactorsinimplementingfederalandprovincialpoliciesandprogrammes (ibid 115) Immigration is clearlyoneof thepolicydomains inwhich localgovernmentsandmunicipalitieshavebeenincreasinglyactiveIndeedmostimmigrantstoCanadachoosetosettleinbigcitiesTheFederationofCanadianMunicipalitiesstressedthatin2010two-thirdsofimmigrantssettledinCanadarsquosthreemostimportantmetropolitanareasTorontoMontrealandVancouverIn201117percentofimmigrantstoCanada(FCM2011)and76percentofimmigrantstoQuebecchosetosettleinMontreal(EmploiNexus2016)makingup344percentoftheresidentsofthecityofMontrealInthesameyear14percentofimmigrantstoCanadachosetosettleinVancouver(FCM2011)
Inpractice itmeansthatlsquoday-to-day issuesofmulticulturalismare renegotiatedandsettledin only a few citiesrsquo (Good 2008 1)Thus Canadarsquos biggest cities are active in the field ofimmigrationbecausetheyarelsquothefirstpointofcontactbetweennewcomersandgovernmentdue to the day-to-day dependence of immigrants on various local public servicesrsquo (Gunn20121)AccordingtoGood(2008)somemunicipalitieshavebeenveryresponsivetoincreasingnumbersofnewcomersintheirterritoriesndashforexamplethroughcontributinglsquotocommunitycapacitybuildingbyfundingcommunityorganizationsthatserveimmigrantsandethno-culturalminoritiesrsquothroughestablishinglsquoseparateunitsintheircivilservicetofacilitateaccessandequityin governance and service delivery aswell as tomanage diversityrsquo and through establishinglsquogovernancerelationshipsthatsupporttheireffortsinequitypolicyrsquoincludingwiththebusinesscommunity(ibid7)
Despitethefactthatmunicipallsquofront-lineserviceprovidersarekeyplayersinthesuccessfulsettlementattractionandretentionofimmigrantsmunicipalitieshavebeenleftonthesidelinesofimmigrantpolicyandfundingdecisionsrsquo(Gunn20124ndash5)withseniorlevelsofgovernmentsdealingmore frequentlywithlsquospecial-purpose non-profit societiesrsquo (Kataoka andMagnusson200720)
Finallyalthoughmunicipalitiesareformallyajurisdictionoftheprovincesthereisageneraltrend towardsmore direct relationships betweenmunicipalities and the federal government(Andrew 2014 Stoney andGraham 2009)Multiple reasons explain this trend including theimportanceofcontemporaryurbanchallengesandtheexplosionofmunicipalcostsasapartialconsequence of decentralization and of relatively low recent investments in infrastructure(Lalonde2016)Reviewingtheliteratureonthetopicofmunicipal-federalrelationshipsLalondenotes that most federal funding transits in provincial hands before landing in municipalitiesFurthermoremunicipalitiesrsquorolesandrelationshipwithfederalagencieslargelydependontherelationshipbetweentheirrespectiveprovincialgovernmentandthefederalgovernment(ibid)
InsumwhiletheCanadianfederalframeworkcanbeaunifyingfactoritleavesroomforconsiderablevariationndash forexample in thefieldsof immigrationandmunicipal affairsndashandevenforprovincialemulationThesepossibilitieshaveimpactsonlanguagepolicyandplanningndashandmostimportantlyforusintermsofwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrants
142 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
The analytical framework A summary
FollowingpolicyanalysisframeworksandspecificallylanguagepolicyandplanningourenquiryintolanguageeducationforadultimmigrantscompareswhyandhowitisprovidedinQuebecandBritishColumbiatwoverydifferentprovincesofCanadaandintheirbiggestcitiesOurultimategoal istopondertheimpactsofdemography languagehistoryandthefederalframeworkonthesepoliciesTable 3summarizestheelementsaddressedhere
Table 3Analyticalframeworkandapproach
Describing and comparing Pondering the impacts of vectors of differences and similarities
WhyWhatarethemainreasonsforprovidinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants
bull Citizenshipandnationalismreasons
bull Jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsreasons
bull Socialwelfareandintegrationreasons
Demography and language history
bull Languagersquosminorityormajoritystatusinthecountryandcontinent
bull Languagersquospowerofattractionasfirstofficiallanguagelearned
bull LanguagersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull ProvincersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull Otherhistoricalelements(historyofconquestandofsocio-
economicdomination)
Federalism as vector of differences
bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Increasedprovincialinterventiono Bilateralaccordsbetweenprovincesandthefederal
governmento Provincialchoiceofcriteriafortheselectionof
immigrants(levelandtypeofskillslanguagesspokenetc)
bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipalitiesascreaturesoftheprovinces
Federalism as vector of similarities
bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Billofrightso MulticulturalismActo CICinterventions
bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipal-federalrelationshipo Municipalitiesconceivedasalevelofgovernmento Municipalitiesrsquoexclusionofpolicydesign
HowWhatarethemaininternalfeaturesofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducation
bull Languagetaughtbull Responsiblelevelof
governmentbull Languageeducationservice
providers
Language education for adult immigrants in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largest cities
WiththeaboveframeworkandapproachinmindwenowturntodescribingandcomparingwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecBritishColumbiaMontrealandVancouver
London Review of Education 143
Language laws and official languages
InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat
TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada
(SLMCnd(a))
Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)
InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces
144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage
British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))
Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education
The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself
towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry
(Beacutechard20113)
London Review of Education 145
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)
AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)
TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration
InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople
(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)
ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)
InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))
WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites
TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture
(CICnd(c))
InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria
ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding
146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)
Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin
London Review of Education 147
BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture
TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related
English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec
British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)
In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices
Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding
148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)
Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants
Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation
Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries
Conclusion
AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants
London Review of Education 149
Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy
ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec
ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues
Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the
150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated
Notes on the contributors
Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012
CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa
RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada
References
Adamuti-Trache M (2012) lsquoLanguage acquisition among adult immigrants in Canada The effect ofpremigrationlanguagecapitalrsquoAdult Education Quarterly63(2)103ndash26
AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82
AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49
BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)
Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)
BelkhodjaC(2008)lsquoIntroductionImmigrationetdiversiteacutedanslescommunauteacutesfrancophonesensituationminoritairersquo In BelkhodjaC (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaire Thegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies3ndash6
BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65
BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)
BursteinM Clement G and Petty S (2014) Pratiques drsquointeacutegration prometteuses dans les communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireOttawaCIC
London Review of Education 151
Canadian Press(2016)lsquoPremierWynneapologizesfor1912regulationbanningFrenchinOntarioschoolsrsquoOnlinewwwthecanadianpresscomenglishonlineOnlineFullStoryaspxfilename=DOR-MNN-CPd2732aaf15964e269a42e66a46cec9daCPKEY2008111303ampnewsitemid=36470080amplanguageid=1(accessed1March2016)
CardozoAandPendakurR(2008)Canadarsquos Visible Minority Population 1967ndash2017WorkingpaperseriesVancouver Metropolis British Columbia Online httpmbcmetropolisnetassetsuploadsfileswp2008WP08-05pdf(accessed1March2016)
CentreforInternationalMigrationandSettlementStudies(CIMSS)(2012)lsquoIntroductionStateoftheartandfuturedirectionsinsettlementlanguagetrainingrsquoInternational Settlement CanadaSpecial issue on settlement language training SpringOnlinewww3carletoncacimssinscan-ev24_sepdf (accessed1March2016)
ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)
Ciccarelli SB (1997)lsquoESL for nation-buildingThe origins of federally-funded ESL inCanadarsquoMA dissOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationUniversityofToronto
Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (nd(b)) lsquoFindingsrsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishresourcesevaluationgrant-quebecsection4asp(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)
CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (nd) Vancouver City Local Immigration PartnershipVancouver Community Services Online httpvancouvercafilescovvancouver-city-local-immigration-partnership-overviewpdf (accessed 6 April2016)
ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)
ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress
CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)
CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20
CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants
Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)
Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise
DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)
DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS
152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)
ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)
EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant
settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19
FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario
Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan
GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45
GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)
GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)
ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)
Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)
GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)
GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)
HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)
InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)
London Review of Education 153
KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)
KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)
LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)
MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)
Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada
McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)
MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)
MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)
MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)
MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress
MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec
154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)
PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook
3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)
Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)
RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge
SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)
SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)
Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)
ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)
StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI
London Review of Education 155
Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)
ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
138 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
language education provided to adult immigrantsTable 1 outlines the linguistic compositioninCanadaQuebec (and its largest cityMontreal) andBritishColumbia (and its largest cityVancouver)intermsofmothertonguesin2011
Table 1Mothertonguebyprovincesandcensusmetropolitanarea(CMA)
Mother tongues
English French Other Multiple
Quebec Total 77 781 123 19
Montreal(CMA) 116 633 220 31
BritishColumbia Total 703 13 265 19
Vancouver(CMA) 560 11 403 27
Canada Total 569 213 198 20
StatisticsCanada(2011d)Table 2 shows that it is not only the proportionof people having French and a non-officiallanguageastheirmothertonguethatvariesacrossCanadaandbetweencitiesbutalsothenon-officiallanguagesspokenthemselves
Table 2MostspokenmothertonguesinMontrealandVancouver
CMA Montreal Vancouver
English 2(116) 1(560)
French 1(633) 11(11)
Spanish 4(29) 9(14)
Italian 5(29)
Chinese(nototherwisespecified) 7(10) 4(49)
Cantonese 3(56)
Mandarin 5(39)
Punjabi 2(61)
Tagalog 6(21)
Arabic 3(34)
Creoles 6(13)
StatisticsCanada(2011d)
IndeedwhileChineselanguagesandPunjabiarebyfarthemostfrequentinVancouvertheyrankmuchlowerinMontrealConverselyArabicSpanishandItalianarethemostspokennon-officiallanguagesinMontreal
Behind these numbers come important variations in terms of the linguistic history ofCanadaFirsttheoriginalsettlersandcolonizersofCanadacameverylargelyfromtwoEuropeancountries speaking different languages French and English Although aboriginal people andlanguagesarenotdiscussedinourarticleitisusefultoberemindedthatCanadawasestablishedbyEuropeansettlersonalandinhabitedpriortocolonizationbyindigenouspeopleOneimpactof European colonization of theCanadian territory ndash beyond the dramatic decrease of theaboriginalpopulationitselfndashhasbeentheneardisappearanceofmostindigenouslanguagesIn2011only63000personsdeclaredanindigenouslanguageastheirmothertongueinCanadaandonly172percentofindigenouspersonsreportedbeingabletoconverseinanindigenous
London Review of Education 139
languageFurthertheproportionofindigenouspersonsabletodosodecreasedby2percentbetween2006and2011while theirpopulation grewby awhole201per cent in the sameperiod(StatisticsCanada2011c)
TheBritishconquestofFrenchNorthAmericain1760wasfollowedbymultipleattemptsat assimilating French-speaking residentsWhereas the pursuit of the linguistic and culturalassimilationoftheFrenchCanadianslessenedonceCanadawascreatedin1867thedemographicweightofFrenchasamothertongueamongtheCanadianpopulationhasbeensteadilydecliningForexamplea1912regulationbannedelementaryschoolteachersfromspeakingFrenchforwhichOntariorsquospremierKathleenWynneissuedaformalapologytofrancophonesthroughtheprovinciallegislatureinFebruary2016lsquoRegulation17showedadisregardforFranco-OntarianidentityandequalityandonbehalfofthegovernmentofOntarioIofferanapologyrsquo(The Canadian Press2016)
Frenchspeakersrepresented29percentofthepopulationin1951and217percentin2011ForthecityofMontrealalone(notthemetropolitanarea)themajorityofresidentswithFrenchasamothertonguehasbeendecliningaswellfrom68percentin1951to524percentin2011(DominionBureauofStatistics1953VilledeMontreacutealnd)withtheproportionbeing635percentfortheentiremetropolitanarea(StatisticsCanada2016)ThedemographicweightofQuebecamongallCanadianprovinceshasalsobeendecliningfrom279percentin1971to23percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceQuebecseatsinthefederalparliamentdecreasedfrom266percentin1976to233percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)
InadditiontoahistoryofconquestandasteadydemographicdeclineofbothfrancophonesacrossthecountryandofQuebecrsquosweightamongtheprovincesthehistoryofsocioeconomicinequalities experienced by francophones ndash even in Quebec ndash must be mentioned Indeeduntilthe1960sdespiteamajorityoffrancophonesintheprovinceofQuebecthelanguageofcommerceandofworkwasmainlyEnglishIndeedfrancophoneswerelessinstructedunder-representedamonghigherprofessionallevelsandgainedsmallerrevenues(DickinsonandYoung2008PCO1970)
FinallyasafrancophoneprovincewithinnotonlyamajorityEnglish-speakingcountrybutanevenlargermajorityEnglish-speakingNorthAmericancontinentQuebecstrugglestoconveytoitsnewcomerstheimportanceofpreservingFrenchasthecommonlanguageUntilthe1970s90percentofnewcomerstoQuebecchoselsquoto integrate intotheminorityEnglishspeakingcommunityrsquo(Bouffard201550)TheappealofEnglishremainsunderstandabletodayinacountryandlsquoinacontinentwheretheoverwhelmingmajorityspeaksnotonlyadifferentlanguagebut thelanguageofglobalizationrsquo(ibid49)
In sum the history of conquest and of socioeconomic inequalities the harsh reality oflinguisticdemographicdeclineandthehistoricaltendencyofimmigrantstointegrateintotheanglophonecommunityhavehad verydeep impacts inQuebec In thatprovince the fearofEnglishandndashtoacertainextentndashofotherlanguageshasbeenquitestrongparticularlyregardingitsmostpopulatedcityandmainreceiverofimmigrationMontreal
TheBritishColumbian linguistichistory isverydifferentTheFrenchminorityhasalwaysbeenverysmallinnumberItaccountedfor1percentofthepopulationin1951andstilldoestodayTheFrenchndashEnglish strugglehas thusbeenmuchquieterndash if not absentWhereas thepercentageofBritishColumbianswithEnglishastheirmothertonguehasdeclinedsubstantiallymost notably inVancouver (from 86 per cent in 1951 to 56 per cent in 2011) the Englishlanguage has never been fundamentally threatenedCompared to French inQuebec Englishremains incontestably thefirstofficial language learnedby immigrants inBritishColumbia IntermsofdemographicweightamongCanadianprovincesBritishColumbiarsquosgrewfrom102per
140 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
centin1971to131percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceBritishColumbiarsquosseatsinthefederalparliamentincreasedfrom7percentin1976to125percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)
In sum we observe extremely different demographic and language histories inQuebecandBritishColumbiaThesemajordifferencescanclearlybeexpectedtohaveimpactsoneachprovincersquoslanguagepolicyandplanning
The federal framework and immigration
InCanadabeing a federationofprovinces jurisdictions are allocated toone levelor sharedbetween two Immigration is shared whereas education and municipal affairs come underprovincialjurisdiction
MajortransformationshavetakenplacewithregardtoimmigrationinCanadainthelastdecadesFirsttheimmigrantselectionprocesswasalteredfollowingtheadoptionoftheBillofRights1960whichmade inevitablelsquotheremovalof immigrationregulationsrestrictingaccessofnon-Europeansrsquo(CardozoandPendakur200823)Referencestoraceorregionsoforiginwerethusreplacedintheselectioncriteriawithskillsandqualificationsand incertaincaseslanguages spoken (ibid) Second the ideaofmulticulturalismemerged in the1960s andwasformalizedintheCanadianMulticulturalismAct adoptedin1971AllCanadianprovinceshavesinceembracedimmigrationasasourceofhumananddemographicaswellasfinancialcapital(Paquet2016)Furtherlsquothefederalgovernmentandseveralofitsprovincialcounterpartshaveplaced a priority on immigrationmatters in recent years linking it to amultitude of otherprominent policy areasrsquo (Tolley et al 2011 3 as quoted byGunn 2012 3) In otherwordsquestions relating to immigration were introduced in many policy domains outside that ofcitizenshipandimmigrationperseincludingeducationworkandeconomyMostimportantlywhereasprovincialgovernmentshadbeenquiteshytoundertakeresponsibilitiesregardingtheshared jurisdiction of immigration they have becomemore interested in the field since the1970s(Gunn20123)andincreasinglyactivesincethe1990sIndeed ledbytheinterventionof the province ofQuebec all Canadian provinces have sincewith the federal governmentsigned bilateral agreements regarding immigration adopted immigration policies taken partintheselectionof immigrantsandcontributedtotheestablishmentofvariousorganizationspromotinggreaterintegrationamongnewcomers(Paquet2016)
ProvinceshavefurtherdevelopedvariousprogrammesforthesettlementandintegrationofimmigrantsAsdiscussedbelowadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationisoneimportantaspectofthesemodelsDespiteallthisthefederalagencyoverseeingsettlementandintegrationinthecountryisCitizenshipandImmigrationCanada(CIC)AlthoughQuebecManitobaandBritishColumbialsquoareresponsibleforthedesigndeliveryandadministrationofsettlementservicesrsquothisresponsibilityistransferredwiththelsquoobjectiveofachievingcomparablenewcomersrsquosettlementoutcomesrsquo (CICnd(a))ThebilateralaccordshaveattributedQuebecaspecialright fortheintegrationofnewcomers in theprovinceFinancialcompensationsareprovided forQuebectoprovideintegrationandsettlementserviceslsquoaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountryandaslongasallpermanentresidentsoftheprovincewhethertheywereselectedbyQuebecornotcanhaveaccesstothemrsquo(HouseofCommonsofCanada20101)
London Review of Education 141
Municipal affairs
In Canada the 1867 Constitutional Act assigned to the provincial governments exclusivejurisdictionovermunicipalitiesThusmunicipalitiesarenotconstitutionallyrecognizedanddonotndashat least formallyndashconstituteanorderofgovernmentof theirown inCanada (Young2009 106) One impact of this provincially exclusive jurisdiction is that provincial-municipalsystems vary considerably across the countryWhileCanadianmunicipalities have no formalresponsibilities except in Ontario regarding education healthcare and social services ndash allprovincialjurisdictionsndashtheyareoftenkeyactorsinimplementingfederalandprovincialpoliciesandprogrammes (ibid 115) Immigration is clearlyoneof thepolicydomains inwhich localgovernmentsandmunicipalitieshavebeenincreasinglyactiveIndeedmostimmigrantstoCanadachoosetosettleinbigcitiesTheFederationofCanadianMunicipalitiesstressedthatin2010two-thirdsofimmigrantssettledinCanadarsquosthreemostimportantmetropolitanareasTorontoMontrealandVancouverIn201117percentofimmigrantstoCanada(FCM2011)and76percentofimmigrantstoQuebecchosetosettleinMontreal(EmploiNexus2016)makingup344percentoftheresidentsofthecityofMontrealInthesameyear14percentofimmigrantstoCanadachosetosettleinVancouver(FCM2011)
Inpractice itmeansthatlsquoday-to-day issuesofmulticulturalismare renegotiatedandsettledin only a few citiesrsquo (Good 2008 1)Thus Canadarsquos biggest cities are active in the field ofimmigrationbecausetheyarelsquothefirstpointofcontactbetweennewcomersandgovernmentdue to the day-to-day dependence of immigrants on various local public servicesrsquo (Gunn20121)AccordingtoGood(2008)somemunicipalitieshavebeenveryresponsivetoincreasingnumbersofnewcomersintheirterritoriesndashforexamplethroughcontributinglsquotocommunitycapacitybuildingbyfundingcommunityorganizationsthatserveimmigrantsandethno-culturalminoritiesrsquothroughestablishinglsquoseparateunitsintheircivilservicetofacilitateaccessandequityin governance and service delivery aswell as tomanage diversityrsquo and through establishinglsquogovernancerelationshipsthatsupporttheireffortsinequitypolicyrsquoincludingwiththebusinesscommunity(ibid7)
Despitethefactthatmunicipallsquofront-lineserviceprovidersarekeyplayersinthesuccessfulsettlementattractionandretentionofimmigrantsmunicipalitieshavebeenleftonthesidelinesofimmigrantpolicyandfundingdecisionsrsquo(Gunn20124ndash5)withseniorlevelsofgovernmentsdealingmore frequentlywithlsquospecial-purpose non-profit societiesrsquo (Kataoka andMagnusson200720)
Finallyalthoughmunicipalitiesareformallyajurisdictionoftheprovincesthereisageneraltrend towardsmore direct relationships betweenmunicipalities and the federal government(Andrew 2014 Stoney andGraham 2009)Multiple reasons explain this trend including theimportanceofcontemporaryurbanchallengesandtheexplosionofmunicipalcostsasapartialconsequence of decentralization and of relatively low recent investments in infrastructure(Lalonde2016)Reviewingtheliteratureonthetopicofmunicipal-federalrelationshipsLalondenotes that most federal funding transits in provincial hands before landing in municipalitiesFurthermoremunicipalitiesrsquorolesandrelationshipwithfederalagencieslargelydependontherelationshipbetweentheirrespectiveprovincialgovernmentandthefederalgovernment(ibid)
InsumwhiletheCanadianfederalframeworkcanbeaunifyingfactoritleavesroomforconsiderablevariationndash forexample in thefieldsof immigrationandmunicipal affairsndashandevenforprovincialemulationThesepossibilitieshaveimpactsonlanguagepolicyandplanningndashandmostimportantlyforusintermsofwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrants
142 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
The analytical framework A summary
FollowingpolicyanalysisframeworksandspecificallylanguagepolicyandplanningourenquiryintolanguageeducationforadultimmigrantscompareswhyandhowitisprovidedinQuebecandBritishColumbiatwoverydifferentprovincesofCanadaandintheirbiggestcitiesOurultimategoal istopondertheimpactsofdemography languagehistoryandthefederalframeworkonthesepoliciesTable 3summarizestheelementsaddressedhere
Table 3Analyticalframeworkandapproach
Describing and comparing Pondering the impacts of vectors of differences and similarities
WhyWhatarethemainreasonsforprovidinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants
bull Citizenshipandnationalismreasons
bull Jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsreasons
bull Socialwelfareandintegrationreasons
Demography and language history
bull Languagersquosminorityormajoritystatusinthecountryandcontinent
bull Languagersquospowerofattractionasfirstofficiallanguagelearned
bull LanguagersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull ProvincersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull Otherhistoricalelements(historyofconquestandofsocio-
economicdomination)
Federalism as vector of differences
bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Increasedprovincialinterventiono Bilateralaccordsbetweenprovincesandthefederal
governmento Provincialchoiceofcriteriafortheselectionof
immigrants(levelandtypeofskillslanguagesspokenetc)
bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipalitiesascreaturesoftheprovinces
Federalism as vector of similarities
bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Billofrightso MulticulturalismActo CICinterventions
bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipal-federalrelationshipo Municipalitiesconceivedasalevelofgovernmento Municipalitiesrsquoexclusionofpolicydesign
HowWhatarethemaininternalfeaturesofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducation
bull Languagetaughtbull Responsiblelevelof
governmentbull Languageeducationservice
providers
Language education for adult immigrants in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largest cities
WiththeaboveframeworkandapproachinmindwenowturntodescribingandcomparingwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecBritishColumbiaMontrealandVancouver
London Review of Education 143
Language laws and official languages
InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat
TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada
(SLMCnd(a))
Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)
InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces
144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage
British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))
Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education
The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself
towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry
(Beacutechard20113)
London Review of Education 145
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)
AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)
TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration
InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople
(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)
ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)
InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))
WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites
TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture
(CICnd(c))
InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria
ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding
146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)
Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin
London Review of Education 147
BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture
TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related
English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec
British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)
In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices
Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding
148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)
Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants
Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation
Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries
Conclusion
AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants
London Review of Education 149
Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy
ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec
ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues
Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the
150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated
Notes on the contributors
Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012
CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa
RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada
References
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AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82
AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49
BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)
Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)
BelkhodjaC(2008)lsquoIntroductionImmigrationetdiversiteacutedanslescommunauteacutesfrancophonesensituationminoritairersquo In BelkhodjaC (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaire Thegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies3ndash6
BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65
BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)
BursteinM Clement G and Petty S (2014) Pratiques drsquointeacutegration prometteuses dans les communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireOttawaCIC
London Review of Education 151
Canadian Press(2016)lsquoPremierWynneapologizesfor1912regulationbanningFrenchinOntarioschoolsrsquoOnlinewwwthecanadianpresscomenglishonlineOnlineFullStoryaspxfilename=DOR-MNN-CPd2732aaf15964e269a42e66a46cec9daCPKEY2008111303ampnewsitemid=36470080amplanguageid=1(accessed1March2016)
CardozoAandPendakurR(2008)Canadarsquos Visible Minority Population 1967ndash2017WorkingpaperseriesVancouver Metropolis British Columbia Online httpmbcmetropolisnetassetsuploadsfileswp2008WP08-05pdf(accessed1March2016)
CentreforInternationalMigrationandSettlementStudies(CIMSS)(2012)lsquoIntroductionStateoftheartandfuturedirectionsinsettlementlanguagetrainingrsquoInternational Settlement CanadaSpecial issue on settlement language training SpringOnlinewww3carletoncacimssinscan-ev24_sepdf (accessed1March2016)
ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)
Ciccarelli SB (1997)lsquoESL for nation-buildingThe origins of federally-funded ESL inCanadarsquoMA dissOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationUniversityofToronto
Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)
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ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)
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ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress
CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)
CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20
CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants
Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)
Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise
DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)
DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS
152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)
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EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant
settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19
FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario
Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan
GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45
GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)
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GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)
HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)
InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)
London Review of Education 153
KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)
KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)
LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)
MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)
Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada
McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)
MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)
MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)
MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)
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MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress
MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec
154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)
PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook
3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)
Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)
RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge
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ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)
SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)
Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)
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ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)
ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)
StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI
London Review of Education 155
Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)
ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
London Review of Education 139
languageFurthertheproportionofindigenouspersonsabletodosodecreasedby2percentbetween2006and2011while theirpopulation grewby awhole201per cent in the sameperiod(StatisticsCanada2011c)
TheBritishconquestofFrenchNorthAmericain1760wasfollowedbymultipleattemptsat assimilating French-speaking residentsWhereas the pursuit of the linguistic and culturalassimilationoftheFrenchCanadianslessenedonceCanadawascreatedin1867thedemographicweightofFrenchasamothertongueamongtheCanadianpopulationhasbeensteadilydecliningForexamplea1912regulationbannedelementaryschoolteachersfromspeakingFrenchforwhichOntariorsquospremierKathleenWynneissuedaformalapologytofrancophonesthroughtheprovinciallegislatureinFebruary2016lsquoRegulation17showedadisregardforFranco-OntarianidentityandequalityandonbehalfofthegovernmentofOntarioIofferanapologyrsquo(The Canadian Press2016)
Frenchspeakersrepresented29percentofthepopulationin1951and217percentin2011ForthecityofMontrealalone(notthemetropolitanarea)themajorityofresidentswithFrenchasamothertonguehasbeendecliningaswellfrom68percentin1951to524percentin2011(DominionBureauofStatistics1953VilledeMontreacutealnd)withtheproportionbeing635percentfortheentiremetropolitanarea(StatisticsCanada2016)ThedemographicweightofQuebecamongallCanadianprovinceshasalsobeendecliningfrom279percentin1971to23percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceQuebecseatsinthefederalparliamentdecreasedfrom266percentin1976to233percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)
InadditiontoahistoryofconquestandasteadydemographicdeclineofbothfrancophonesacrossthecountryandofQuebecrsquosweightamongtheprovincesthehistoryofsocioeconomicinequalities experienced by francophones ndash even in Quebec ndash must be mentioned Indeeduntilthe1960sdespiteamajorityoffrancophonesintheprovinceofQuebecthelanguageofcommerceandofworkwasmainlyEnglishIndeedfrancophoneswerelessinstructedunder-representedamonghigherprofessionallevelsandgainedsmallerrevenues(DickinsonandYoung2008PCO1970)
FinallyasafrancophoneprovincewithinnotonlyamajorityEnglish-speakingcountrybutanevenlargermajorityEnglish-speakingNorthAmericancontinentQuebecstrugglestoconveytoitsnewcomerstheimportanceofpreservingFrenchasthecommonlanguageUntilthe1970s90percentofnewcomerstoQuebecchoselsquoto integrate intotheminorityEnglishspeakingcommunityrsquo(Bouffard201550)TheappealofEnglishremainsunderstandabletodayinacountryandlsquoinacontinentwheretheoverwhelmingmajorityspeaksnotonlyadifferentlanguagebut thelanguageofglobalizationrsquo(ibid49)
In sum the history of conquest and of socioeconomic inequalities the harsh reality oflinguisticdemographicdeclineandthehistoricaltendencyofimmigrantstointegrateintotheanglophonecommunityhavehad verydeep impacts inQuebec In thatprovince the fearofEnglishandndashtoacertainextentndashofotherlanguageshasbeenquitestrongparticularlyregardingitsmostpopulatedcityandmainreceiverofimmigrationMontreal
TheBritishColumbian linguistichistory isverydifferentTheFrenchminorityhasalwaysbeenverysmallinnumberItaccountedfor1percentofthepopulationin1951andstilldoestodayTheFrenchndashEnglish strugglehas thusbeenmuchquieterndash if not absentWhereas thepercentageofBritishColumbianswithEnglishastheirmothertonguehasdeclinedsubstantiallymost notably inVancouver (from 86 per cent in 1951 to 56 per cent in 2011) the Englishlanguage has never been fundamentally threatenedCompared to French inQuebec Englishremains incontestably thefirstofficial language learnedby immigrants inBritishColumbia IntermsofdemographicweightamongCanadianprovincesBritishColumbiarsquosgrewfrom102per
140 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
centin1971to131percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceBritishColumbiarsquosseatsinthefederalparliamentincreasedfrom7percentin1976to125percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)
In sum we observe extremely different demographic and language histories inQuebecandBritishColumbiaThesemajordifferencescanclearlybeexpectedtohaveimpactsoneachprovincersquoslanguagepolicyandplanning
The federal framework and immigration
InCanadabeing a federationofprovinces jurisdictions are allocated toone levelor sharedbetween two Immigration is shared whereas education and municipal affairs come underprovincialjurisdiction
MajortransformationshavetakenplacewithregardtoimmigrationinCanadainthelastdecadesFirsttheimmigrantselectionprocesswasalteredfollowingtheadoptionoftheBillofRights1960whichmade inevitablelsquotheremovalof immigrationregulationsrestrictingaccessofnon-Europeansrsquo(CardozoandPendakur200823)Referencestoraceorregionsoforiginwerethusreplacedintheselectioncriteriawithskillsandqualificationsand incertaincaseslanguages spoken (ibid) Second the ideaofmulticulturalismemerged in the1960s andwasformalizedintheCanadianMulticulturalismAct adoptedin1971AllCanadianprovinceshavesinceembracedimmigrationasasourceofhumananddemographicaswellasfinancialcapital(Paquet2016)Furtherlsquothefederalgovernmentandseveralofitsprovincialcounterpartshaveplaced a priority on immigrationmatters in recent years linking it to amultitude of otherprominent policy areasrsquo (Tolley et al 2011 3 as quoted byGunn 2012 3) In otherwordsquestions relating to immigration were introduced in many policy domains outside that ofcitizenshipandimmigrationperseincludingeducationworkandeconomyMostimportantlywhereasprovincialgovernmentshadbeenquiteshytoundertakeresponsibilitiesregardingtheshared jurisdiction of immigration they have becomemore interested in the field since the1970s(Gunn20123)andincreasinglyactivesincethe1990sIndeed ledbytheinterventionof the province ofQuebec all Canadian provinces have sincewith the federal governmentsigned bilateral agreements regarding immigration adopted immigration policies taken partintheselectionof immigrantsandcontributedtotheestablishmentofvariousorganizationspromotinggreaterintegrationamongnewcomers(Paquet2016)
ProvinceshavefurtherdevelopedvariousprogrammesforthesettlementandintegrationofimmigrantsAsdiscussedbelowadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationisoneimportantaspectofthesemodelsDespiteallthisthefederalagencyoverseeingsettlementandintegrationinthecountryisCitizenshipandImmigrationCanada(CIC)AlthoughQuebecManitobaandBritishColumbialsquoareresponsibleforthedesigndeliveryandadministrationofsettlementservicesrsquothisresponsibilityistransferredwiththelsquoobjectiveofachievingcomparablenewcomersrsquosettlementoutcomesrsquo (CICnd(a))ThebilateralaccordshaveattributedQuebecaspecialright fortheintegrationofnewcomers in theprovinceFinancialcompensationsareprovided forQuebectoprovideintegrationandsettlementserviceslsquoaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountryandaslongasallpermanentresidentsoftheprovincewhethertheywereselectedbyQuebecornotcanhaveaccesstothemrsquo(HouseofCommonsofCanada20101)
London Review of Education 141
Municipal affairs
In Canada the 1867 Constitutional Act assigned to the provincial governments exclusivejurisdictionovermunicipalitiesThusmunicipalitiesarenotconstitutionallyrecognizedanddonotndashat least formallyndashconstituteanorderofgovernmentof theirown inCanada (Young2009 106) One impact of this provincially exclusive jurisdiction is that provincial-municipalsystems vary considerably across the countryWhileCanadianmunicipalities have no formalresponsibilities except in Ontario regarding education healthcare and social services ndash allprovincialjurisdictionsndashtheyareoftenkeyactorsinimplementingfederalandprovincialpoliciesandprogrammes (ibid 115) Immigration is clearlyoneof thepolicydomains inwhich localgovernmentsandmunicipalitieshavebeenincreasinglyactiveIndeedmostimmigrantstoCanadachoosetosettleinbigcitiesTheFederationofCanadianMunicipalitiesstressedthatin2010two-thirdsofimmigrantssettledinCanadarsquosthreemostimportantmetropolitanareasTorontoMontrealandVancouverIn201117percentofimmigrantstoCanada(FCM2011)and76percentofimmigrantstoQuebecchosetosettleinMontreal(EmploiNexus2016)makingup344percentoftheresidentsofthecityofMontrealInthesameyear14percentofimmigrantstoCanadachosetosettleinVancouver(FCM2011)
Inpractice itmeansthatlsquoday-to-day issuesofmulticulturalismare renegotiatedandsettledin only a few citiesrsquo (Good 2008 1)Thus Canadarsquos biggest cities are active in the field ofimmigrationbecausetheyarelsquothefirstpointofcontactbetweennewcomersandgovernmentdue to the day-to-day dependence of immigrants on various local public servicesrsquo (Gunn20121)AccordingtoGood(2008)somemunicipalitieshavebeenveryresponsivetoincreasingnumbersofnewcomersintheirterritoriesndashforexamplethroughcontributinglsquotocommunitycapacitybuildingbyfundingcommunityorganizationsthatserveimmigrantsandethno-culturalminoritiesrsquothroughestablishinglsquoseparateunitsintheircivilservicetofacilitateaccessandequityin governance and service delivery aswell as tomanage diversityrsquo and through establishinglsquogovernancerelationshipsthatsupporttheireffortsinequitypolicyrsquoincludingwiththebusinesscommunity(ibid7)
Despitethefactthatmunicipallsquofront-lineserviceprovidersarekeyplayersinthesuccessfulsettlementattractionandretentionofimmigrantsmunicipalitieshavebeenleftonthesidelinesofimmigrantpolicyandfundingdecisionsrsquo(Gunn20124ndash5)withseniorlevelsofgovernmentsdealingmore frequentlywithlsquospecial-purpose non-profit societiesrsquo (Kataoka andMagnusson200720)
Finallyalthoughmunicipalitiesareformallyajurisdictionoftheprovincesthereisageneraltrend towardsmore direct relationships betweenmunicipalities and the federal government(Andrew 2014 Stoney andGraham 2009)Multiple reasons explain this trend including theimportanceofcontemporaryurbanchallengesandtheexplosionofmunicipalcostsasapartialconsequence of decentralization and of relatively low recent investments in infrastructure(Lalonde2016)Reviewingtheliteratureonthetopicofmunicipal-federalrelationshipsLalondenotes that most federal funding transits in provincial hands before landing in municipalitiesFurthermoremunicipalitiesrsquorolesandrelationshipwithfederalagencieslargelydependontherelationshipbetweentheirrespectiveprovincialgovernmentandthefederalgovernment(ibid)
InsumwhiletheCanadianfederalframeworkcanbeaunifyingfactoritleavesroomforconsiderablevariationndash forexample in thefieldsof immigrationandmunicipal affairsndashandevenforprovincialemulationThesepossibilitieshaveimpactsonlanguagepolicyandplanningndashandmostimportantlyforusintermsofwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrants
142 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
The analytical framework A summary
FollowingpolicyanalysisframeworksandspecificallylanguagepolicyandplanningourenquiryintolanguageeducationforadultimmigrantscompareswhyandhowitisprovidedinQuebecandBritishColumbiatwoverydifferentprovincesofCanadaandintheirbiggestcitiesOurultimategoal istopondertheimpactsofdemography languagehistoryandthefederalframeworkonthesepoliciesTable 3summarizestheelementsaddressedhere
Table 3Analyticalframeworkandapproach
Describing and comparing Pondering the impacts of vectors of differences and similarities
WhyWhatarethemainreasonsforprovidinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants
bull Citizenshipandnationalismreasons
bull Jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsreasons
bull Socialwelfareandintegrationreasons
Demography and language history
bull Languagersquosminorityormajoritystatusinthecountryandcontinent
bull Languagersquospowerofattractionasfirstofficiallanguagelearned
bull LanguagersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull ProvincersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull Otherhistoricalelements(historyofconquestandofsocio-
economicdomination)
Federalism as vector of differences
bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Increasedprovincialinterventiono Bilateralaccordsbetweenprovincesandthefederal
governmento Provincialchoiceofcriteriafortheselectionof
immigrants(levelandtypeofskillslanguagesspokenetc)
bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipalitiesascreaturesoftheprovinces
Federalism as vector of similarities
bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Billofrightso MulticulturalismActo CICinterventions
bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipal-federalrelationshipo Municipalitiesconceivedasalevelofgovernmento Municipalitiesrsquoexclusionofpolicydesign
HowWhatarethemaininternalfeaturesofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducation
bull Languagetaughtbull Responsiblelevelof
governmentbull Languageeducationservice
providers
Language education for adult immigrants in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largest cities
WiththeaboveframeworkandapproachinmindwenowturntodescribingandcomparingwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecBritishColumbiaMontrealandVancouver
London Review of Education 143
Language laws and official languages
InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat
TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada
(SLMCnd(a))
Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)
InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces
144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage
British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))
Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education
The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself
towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry
(Beacutechard20113)
London Review of Education 145
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)
AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)
TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration
InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople
(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)
ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)
InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))
WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites
TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture
(CICnd(c))
InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria
ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding
146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)
Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin
London Review of Education 147
BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture
TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related
English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec
British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)
In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices
Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding
148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)
Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants
Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation
Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries
Conclusion
AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants
London Review of Education 149
Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy
ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec
ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues
Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the
150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated
Notes on the contributors
Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012
CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa
RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada
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AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82
AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49
BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)
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BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65
BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)
BursteinM Clement G and Petty S (2014) Pratiques drsquointeacutegration prometteuses dans les communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireOttawaCIC
London Review of Education 151
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CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)
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CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants
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DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)
DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS
152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
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EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant
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FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19
FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario
Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan
GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45
GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)
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KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)
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MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)
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154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
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RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
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StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
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Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
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VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
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Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
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HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
140 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
centin1971to131percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceBritishColumbiarsquosseatsinthefederalparliamentincreasedfrom7percentin1976to125percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)
In sum we observe extremely different demographic and language histories inQuebecandBritishColumbiaThesemajordifferencescanclearlybeexpectedtohaveimpactsoneachprovincersquoslanguagepolicyandplanning
The federal framework and immigration
InCanadabeing a federationofprovinces jurisdictions are allocated toone levelor sharedbetween two Immigration is shared whereas education and municipal affairs come underprovincialjurisdiction
MajortransformationshavetakenplacewithregardtoimmigrationinCanadainthelastdecadesFirsttheimmigrantselectionprocesswasalteredfollowingtheadoptionoftheBillofRights1960whichmade inevitablelsquotheremovalof immigrationregulationsrestrictingaccessofnon-Europeansrsquo(CardozoandPendakur200823)Referencestoraceorregionsoforiginwerethusreplacedintheselectioncriteriawithskillsandqualificationsand incertaincaseslanguages spoken (ibid) Second the ideaofmulticulturalismemerged in the1960s andwasformalizedintheCanadianMulticulturalismAct adoptedin1971AllCanadianprovinceshavesinceembracedimmigrationasasourceofhumananddemographicaswellasfinancialcapital(Paquet2016)Furtherlsquothefederalgovernmentandseveralofitsprovincialcounterpartshaveplaced a priority on immigrationmatters in recent years linking it to amultitude of otherprominent policy areasrsquo (Tolley et al 2011 3 as quoted byGunn 2012 3) In otherwordsquestions relating to immigration were introduced in many policy domains outside that ofcitizenshipandimmigrationperseincludingeducationworkandeconomyMostimportantlywhereasprovincialgovernmentshadbeenquiteshytoundertakeresponsibilitiesregardingtheshared jurisdiction of immigration they have becomemore interested in the field since the1970s(Gunn20123)andincreasinglyactivesincethe1990sIndeed ledbytheinterventionof the province ofQuebec all Canadian provinces have sincewith the federal governmentsigned bilateral agreements regarding immigration adopted immigration policies taken partintheselectionof immigrantsandcontributedtotheestablishmentofvariousorganizationspromotinggreaterintegrationamongnewcomers(Paquet2016)
ProvinceshavefurtherdevelopedvariousprogrammesforthesettlementandintegrationofimmigrantsAsdiscussedbelowadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationisoneimportantaspectofthesemodelsDespiteallthisthefederalagencyoverseeingsettlementandintegrationinthecountryisCitizenshipandImmigrationCanada(CIC)AlthoughQuebecManitobaandBritishColumbialsquoareresponsibleforthedesigndeliveryandadministrationofsettlementservicesrsquothisresponsibilityistransferredwiththelsquoobjectiveofachievingcomparablenewcomersrsquosettlementoutcomesrsquo (CICnd(a))ThebilateralaccordshaveattributedQuebecaspecialright fortheintegrationofnewcomers in theprovinceFinancialcompensationsareprovided forQuebectoprovideintegrationandsettlementserviceslsquoaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountryandaslongasallpermanentresidentsoftheprovincewhethertheywereselectedbyQuebecornotcanhaveaccesstothemrsquo(HouseofCommonsofCanada20101)
London Review of Education 141
Municipal affairs
In Canada the 1867 Constitutional Act assigned to the provincial governments exclusivejurisdictionovermunicipalitiesThusmunicipalitiesarenotconstitutionallyrecognizedanddonotndashat least formallyndashconstituteanorderofgovernmentof theirown inCanada (Young2009 106) One impact of this provincially exclusive jurisdiction is that provincial-municipalsystems vary considerably across the countryWhileCanadianmunicipalities have no formalresponsibilities except in Ontario regarding education healthcare and social services ndash allprovincialjurisdictionsndashtheyareoftenkeyactorsinimplementingfederalandprovincialpoliciesandprogrammes (ibid 115) Immigration is clearlyoneof thepolicydomains inwhich localgovernmentsandmunicipalitieshavebeenincreasinglyactiveIndeedmostimmigrantstoCanadachoosetosettleinbigcitiesTheFederationofCanadianMunicipalitiesstressedthatin2010two-thirdsofimmigrantssettledinCanadarsquosthreemostimportantmetropolitanareasTorontoMontrealandVancouverIn201117percentofimmigrantstoCanada(FCM2011)and76percentofimmigrantstoQuebecchosetosettleinMontreal(EmploiNexus2016)makingup344percentoftheresidentsofthecityofMontrealInthesameyear14percentofimmigrantstoCanadachosetosettleinVancouver(FCM2011)
Inpractice itmeansthatlsquoday-to-day issuesofmulticulturalismare renegotiatedandsettledin only a few citiesrsquo (Good 2008 1)Thus Canadarsquos biggest cities are active in the field ofimmigrationbecausetheyarelsquothefirstpointofcontactbetweennewcomersandgovernmentdue to the day-to-day dependence of immigrants on various local public servicesrsquo (Gunn20121)AccordingtoGood(2008)somemunicipalitieshavebeenveryresponsivetoincreasingnumbersofnewcomersintheirterritoriesndashforexamplethroughcontributinglsquotocommunitycapacitybuildingbyfundingcommunityorganizationsthatserveimmigrantsandethno-culturalminoritiesrsquothroughestablishinglsquoseparateunitsintheircivilservicetofacilitateaccessandequityin governance and service delivery aswell as tomanage diversityrsquo and through establishinglsquogovernancerelationshipsthatsupporttheireffortsinequitypolicyrsquoincludingwiththebusinesscommunity(ibid7)
Despitethefactthatmunicipallsquofront-lineserviceprovidersarekeyplayersinthesuccessfulsettlementattractionandretentionofimmigrantsmunicipalitieshavebeenleftonthesidelinesofimmigrantpolicyandfundingdecisionsrsquo(Gunn20124ndash5)withseniorlevelsofgovernmentsdealingmore frequentlywithlsquospecial-purpose non-profit societiesrsquo (Kataoka andMagnusson200720)
Finallyalthoughmunicipalitiesareformallyajurisdictionoftheprovincesthereisageneraltrend towardsmore direct relationships betweenmunicipalities and the federal government(Andrew 2014 Stoney andGraham 2009)Multiple reasons explain this trend including theimportanceofcontemporaryurbanchallengesandtheexplosionofmunicipalcostsasapartialconsequence of decentralization and of relatively low recent investments in infrastructure(Lalonde2016)Reviewingtheliteratureonthetopicofmunicipal-federalrelationshipsLalondenotes that most federal funding transits in provincial hands before landing in municipalitiesFurthermoremunicipalitiesrsquorolesandrelationshipwithfederalagencieslargelydependontherelationshipbetweentheirrespectiveprovincialgovernmentandthefederalgovernment(ibid)
InsumwhiletheCanadianfederalframeworkcanbeaunifyingfactoritleavesroomforconsiderablevariationndash forexample in thefieldsof immigrationandmunicipal affairsndashandevenforprovincialemulationThesepossibilitieshaveimpactsonlanguagepolicyandplanningndashandmostimportantlyforusintermsofwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrants
142 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
The analytical framework A summary
FollowingpolicyanalysisframeworksandspecificallylanguagepolicyandplanningourenquiryintolanguageeducationforadultimmigrantscompareswhyandhowitisprovidedinQuebecandBritishColumbiatwoverydifferentprovincesofCanadaandintheirbiggestcitiesOurultimategoal istopondertheimpactsofdemography languagehistoryandthefederalframeworkonthesepoliciesTable 3summarizestheelementsaddressedhere
Table 3Analyticalframeworkandapproach
Describing and comparing Pondering the impacts of vectors of differences and similarities
WhyWhatarethemainreasonsforprovidinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants
bull Citizenshipandnationalismreasons
bull Jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsreasons
bull Socialwelfareandintegrationreasons
Demography and language history
bull Languagersquosminorityormajoritystatusinthecountryandcontinent
bull Languagersquospowerofattractionasfirstofficiallanguagelearned
bull LanguagersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull ProvincersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull Otherhistoricalelements(historyofconquestandofsocio-
economicdomination)
Federalism as vector of differences
bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Increasedprovincialinterventiono Bilateralaccordsbetweenprovincesandthefederal
governmento Provincialchoiceofcriteriafortheselectionof
immigrants(levelandtypeofskillslanguagesspokenetc)
bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipalitiesascreaturesoftheprovinces
Federalism as vector of similarities
bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Billofrightso MulticulturalismActo CICinterventions
bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipal-federalrelationshipo Municipalitiesconceivedasalevelofgovernmento Municipalitiesrsquoexclusionofpolicydesign
HowWhatarethemaininternalfeaturesofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducation
bull Languagetaughtbull Responsiblelevelof
governmentbull Languageeducationservice
providers
Language education for adult immigrants in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largest cities
WiththeaboveframeworkandapproachinmindwenowturntodescribingandcomparingwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecBritishColumbiaMontrealandVancouver
London Review of Education 143
Language laws and official languages
InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat
TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada
(SLMCnd(a))
Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)
InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces
144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage
British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))
Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education
The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself
towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry
(Beacutechard20113)
London Review of Education 145
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)
AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)
TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration
InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople
(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)
ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)
InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))
WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites
TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture
(CICnd(c))
InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria
ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding
146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)
Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin
London Review of Education 147
BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture
TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related
English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec
British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)
In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices
Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding
148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)
Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants
Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation
Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries
Conclusion
AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants
London Review of Education 149
Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy
ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec
ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues
Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the
150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated
Notes on the contributors
Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012
CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa
RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada
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AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82
AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49
BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)
Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)
BelkhodjaC(2008)lsquoIntroductionImmigrationetdiversiteacutedanslescommunauteacutesfrancophonesensituationminoritairersquo In BelkhodjaC (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaire Thegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies3ndash6
BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65
BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)
BursteinM Clement G and Petty S (2014) Pratiques drsquointeacutegration prometteuses dans les communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireOttawaCIC
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ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress
CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)
CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20
CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants
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DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)
DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS
152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)
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EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant
settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19
FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario
Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan
GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45
GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)
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KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)
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MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)
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154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
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3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)
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RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
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StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI
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Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
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TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
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Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
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HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
London Review of Education 141
Municipal affairs
In Canada the 1867 Constitutional Act assigned to the provincial governments exclusivejurisdictionovermunicipalitiesThusmunicipalitiesarenotconstitutionallyrecognizedanddonotndashat least formallyndashconstituteanorderofgovernmentof theirown inCanada (Young2009 106) One impact of this provincially exclusive jurisdiction is that provincial-municipalsystems vary considerably across the countryWhileCanadianmunicipalities have no formalresponsibilities except in Ontario regarding education healthcare and social services ndash allprovincialjurisdictionsndashtheyareoftenkeyactorsinimplementingfederalandprovincialpoliciesandprogrammes (ibid 115) Immigration is clearlyoneof thepolicydomains inwhich localgovernmentsandmunicipalitieshavebeenincreasinglyactiveIndeedmostimmigrantstoCanadachoosetosettleinbigcitiesTheFederationofCanadianMunicipalitiesstressedthatin2010two-thirdsofimmigrantssettledinCanadarsquosthreemostimportantmetropolitanareasTorontoMontrealandVancouverIn201117percentofimmigrantstoCanada(FCM2011)and76percentofimmigrantstoQuebecchosetosettleinMontreal(EmploiNexus2016)makingup344percentoftheresidentsofthecityofMontrealInthesameyear14percentofimmigrantstoCanadachosetosettleinVancouver(FCM2011)
Inpractice itmeansthatlsquoday-to-day issuesofmulticulturalismare renegotiatedandsettledin only a few citiesrsquo (Good 2008 1)Thus Canadarsquos biggest cities are active in the field ofimmigrationbecausetheyarelsquothefirstpointofcontactbetweennewcomersandgovernmentdue to the day-to-day dependence of immigrants on various local public servicesrsquo (Gunn20121)AccordingtoGood(2008)somemunicipalitieshavebeenveryresponsivetoincreasingnumbersofnewcomersintheirterritoriesndashforexamplethroughcontributinglsquotocommunitycapacitybuildingbyfundingcommunityorganizationsthatserveimmigrantsandethno-culturalminoritiesrsquothroughestablishinglsquoseparateunitsintheircivilservicetofacilitateaccessandequityin governance and service delivery aswell as tomanage diversityrsquo and through establishinglsquogovernancerelationshipsthatsupporttheireffortsinequitypolicyrsquoincludingwiththebusinesscommunity(ibid7)
Despitethefactthatmunicipallsquofront-lineserviceprovidersarekeyplayersinthesuccessfulsettlementattractionandretentionofimmigrantsmunicipalitieshavebeenleftonthesidelinesofimmigrantpolicyandfundingdecisionsrsquo(Gunn20124ndash5)withseniorlevelsofgovernmentsdealingmore frequentlywithlsquospecial-purpose non-profit societiesrsquo (Kataoka andMagnusson200720)
Finallyalthoughmunicipalitiesareformallyajurisdictionoftheprovincesthereisageneraltrend towardsmore direct relationships betweenmunicipalities and the federal government(Andrew 2014 Stoney andGraham 2009)Multiple reasons explain this trend including theimportanceofcontemporaryurbanchallengesandtheexplosionofmunicipalcostsasapartialconsequence of decentralization and of relatively low recent investments in infrastructure(Lalonde2016)Reviewingtheliteratureonthetopicofmunicipal-federalrelationshipsLalondenotes that most federal funding transits in provincial hands before landing in municipalitiesFurthermoremunicipalitiesrsquorolesandrelationshipwithfederalagencieslargelydependontherelationshipbetweentheirrespectiveprovincialgovernmentandthefederalgovernment(ibid)
InsumwhiletheCanadianfederalframeworkcanbeaunifyingfactoritleavesroomforconsiderablevariationndash forexample in thefieldsof immigrationandmunicipal affairsndashandevenforprovincialemulationThesepossibilitieshaveimpactsonlanguagepolicyandplanningndashandmostimportantlyforusintermsofwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrants
142 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
The analytical framework A summary
FollowingpolicyanalysisframeworksandspecificallylanguagepolicyandplanningourenquiryintolanguageeducationforadultimmigrantscompareswhyandhowitisprovidedinQuebecandBritishColumbiatwoverydifferentprovincesofCanadaandintheirbiggestcitiesOurultimategoal istopondertheimpactsofdemography languagehistoryandthefederalframeworkonthesepoliciesTable 3summarizestheelementsaddressedhere
Table 3Analyticalframeworkandapproach
Describing and comparing Pondering the impacts of vectors of differences and similarities
WhyWhatarethemainreasonsforprovidinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants
bull Citizenshipandnationalismreasons
bull Jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsreasons
bull Socialwelfareandintegrationreasons
Demography and language history
bull Languagersquosminorityormajoritystatusinthecountryandcontinent
bull Languagersquospowerofattractionasfirstofficiallanguagelearned
bull LanguagersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull ProvincersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull Otherhistoricalelements(historyofconquestandofsocio-
economicdomination)
Federalism as vector of differences
bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Increasedprovincialinterventiono Bilateralaccordsbetweenprovincesandthefederal
governmento Provincialchoiceofcriteriafortheselectionof
immigrants(levelandtypeofskillslanguagesspokenetc)
bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipalitiesascreaturesoftheprovinces
Federalism as vector of similarities
bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Billofrightso MulticulturalismActo CICinterventions
bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipal-federalrelationshipo Municipalitiesconceivedasalevelofgovernmento Municipalitiesrsquoexclusionofpolicydesign
HowWhatarethemaininternalfeaturesofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducation
bull Languagetaughtbull Responsiblelevelof
governmentbull Languageeducationservice
providers
Language education for adult immigrants in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largest cities
WiththeaboveframeworkandapproachinmindwenowturntodescribingandcomparingwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecBritishColumbiaMontrealandVancouver
London Review of Education 143
Language laws and official languages
InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat
TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada
(SLMCnd(a))
Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)
InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces
144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage
British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))
Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education
The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself
towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry
(Beacutechard20113)
London Review of Education 145
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)
AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)
TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration
InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople
(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)
ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)
InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))
WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites
TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture
(CICnd(c))
InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria
ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding
146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)
Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin
London Review of Education 147
BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture
TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related
English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec
British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)
In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices
Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding
148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)
Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants
Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation
Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries
Conclusion
AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants
London Review of Education 149
Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy
ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec
ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues
Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the
150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated
Notes on the contributors
Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012
CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa
RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada
References
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AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82
AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49
BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)
Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)
BelkhodjaC(2008)lsquoIntroductionImmigrationetdiversiteacutedanslescommunauteacutesfrancophonesensituationminoritairersquo In BelkhodjaC (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaire Thegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies3ndash6
BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65
BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)
BursteinM Clement G and Petty S (2014) Pratiques drsquointeacutegration prometteuses dans les communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireOttawaCIC
London Review of Education 151
Canadian Press(2016)lsquoPremierWynneapologizesfor1912regulationbanningFrenchinOntarioschoolsrsquoOnlinewwwthecanadianpresscomenglishonlineOnlineFullStoryaspxfilename=DOR-MNN-CPd2732aaf15964e269a42e66a46cec9daCPKEY2008111303ampnewsitemid=36470080amplanguageid=1(accessed1March2016)
CardozoAandPendakurR(2008)Canadarsquos Visible Minority Population 1967ndash2017WorkingpaperseriesVancouver Metropolis British Columbia Online httpmbcmetropolisnetassetsuploadsfileswp2008WP08-05pdf(accessed1March2016)
CentreforInternationalMigrationandSettlementStudies(CIMSS)(2012)lsquoIntroductionStateoftheartandfuturedirectionsinsettlementlanguagetrainingrsquoInternational Settlement CanadaSpecial issue on settlement language training SpringOnlinewww3carletoncacimssinscan-ev24_sepdf (accessed1March2016)
ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)
Ciccarelli SB (1997)lsquoESL for nation-buildingThe origins of federally-funded ESL inCanadarsquoMA dissOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationUniversityofToronto
Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (nd(b)) lsquoFindingsrsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishresourcesevaluationgrant-quebecsection4asp(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)
CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)
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ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)
ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress
CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)
CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20
CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants
Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)
Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise
DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)
DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS
152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)
ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)
EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant
settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19
FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario
Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan
GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45
GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)
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GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)
HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)
InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)
London Review of Education 153
KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)
KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)
LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)
MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)
Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada
McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)
MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)
MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)
MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)
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MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress
MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec
154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)
PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook
3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)
Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)
RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge
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ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)
SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)
Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)
ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)
StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI
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Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)
ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
142 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
The analytical framework A summary
FollowingpolicyanalysisframeworksandspecificallylanguagepolicyandplanningourenquiryintolanguageeducationforadultimmigrantscompareswhyandhowitisprovidedinQuebecandBritishColumbiatwoverydifferentprovincesofCanadaandintheirbiggestcitiesOurultimategoal istopondertheimpactsofdemography languagehistoryandthefederalframeworkonthesepoliciesTable 3summarizestheelementsaddressedhere
Table 3Analyticalframeworkandapproach
Describing and comparing Pondering the impacts of vectors of differences and similarities
WhyWhatarethemainreasonsforprovidinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants
bull Citizenshipandnationalismreasons
bull Jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsreasons
bull Socialwelfareandintegrationreasons
Demography and language history
bull Languagersquosminorityormajoritystatusinthecountryandcontinent
bull Languagersquospowerofattractionasfirstofficiallanguagelearned
bull LanguagersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull ProvincersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull Otherhistoricalelements(historyofconquestandofsocio-
economicdomination)
Federalism as vector of differences
bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Increasedprovincialinterventiono Bilateralaccordsbetweenprovincesandthefederal
governmento Provincialchoiceofcriteriafortheselectionof
immigrants(levelandtypeofskillslanguagesspokenetc)
bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipalitiesascreaturesoftheprovinces
Federalism as vector of similarities
bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Billofrightso MulticulturalismActo CICinterventions
bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipal-federalrelationshipo Municipalitiesconceivedasalevelofgovernmento Municipalitiesrsquoexclusionofpolicydesign
HowWhatarethemaininternalfeaturesofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducation
bull Languagetaughtbull Responsiblelevelof
governmentbull Languageeducationservice
providers
Language education for adult immigrants in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largest cities
WiththeaboveframeworkandapproachinmindwenowturntodescribingandcomparingwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecBritishColumbiaMontrealandVancouver
London Review of Education 143
Language laws and official languages
InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat
TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada
(SLMCnd(a))
Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)
InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces
144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage
British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))
Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education
The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself
towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry
(Beacutechard20113)
London Review of Education 145
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)
AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)
TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration
InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople
(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)
ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)
InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))
WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites
TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture
(CICnd(c))
InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria
ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding
146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)
Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin
London Review of Education 147
BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture
TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related
English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec
British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)
In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices
Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding
148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)
Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants
Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation
Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries
Conclusion
AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants
London Review of Education 149
Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy
ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec
ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues
Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the
150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated
Notes on the contributors
Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012
CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa
RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada
References
Adamuti-Trache M (2012) lsquoLanguage acquisition among adult immigrants in Canada The effect ofpremigrationlanguagecapitalrsquoAdult Education Quarterly63(2)103ndash26
AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82
AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49
BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)
Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)
BelkhodjaC(2008)lsquoIntroductionImmigrationetdiversiteacutedanslescommunauteacutesfrancophonesensituationminoritairersquo In BelkhodjaC (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaire Thegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies3ndash6
BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65
BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)
BursteinM Clement G and Petty S (2014) Pratiques drsquointeacutegration prometteuses dans les communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireOttawaCIC
London Review of Education 151
Canadian Press(2016)lsquoPremierWynneapologizesfor1912regulationbanningFrenchinOntarioschoolsrsquoOnlinewwwthecanadianpresscomenglishonlineOnlineFullStoryaspxfilename=DOR-MNN-CPd2732aaf15964e269a42e66a46cec9daCPKEY2008111303ampnewsitemid=36470080amplanguageid=1(accessed1March2016)
CardozoAandPendakurR(2008)Canadarsquos Visible Minority Population 1967ndash2017WorkingpaperseriesVancouver Metropolis British Columbia Online httpmbcmetropolisnetassetsuploadsfileswp2008WP08-05pdf(accessed1March2016)
CentreforInternationalMigrationandSettlementStudies(CIMSS)(2012)lsquoIntroductionStateoftheartandfuturedirectionsinsettlementlanguagetrainingrsquoInternational Settlement CanadaSpecial issue on settlement language training SpringOnlinewww3carletoncacimssinscan-ev24_sepdf (accessed1March2016)
ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)
Ciccarelli SB (1997)lsquoESL for nation-buildingThe origins of federally-funded ESL inCanadarsquoMA dissOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationUniversityofToronto
Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (nd(b)) lsquoFindingsrsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishresourcesevaluationgrant-quebecsection4asp(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)
CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (nd) Vancouver City Local Immigration PartnershipVancouver Community Services Online httpvancouvercafilescovvancouver-city-local-immigration-partnership-overviewpdf (accessed 6 April2016)
ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)
ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress
CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)
CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20
CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants
Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)
Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise
DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)
DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS
152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)
ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)
EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant
settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19
FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario
Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan
GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45
GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)
GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)
ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)
Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)
GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)
GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)
HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)
InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)
London Review of Education 153
KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)
KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)
LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)
MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)
Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada
McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)
MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)
MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)
MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)
MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress
MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec
154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)
PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook
3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)
Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)
RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge
SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)
SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)
Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)
ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)
StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI
London Review of Education 155
Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)
ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
London Review of Education 143
Language laws and official languages
InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat
TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada
(SLMCnd(a))
Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)
InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces
144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage
British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))
Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education
The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself
towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry
(Beacutechard20113)
London Review of Education 145
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)
AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)
TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration
InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople
(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)
ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)
InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))
WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites
TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture
(CICnd(c))
InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria
ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding
146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)
Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin
London Review of Education 147
BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture
TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related
English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec
British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)
In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices
Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding
148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)
Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants
Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation
Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries
Conclusion
AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants
London Review of Education 149
Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy
ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec
ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues
Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the
150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated
Notes on the contributors
Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012
CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa
RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada
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BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65
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CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20
CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants
Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)
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DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)
DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS
152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
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EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant
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FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19
FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario
Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan
GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45
GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)
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KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)
LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)
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McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)
MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)
MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)
MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)
MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress
MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec
154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)
PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook
3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)
Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)
RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge
SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)
SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)
Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)
ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)
StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI
London Review of Education 155
Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)
ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage
British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))
Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education
The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders
The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal
AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself
towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry
(Beacutechard20113)
London Review of Education 145
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)
AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)
TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration
InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople
(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)
ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)
InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))
WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites
TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture
(CICnd(c))
InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria
ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding
146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)
Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin
London Review of Education 147
BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture
TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related
English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec
British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)
In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices
Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding
148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)
Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants
Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation
Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries
Conclusion
AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants
London Review of Education 149
Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy
ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec
ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues
Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the
150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated
Notes on the contributors
Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012
CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa
RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada
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AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82
AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49
BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)
Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)
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BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65
BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)
BursteinM Clement G and Petty S (2014) Pratiques drsquointeacutegration prometteuses dans les communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireOttawaCIC
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ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)
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ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress
CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)
CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20
CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants
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DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)
DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS
152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
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EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant
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FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19
FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario
Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan
GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45
GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)
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KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)
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MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)
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154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
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3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)
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RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
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StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI
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Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
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TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
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Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
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HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
London Review of Education 145
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)
AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)
TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration
InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople
(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)
ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)
InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))
WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites
TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture
(CICnd(c))
InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria
ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding
146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)
Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin
London Review of Education 147
BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture
TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related
English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec
British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)
In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices
Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding
148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)
Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants
Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation
Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries
Conclusion
AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants
London Review of Education 149
Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy
ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec
ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues
Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the
150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated
Notes on the contributors
Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012
CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa
RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada
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BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)
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BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65
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ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)
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ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress
CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)
CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20
CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants
Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)
Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise
DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)
DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS
152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)
ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)
EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant
settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19
FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario
Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan
GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45
GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)
GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)
ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)
Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)
GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)
GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)
HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)
InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)
London Review of Education 153
KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)
KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)
LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)
MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)
Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada
McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)
MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)
MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)
MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)
MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress
MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec
154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)
PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook
3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)
Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)
RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge
SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)
SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)
Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)
ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)
StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI
London Review of Education 155
Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)
ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)
Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)
The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver
The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)
TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin
London Review of Education 147
BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture
TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related
English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec
British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)
In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices
Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding
148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)
Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants
Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation
Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries
Conclusion
AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants
London Review of Education 149
Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy
ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec
ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues
Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the
150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated
Notes on the contributors
Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012
CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa
RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada
References
Adamuti-Trache M (2012) lsquoLanguage acquisition among adult immigrants in Canada The effect ofpremigrationlanguagecapitalrsquoAdult Education Quarterly63(2)103ndash26
AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82
AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49
BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)
Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)
BelkhodjaC(2008)lsquoIntroductionImmigrationetdiversiteacutedanslescommunauteacutesfrancophonesensituationminoritairersquo In BelkhodjaC (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaire Thegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies3ndash6
BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65
BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)
BursteinM Clement G and Petty S (2014) Pratiques drsquointeacutegration prometteuses dans les communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireOttawaCIC
London Review of Education 151
Canadian Press(2016)lsquoPremierWynneapologizesfor1912regulationbanningFrenchinOntarioschoolsrsquoOnlinewwwthecanadianpresscomenglishonlineOnlineFullStoryaspxfilename=DOR-MNN-CPd2732aaf15964e269a42e66a46cec9daCPKEY2008111303ampnewsitemid=36470080amplanguageid=1(accessed1March2016)
CardozoAandPendakurR(2008)Canadarsquos Visible Minority Population 1967ndash2017WorkingpaperseriesVancouver Metropolis British Columbia Online httpmbcmetropolisnetassetsuploadsfileswp2008WP08-05pdf(accessed1March2016)
CentreforInternationalMigrationandSettlementStudies(CIMSS)(2012)lsquoIntroductionStateoftheartandfuturedirectionsinsettlementlanguagetrainingrsquoInternational Settlement CanadaSpecial issue on settlement language training SpringOnlinewww3carletoncacimssinscan-ev24_sepdf (accessed1March2016)
ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)
Ciccarelli SB (1997)lsquoESL for nation-buildingThe origins of federally-funded ESL inCanadarsquoMA dissOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationUniversityofToronto
Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (nd(b)) lsquoFindingsrsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishresourcesevaluationgrant-quebecsection4asp(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)
CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (nd) Vancouver City Local Immigration PartnershipVancouver Community Services Online httpvancouvercafilescovvancouver-city-local-immigration-partnership-overviewpdf (accessed 6 April2016)
ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)
ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress
CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)
CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20
CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants
Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)
Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise
DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)
DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS
152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)
ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)
EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant
settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19
FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario
Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan
GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45
GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)
GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)
ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)
Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)
GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)
GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)
HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)
InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)
London Review of Education 153
KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)
KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)
LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)
MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)
Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada
McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)
MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)
MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)
MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)
MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress
MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec
154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)
PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook
3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)
Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)
RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge
SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)
SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)
Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)
ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)
StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI
London Review of Education 155
Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)
ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
London Review of Education 147
BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture
TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related
English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec
British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)
In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices
Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding
148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)
Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants
Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation
Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries
Conclusion
AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants
London Review of Education 149
Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy
ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec
ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues
Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the
150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated
Notes on the contributors
Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012
CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa
RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada
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152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
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FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
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VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)
Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants
Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation
Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries
Conclusion
AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants
London Review of Education 149
Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy
ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec
ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues
Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the
150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated
Notes on the contributors
Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012
CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa
RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada
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BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)
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BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65
BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)
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CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)
CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20
CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants
Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)
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DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)
DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS
152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)
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EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant
settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19
FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario
Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan
GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45
GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)
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InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)
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KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)
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MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)
MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)
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154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
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3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)
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RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge
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SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)
Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)
ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)
StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI
London Review of Education 155
Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)
ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
London Review of Education 149
Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy
ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec
ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues
Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the
150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated
Notes on the contributors
Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012
CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa
RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada
References
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CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)
CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20
CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants
Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)
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DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)
DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS
152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)
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EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant
settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19
FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario
Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan
GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45
GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)
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GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)
HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)
InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)
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KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)
KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)
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McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)
MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)
MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)
MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)
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MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress
MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec
154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)
PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook
3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)
Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)
RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge
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ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)
SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)
Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)
ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)
StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI
London Review of Education 155
Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)
ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated
Notes on the contributors
Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012
CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa
RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada
References
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AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49
BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)
Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)
BelkhodjaC(2008)lsquoIntroductionImmigrationetdiversiteacutedanslescommunauteacutesfrancophonesensituationminoritairersquo In BelkhodjaC (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaire Thegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies3ndash6
BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65
BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)
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London Review of Education 151
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CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)
CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20
CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants
Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)
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DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)
DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS
152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)
ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)
EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant
settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19
FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario
Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan
GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45
GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)
GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)
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Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)
GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)
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ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)
GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)
HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)
InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)
London Review of Education 153
KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)
KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)
LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)
MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)
Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada
McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)
MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)
MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)
MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)
MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress
MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec
154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)
PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook
3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)
Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)
RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge
SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)
SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)
Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)
ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)
StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI
London Review of Education 155
Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)
ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
London Review of Education 151
Canadian Press(2016)lsquoPremierWynneapologizesfor1912regulationbanningFrenchinOntarioschoolsrsquoOnlinewwwthecanadianpresscomenglishonlineOnlineFullStoryaspxfilename=DOR-MNN-CPd2732aaf15964e269a42e66a46cec9daCPKEY2008111303ampnewsitemid=36470080amplanguageid=1(accessed1March2016)
CardozoAandPendakurR(2008)Canadarsquos Visible Minority Population 1967ndash2017WorkingpaperseriesVancouver Metropolis British Columbia Online httpmbcmetropolisnetassetsuploadsfileswp2008WP08-05pdf(accessed1March2016)
CentreforInternationalMigrationandSettlementStudies(CIMSS)(2012)lsquoIntroductionStateoftheartandfuturedirectionsinsettlementlanguagetrainingrsquoInternational Settlement CanadaSpecial issue on settlement language training SpringOnlinewww3carletoncacimssinscan-ev24_sepdf (accessed1March2016)
ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)
Ciccarelli SB (1997)lsquoESL for nation-buildingThe origins of federally-funded ESL inCanadarsquoMA dissOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationUniversityofToronto
Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (nd(b)) lsquoFindingsrsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishresourcesevaluationgrant-quebecsection4asp(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)
CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (nd) Vancouver City Local Immigration PartnershipVancouver Community Services Online httpvancouvercafilescovvancouver-city-local-immigration-partnership-overviewpdf (accessed 6 April2016)
ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)
ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress
CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)
CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20
CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants
Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)
Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise
DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)
DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS
152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)
ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)
EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant
settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19
FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario
Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan
GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45
GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)
GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)
ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)
Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)
GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)
GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)
HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)
InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)
London Review of Education 153
KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)
KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)
LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)
MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)
Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada
McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)
MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)
MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)
MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)
MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress
MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec
154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)
PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook
3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)
Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)
RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge
SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)
SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)
Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)
ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)
StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI
London Review of Education 155
Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)
ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)
ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)
EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant
settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19
FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48
Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario
Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan
GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45
GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)
GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)
ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)
Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)
GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)
GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)
HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)
InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)
London Review of Education 153
KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)
KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)
LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)
MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)
Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada
McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)
MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)
MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)
MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)
MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress
MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec
154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)
PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook
3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)
Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)
RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge
SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)
SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)
Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)
ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)
StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI
London Review of Education 155
Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)
ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
London Review of Education 153
KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)
KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)
LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)
MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)
Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada
McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)
MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)
MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)
MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)
MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress
MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)
Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec
154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)
PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook
3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)
Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)
RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge
SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)
SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)
Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)
ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)
StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI
London Review of Education 155
Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)
ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)
PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook
3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)
Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)
RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)
SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge
SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)
ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)
SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)
Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)
ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)
ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)
StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94
SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI
London Review of Education 155
Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)
ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
London Review of Education 155
Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)
TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)
ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)
TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246
VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)
VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7
Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)
ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)
XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)
YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
In this issue
Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98
156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement
Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21
MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73
Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85
Elsewhere in this issue
HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98