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APPROVAL SHEET
Complete report of General Biology Experiment with title “Heredity”
arranged by:
Name : Hikmawati
ID : 1112040178
Class/Group : ICP of physics / I
After checked and consulted by Assistant and Assistant Coordinator, so it was
accepted.
Makassar,November 2011Assistant Coordinator, Assistant,
(Djumarirmanto, S.Pd) ( Asniati Samad ) ID: 091404153
Known by ,
Lecturer Responsibility,
(Dr. Ir. Muh. Wiharto Caronge, M.Si)ID. 19660930 199203 1 004
CHAPTER IINTRODUCTION
A. Background
Have you ever thought why you have straight hair like dad's hair, and
curly hair like a mother instead? Or maybe you also observe that most cats that
have three color-sex female, why. Such things as above relating to heredity or
inheritance from parent to child through genes. This inheritance was to follow a
certain pattern. What if the pattern was not followed? Whether it will mislead
abnormalities or defects in individual?. You can find out the answer in this lab
that talks about immortality.
Heredity means the reduction of genetic traits from parent to child. The
science which deals with heredity is called genetics. Theory of inheritance or the
laws of heredity was first coined by Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884), son of
a small farmer in North Moravia. Mendel argued that the properties can be
passed down from generation to generation through the deciding factor. At the
time of the opinion he recognized the truth, he is dead. That's because at the time
of publication of books that make his opinion in 1886, the world of science has
not been able to show the shape and arrangement of the nature of heredity which
Mendel referred to as the deciding factor. Through heredity, variations exhibited
by individuals can accumulate and cause a species to evolve. The study of
heredity in biology is called genetics, which includes the field of epigenetics.
In this experiment we will compare the physical characteristics of a
person with a group of friends, or with classmates. Judging from the dimple chin
or not, the child leaves the ears that hang or stick, whether the form of the left
little finger shoved into it or not, whether or not hair jutted jutting forehead, the
hair on the finger or not, the presence of dimples or not, whether the tongue can
be rolled lengthwise or can not be rolled up lengthwise, and whether he has the
upper incisors are gaps or no gaps. So, by means this experiment we hope, we
know what our friends characteristic, and their genotype.
B. Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to prove the comparing of genotype
and phenotype from Mendel’s law and fundamental genotype for several
characteristic of human heredity.
C. Benefit
According to the purpose above the benefit of this experiment is the
student of university able to prove the comparing of genotype and phenotype
from Mendel’s law and fundamental genotype for several characteristic of
human heredity.
CHAPTER IIPREVIEW OF LITERATURE
Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with heredity or variation.
Hereditary units that are transmitted from one generation to the next (ie inherited) are
called genes. gene is located in long molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
present in all cells . DNA together with a matrix of proteins, forming a nucleoprotein
and organized into structures called chromosomes that are found in the nucleus or the
cell nucleus. A gene contains the code information for protein production. Normally
DNA is a stable molecule with the capacity to perform its own application (Fried and
Hademenos, 2000).
According to Tim Pengajar (2011), in the inheritance of properties or crosses,
there are principles that we have to remember are:
1. Genes that play a role in regulating and determining the nature of the given
symbols letters
2. Dominant gene that is expressed in capital letters.
Recessive gene that is expressed primarily to lower case, for example, genes
that determine the nature of the short stem is written with the letter "t". Thus, it can
be interpreted that the high-dominant stem loss of credit for short rod, short rod and
vice versa recessive to stem height. In humans and vertebrate animals, the union of
sperm and ovum, each of which are haploid (n) will form a zygote. Zygotes grow and
develop into individuals who are diploid (2n), so that individual properties are
represented by two letters. (Tim Pengajar, 2011).
Each chromosome contains many genes. End since each chromosome is
paired the genes residing on homologous chromosome are also paired. One gene of
each pair is inherited from each parent. Normally, each member of a gene pair
occupies the same locus or position on the homologous chromosome. Most genes we
recognize come in the list two and sometimes three or more alternative alleles. Of
course normal individuals never possess more than two alleles of any given genes,
because they have only two of each kind of chromosome. An individual is said to be
homozygous for a particular trait if determining gene pair consist of identical genes.
It’s the genes of a pair is different alleles, the individual is said to be heterozygous
for that trait (Stanley, 1984).
Often one allele of a one masks the expression of another allele of the gene.
This is the phenomenon of dominance. The gene that is expressed is said to be
dominant to the other recessive allele. If one gene result in the production of enough
enzyme to make sufficient product it matters little whether the allele on the other
chromosome codes for this functional enzyme or for a useless protein (Stanley,
1984).
The genes for certain traits are passed down in families from parents to
children. This has been known for thousands of years--even in Biblical times--and
has allowed farmers to breed better crops and animals. For example, parents with
black hair will likely give birth to children with black hair, just as parents with long
noses will have kids with long noses. Once in awhile, though, this doesn’t work and
parents with black hair will give birth to a blond. This discrepancy can be explained
by the principle of segregation, first noted by Austrian monk Gregor Mendel over
100 years ago. The principle has three parts: The genes for certain traits are passed
down in families from parents to children. This has been known for thousands of
years--even in Biblical times--and has allowed farmers to breed better crops and
animals. For example, parents with black hair will likely give birth to children with
black hair, just as parents with long noses will have kids with long noses. Once in
awhile, though, this doesn’t work and parents with black hair will give birth to a
blond. This discrepancy can be explained by the principle of segregation, first noted
by Austrian monk Gregor Mendel over 100 years ago. The principle has three parts:
Hereditary traits are determined by specific genes, Individuals carry two genes for
each trait, one from the mother’s egg and one from the father’s sperm, andWhen an
individual reproduces, the two genes split up (segregate) and end up in separate
gametes (Anonymousa, 2011).
According to Anonymousa (2011), The principle of segregation applies to all
organisms, including humans :
1. Hereditary traits are determined by specific genes. Within the DNA molecule,
genes exist that specify a certain, single characteristic; there is a gene for height, a
gene for weight, and a gene for eye color, etc. Variations of the gene relating to
the same trait are called alleles.
2. Individuals carry two genes for each trait, one from the mother’s egg and one from
the father’s sperm. One of these two genes is dominant over the other. The
dominant allele will mask the other, called the recessive allele. For example, if the
father gives a tall allele of the height gene, and the mother gives a short allele, the
offspring will be tall. This is because tall is dominant and short is recessive.
The British mathematician/biologist R.C. Punnett devised a method of
picturing this concept on a graph called a Punnett Square. Punnett Squares graph the
father’s genotype (the genetic information concerned with a specific trait: for
example, two alleles for tall, or two for short, or one for each) crossed with the
mother’s. Punnett Squares show the probability of having children who have a
certain trait (Anonymousa, 2011).
When only one trait is a Punnett Square is graphed, it is called a monohybrid cross.
But when two or more traits are graphed, it’s called a dihybrid cross. This illustrates
the law of Independent Assortment, meaning that one trait doesn’t affect another. In
other words, having red hair has nothing to do with also having bad eyesight. The
genes are independent of each other.
Sometimes two genes will be co-dominant that is, neither masks the other. In
this case, both genes will show. An example is skin color: the child of dark-skinned
and fair-skinned parents will be a mixture of the two. Breeding red geraniums with
white geraniums gives you pink flowers. When an individual reproduces, the two
genes split up (segregate) and end up in different gametes. This is explained by the
process called meiosis. Meiosis is like mitosis (normal cell division), but instead
produces sex cells (gametes: sperm and egg). Sex cells have only 23 chromosomes
(called a haploid, meaning “one set”), instead of 46 (called a diploid, meaning “two
sets”) so that when fertilization occurs, a new cell with 46 chromosomes will form.
For example, when a sperm with 23 chromosomes unites with an egg with 23
chromosomes, the cell they form will have 46. In meiosis, the cell divides normally
(as in mitosis) after copying its chromosomes. The chromosomes also undergo
crossing-over. When the chromosomes pair up, sometimes they will switch genetic
data. This ensures that the genes from both parents will be present. Immediately after
dividing, it divides again, this time without copying the chromosomes. This creates
four sex cells, where only one existed before, each with only 23 chromosomes
(Anonymousa, 2011).
According to Anonymousb(2011), leaders laid the basic principles of genetics
was a monk Gregor Johan Mendell and plant investigators Austrian nationality. In
1866 Mendell reported the results of investigations over the years on peas / pea
(Pisum sativum). To study the properties of peas decreased Mendell uses the
following reasons:
- Has a pair of flashy nature
- Can perform self-pollinating
- Soon produce offspring or short lived
- Able to produce many offspring, and
- Easily crossed
The first Mendell law also known as the Law of Segregation states: 'the
formation of gametes which is the second gene pairs will be separated into two
daughter cells'. This law applies to monohybrid crosses (single crosses with different
properties). Examples of applied Law Mendell I was with dominance monohybrid
crosses. Crosses with dominance is a cross of a different nature in which one trait is
more powerful than other trait. Robust nature of so-called dominant trait and is
covered, while the weak / closed is called a recessive trait (Anonymousb, 2011).
CHAPTER IIIOBSERVATION METHOD
A. Time and Place
1. Day/Date : Thursday / 8th December 2011
2. Time : at 1:20 pm - 3:00 pm
3. Place : Biology Laboratory at 3rd floor, Biology Department of
Makassar State University
B. Tool and Material
1. Tool
a) Phenotype list
2. Material
a) Probandus
C. Work Procedure
1. Looked into the phenotype of each heredity characteristic that there is of list
phenotype in our self. If couldn’t deal please got help to friend in your
group. Then, recorded the result to table form
2. If they have phenotype was dominant, so gave the sign (-) for the second
gene.
3. Recorded and observed the characteristic of friends for the other group and
calculated its presentation.
CHAPTER IVRESULT AND DISCUSSION
A. Observation Result
Privacy/self data
a. Dimple of chin : dd
b. Free ear lobes : EE
c. Left thumb on the upper : FF
d. Pinkie manipulate into : bb
e. Widow’s peak : ww
f. Hairs at the finger : mm
g. Dimple of cheek : pp
h. Furl length tongue : LL
i. Gap on the upper incisor : gg
2. Group Data
NAMEA B C D E F G H I
D R D R D R D R D R D R D R D R D R
HIKMAWATI + + + + + + + + +
A. ADHA LESTARI A
+ + + + + + + +
NURHIDAYAH + + + + + + + +
RAHMAT SABIRIN
+ + + + + + + + +
MUH. IHSANUL A
+ + + + + + + +
3. Class Data
GROUPNAME
A B C D E F G H I
D R D R D R D R D R D R D R D R D R
I 0 5 3 2 4 1 1 4 0 5 4 1 1 4 2 3 0 5
II 0 4 2 2 1 3 3 1 0 4 4 0 0 4 4 0 0 4
III 0 4 0 4 3 1 4 0 2 2 4 0 0 4 3 1 2 2
IV 0 5 2 3 1 4 3 2 0 5 5 0 1 4 4 1 0 5
V 0 5 2 3 1 4 5 0 4 1 5 0 1 4 4 1 1 4
VI 0 3 1 2 3 0 1 2 0 3 3 0 0 3 1 2 1 2
VII 0 5 4 1 3 2 3 2 2 3 5 0 0 5 3 2 1 4
SUM 0 3 14 1 1 15 2 1 8 2 3 1 3 2 2 1 5 26
B. Data Analysis
1. Group Data
Equalization
% Dominant = Σ dominant of groupΣ member of group
x 100 %
% Recessive = Σ resesif of group
Σ member of group x 100 %
a) Dimple of chin
% Dominant (D) = 05
x 100 % = 0 %
% Recessive (d) = 55
x 100 % = 100 %
b) Free ear lobes
% Dominant (E) = 35
x 100 % = 60 %
% Recessive (e) = 25
x 100 % = 40 %
c) Left thumb on the upper
% Dominant (F) = 45
x 100 % = 80 %
% Recessive (f) = 15
x 100 % = 20 %
d) Pinkie manipulate into
% Dominant (B) = 15
x 100 % = 20 %
% Recessive (b) = 45
x 100 % = 80 %
e) Widow’s peak
% Dominant (W) = 05
x 100 % = 0 %
% Recessive (w) = 55
x 100 % = 100 %
f) Hairs at the finger
% Dominant (M) = 45
x 100 % = 80 %
% Recessive (m) = 15
x 100 % = 20 %
g) Dimple of cheek
% Dominant (P) = 15
x 100 % = 20 %
% Recessive (p) = 45
x 100 % = 80 %
h) Furl length tongue
% Dominant (L) = 25
x 100 % = 40 %
% Recessive (l) = 35
x 100 % = 60 %
i) Gap on the upper incisor
% Dominant (G) = 05
x 100 % = 0 %
% Recessive (g) = 55
x 100 % = 100 %
2. Class Data
Equalization
% Dominant = Σ dominant of classΣ member of class
x 100 %
% Recessive = Σ resesif of class
Σ member of class x 100 %
a) Dimple of chin
% Dominant (D) = 0
31 x 100 % = 0 %
% Recessive (d) = 3131
x 100 % = 100 %
b) Free ear lobes
% Dominant (E) = 1431
x 100 % = 45.2 %
% Recessive (e) = 1731
x 100 % = 54.8 %
c) Left thumb on the upper
% Dominant (F) = 1631
x 100 % = 51.6 %
% Recessive (f) = 1531
x 100 % = 48.4 %
d) Pinkie manipulate into
% Dominant (B) = 2031
x 100 % = 64.5 %
% Recessive (b) = 1131
x 100 % = 35.5 %
e) Widow’s peak
% Dominant (W) = 8
31 x 100 % = 25.8 %
% Recessive (w) = 2331
x 100 % = 74.2 %
f) Hair at the finger
% Dominant (M) = 3031
x 100 % = 96.7 %
% Recessive (m) = 1
31 x 100 % = 3.3 %
g) Dimple of cheek
% Dominant (P) = 3
31 x 100 % = 10%
% Recessive (p) = 2831
x 100 % = 90 %
h) Furl length tongue
% Dominant (L) = 2131
x 100 % = 67.7%
% Recessive (l) = 1031
x 100 % = 32.3%
i) Gap on the upper incisor
% Dominant (G) = 531
x 100 % = 16.1 %
% Recessive (g) = 2631
x 100 % = 83.9 %
C. Discussion
1. Privacy/self data
From the observation we get that, I didn’t have or recessive dimple of chin,
pinkie manipulate into, widow’s peak, hairs at the finger, dimple of cheek,
and Gap on the upper incisor. But I dominant in free ear lobes left thumb
on the upper, and furl length tongue. All of that characteristic are the
characteristic queath by my parents.
2. At group data analyze
Based on the observation above, we have gotten:
a) Dominant percentage of chin dimple is 0%, meanwhile recessive
percentage of chin mortar is 100%. It’s mean that there are have not
dimple of chin in this group. The phenotype is 0 : 5. It is relatively
because the participant has a difference parents.
b) Dominant percentage of free ear lobes is 60%, meanwhile recessive
percentage of ear hanging is 40%. It’s mean the ear hanging in this
group is smaller than adhere ear. The phenotype is 3 : 2. It is relatively
because the participant has a difference parents.
c) Dominant percentage of left thumb on he upper is 80 %, meanwhile
recessive percentage of the upper left hand thumb is 20 %. It’s mean
that upper left hand thumb in this group is more than upper right hand
thumb. The phenotype is 4 : 1. It is relatively because the participant
has a difference parents too.
d) Dominant percentage of pinkie manipulate into is 20 %, meanwhile
recessive percentage of pinkie manipulate into is 80%. It’s mean that
phalanx of little finger that manipulate into in this group is smaller than
phalanx of little finger that manipulate out. The phenotype is 1 : 4. It is
relatively because the participant has a difference parents.
e) Dominant percentage of widow’s peak is 0%, meanwhile recessive
percentage of sordid forehead hair is 100%. It’s mean that most of our
group doesn’t have the widow’s peak. The phenotype is 0 : 5. Still
remember It is relatively because the participant has a difference
parents.
f) Dominant percentage of hair at finger is 80%, meanwhile recessive
percentage of hair at finger is 20%. %. It’s mean that hair at the finger
in this group is smaller than no hair at the finger. The phenotype is 4 : 1.
It is relatively because the participant has a difference parents.
g) Dominant percentage of cheek dimple is 20%, meanwhile recessive
percentage of cheek mortar is 80%. It’s mean that cheek mortar in this
group is smaller than cheek less mortar. The phenotype is 1 : 4. It is
relatively because the participant has a difference parents.
h) Dominant percentage of furl length tongue is 40%, meanwhile recessive
percentage of furl length tongue is 60%. It’s mean that furl length
tongue in this group is more than unfurl length tongue. The phenotype
is 2 : 3. It is relatively because the participant has a difference parents.
i) Dominant percentage of gap incisor is 0%, meanwhile recessive
percentage of gap incisor is 100%. It’s mean that all member of this
group have gap incisor in this group. The phenotype is 0 : 5. It is
relatively because the participant has a difference parents.
3. At class data analyze
According to observation that we have done, we got that:
a) Dominant percentage of chin dimple is 0%, meanwhile recessive
percentage of chin mortar is 100 %. Its mean that all people in this class
doesn’t have he dimple of chin. The phenotype is 0 : 31. It is relatively
depend of their parents.
b) Dominant percentage of free ear lobes is 45.2 %, meanwhile recessive
percentage of ear hanging is 54.8 %. It’s mean the ear hanging in this
class is smaller than adhere ear. The phenotype is 14 : 17. It is relatively
because the participant has a difference parents.
c) Dominant percentage of the upper left thumb is 51.6 %, meanwhile
recessive percentage of the upper left hand thumb is 48.4 %. It’s mean
that upper left hand thumb in this group is more than upper right hand
thumb. The phenotype is 16 : 15. It is relatively because the participant
has a difference parents.
d) Dominant percentage of pinkie manipulate into is 64.5 %, meanwhile
recessive percentage of pinkie manipulate out is 35.5%. It’s mean that
pinkie of left finger that manipulate into in this class is smaller than
pinkie of left finger that manipulate out. The phenotype is 20 : 11. It is
relatively because the participant has a difference parents.
e) Dominant percentage of widow’s peak is 25.8 %, meanwhile recessive
percentage of widow’s peak is 74.2 %. It’s mean that widow’s peak is
smaller than less of widow’s peak. The phenotype is 8 : 23. It is
relatively because the participant has a difference parents.
f) Dominant percentage of hair at finger is 96.7 %, meanwhile recessive
percentage of hair at finger is 3.3 %. It’s mean that hair at finger in this
class average is have hair at the finger. The phenotype is 30 : 1. It is
relatively because the participant has a difference parents.
g) Dominant percentage of cheek dimple is 10%, meanwhile recessive
percentage of cheek mortar is 90 %. It’s mean that cheek mortar in this
class is smaller than cheek less mortar .The phenotype is 3 : 28. It is
relatively because the participant has a difference parents.
h) Dominant percentage of furl length tongue is 67.7 %, meanwhile
recessive percentage of furl length tongue is 32.3 %. It’s mean that furl
length tongue in this class is more than unfurl length tongue. The
phenotype is 21 : 10. It is relatively because the participant has a
difference parents.
i) Dominant percentage of gap incisor is 16.1 %, meanwhile recessive
percentage of gap incisor is 83.9 %. It’s mean that gap incisor in this
group is smaller than gapless incisor. The phenotype is 5 : 26. It is
relatively because the participant has a difference parents.
CHAPTER VCONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
A. Conclusion
According the purpose and the experiment that we have done we can
conclude that every character appears in living organisms is controlled by
hereditary factors called genes. Every organism has different phenotypes
according to their nature-derived immortal by its parents.
B. Suggestion
1) To the laboratory, there are so many equipments that is unorganized and also
begin dirty, like the box of human structure. So, all the better to redecorate
the laboratory, especially about the position of equipments.
2) To the assistant, assistant as a facilitator in this experiment, better to look at
our activities in the laboratory and surely to facilitate us.
3) To the apprentices, be a good apprentice, don’t make any noise, and optimally
this experiment by the beautiful in cooperation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anonymousa. 2011. http://library.thinkquest.org/28599/heredity.htm. Accessed on
Wednesday 14th 2011 at 08:00 pm
Anonymousb. 2011. http://biologimediacentre.com/genetika-hukum-mendel/.
Accessed on Wednesday 14th 2011 at 08:20 pm
Fried and Hademenos. 2000. Teori dan Soal-soal Biologi Edisi Kedua. Jakarta : Erlangga
Stanley, Melissa, dkk. 1984. Living an Introduction To Biology. California : Addison-wesley
Tim Pengajar. 2011. Penuntun Praktikum Biology Dasar. Makassar : FMIPA UNM