Research ArticleLarge Mammal Diversity and Endemism at Geremba MountainFragment Southern Ethiopia
Zerubabel Worku1 and Zerihun Girma 2
1GIZ-Biodiversity and Forestry Program (BFP) PO Box 100009 Addis Ababa Ethiopia2Department of Wildlife and Protected Area ManagementHawassa University Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources PO Box 128 Hawassa Ethiopia
Correspondence should be addressed to Zerihun Girma zeru75yahoocom
Received 6 April 2019 Revised 20 February 2020 Accepted 7 March 2020 Published 25 April 2020
Academic Editor Nathaniel Newlands
Copyright copy 2020 Zerubabel Worku and Zerihun Girma -is is an open access article distributed under the Creative CommonsAttribution License which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in anymedium provided the original work isproperly cited
Outside protected areas in Ethiopia there is a lack of information concerning mammalian diversity and ecology Consequentlythe findings of the research on large mammals at Geremba Mountain constitute one of the steps towards a continuing effort todocument the diversity and distribution of Ethiopian mammals-e survey was conducted to investigate the species compositionrelative abundance and population structure of large mammals at Geremba Mountain fragment from August 2017 to February2018 covering both dry and wet seasons Direct (sighting) and indirect (scat) survey techniques were employed using sys-tematically established transect lines and sampling plots respectively Transects and plots were established across three dominanthabitat types (modified dry ever green Afromontane forest alpine bamboo forest and Erica scrubland) A total of 10 largemammal species were recorded including two endemic mammals namely Chlorocebus djamdjamensis and Tragelaphus scriptusmeneliki -ere was a statistically significant difference in the abundance of species among habitat types at Geremba Mountain-e highest diversity index was recorded in the alpine bamboo forest habitat (D 7142 Hprime 2052) and the Erica scrubland hadthe lowest Papio anubis was the most abundant species while Felis serval was the least abundant species -e populations of mostof the species were characterized by more adult and more female individuals However promising young individuals of theendemic mammals (C djamdjamensis and T s meneliki) and Papio anubis were recorded -e mountain fragment is an isolatedisland that is totally disconnected with other fragments in the region so attempts should be made to connect the fragment withother fragments using wildlife corridors
1 Introduction
Mammals render ecosystem services economic culturaleducational and scientific values Mammals regulate vege-tation dynamics are involved in a seed dispersal and pol-lination regulate prey populations and are important innutrient cycling [1] Large mammals hold a central role inwildlife based tourism that generates billions of dollars andsignificantly contributes to the gross domestic product(GDP) of many African countries such as South AfricaTanzania and Kenya [2] Large mammals are important inmany cultures and beliefs For example monkeys areconsidered holy in Hindu religion [3] Mammals provideeducational and scientific values for teaching students about
mammals life history ecology and conservation in additionto serving as experimental animals in testing newly dis-covered drugs [4]
Mammals are among the most widely distributed or-ganisms in the world Mammals occur from the Antarctic todesert ecosystems [5] -ey can successfully colonize diversehabitat types due to diversity in size and morphologicalphysiological and behavioral adaptation [6] Mammalsrange from the smallest Kittirsquos Hog-Nosed Bat (Craseo-nycteris thonglongyai) (2 g) to the giant blue whale (Balae-noptera musculus) (140000 kg) [7] Large mammals aredefined as mammals weighing above 7 kg [8] -ere havebeen discoveries of new taxa over the past decades as aresult the number of mammalian species has been
HindawiInternational Journal of EcologyVolume 2020 Article ID 3840594 11 pageshttpsdoiorg10115520203840594
continuously being updated To date there are 5416 speciesof mammals out of which 2277 (42) rodents (Rodentia)1116 (206) bats (Chiroptera) and 428 (79) shrews andallies (Soricomorpha) comprise the largest species [7]
Ethiopia is among the biodiversity rich countries inAfrica -e species of mammals are estimated to be around320 species including 39 endemics (both small and largemammals) distributed in 14 orders and 39 families [9]which ranks the country among the most diverse mam-malian faunas in Africa [10] It has been indicated that largemammals were once widely distributed in most parts of thecountry and were fairly abundant [11] when the forest coverof the country was estimated to be 60 [12] However themajority of the large mammals are now confined to isolatedprotected areas and mountain fragments mostly found insouthern and southeastern part of the country [10]
Wildlife habitat degradation fragmentation and loss arecommon threats to mammals in Ethiopia have remained asthe most important challenges of wildlife conservation inEthiopia [13] and have been escalating in the recent decades[14] Expansions of agriculture human settlement fire woodcollection wood extraction livestock encroachment andanthropogenic fire have been the major drivers for wildlifehabitat degradation fragmentation and loss [14ndash16] -esethreats have led to loss of vast areas of wildlife habitat andhave been degrading factors in Ethiopia including in pro-tected areas [17ndash19] Most fragments are montane fragmentsthat are inaccessible for agricultural and human settlements[14] Mountain fragments are common throughout thedensely populated highlands of Ethiopia and have beenrecently known for their enormous potential for conser-vation of biodiversity [14 20 21]-ese mountain fragmentshave been serving as last refugees for diverse large mammalsincluding endangered and endemic species [20 22 23]However most of these mountain fragments are not pro-tected legally and have been disconnected ecologically fromother fragments in the surroundings [24] Although it isbelieved that habitats outside protected areas have anenormous role in supporting diverse wildlife species therehave been few surveys of these sites and comprehensivescientific baseline information is lacking [25]
Mount Geremba is fragmented mountain (125 km2) inthe southern highlands of Ethiopia [25] -e mountain ispredominantly covered by alpine bamboo and with spareErica scrubland vegetation at the summit of the mountainDespite its small size it is known as home for diverse wildlifespecies including endemic and vulnerable large mammals[25] -e fragment is totally disconnected from similarfragments in the locality and has been often challenged bythe human dominated landscape surrounding the mountainDespite the fact that the mountain fragment harbors diverselarge mammal species in increasingly distributed environ-ment little is known about the large mammal diversity andecology Furthermore how these mammals survive in thepresence of continuing disturbance is unknown to the sci-entific community Comprehensive information on faunalresources and their specific habitat association should bemade available for sustainable wildlife conservation Inparticular this study attempted to answer research questions
such as the following What is the large mammals speciescomposition in the fragment What is the relative abun-dance of each species What is the population structurenexus to further demographic stochastic -erefore thestudy is aimed at investigating large mammals speciescomposition relative abundance and population structure
2 Materials and Methods
21 Study Area Mount Geremba is located in Arbegonaworeda (district) administered under Sidama zone of theSouthern Nations Nationalities and Peoplesrsquo Region State(SNNPRS) of Ethiopia (Figure 1) Arbegona is bordered byBona Zuria woreda to the south Bursa to the southwestGorche to the northwest and Bensa woreda of the Sidamazone of SNNPRS to the east whereas in north it is boardedby Kokosa woreda of theWest Arsi zone of Oromia RegionalState (Figure 1) It is located about 361 km to the south of thecapital Addis Ababa Geographically it is situated between6deg38prime to 6deg49prime N and 38deg34prime to 38deg49prime E covering a total areaof 125 km2 (1250 ha) (Figure 1)
Arbegona is characterized by a hilly and mountainouslandscape with an altitude range from 2000 to 3336m asl[25] -ere are various mountain fragments in the woredacovered by sparse vegetation and highly encroached byhuman activities Mountain fragments in the woreda includeGeremba Yerke Idoro Udume Werbadule and HafursaPerennial rivers of Arbegona include Gange Gabata Che-leleka Tare Gorenti Bulichana and Malawe [25] -eworeda exhibits a bimodal rainfall pattern with a minorrainy season between the months of February and April andmajor rainfall between the months of July and October -eannual rainfall ranges from 1250 to 1300mm [25]-emeanmonthly temperature ranges from a minimum of 14degC to amaximum of 18degC [25]
22 Reconnaissance Survey A reconnaissance survey wascarried out to get basic information on accessibility to-pography and infrastructures [26] -e reconnaissancesurvey was carried out during the second week of May 2017for five days During the survey all the dominant habitattypes were transverse on foot visual estimation of the area ofeach habitat type was made and 20 ground truth points(geographical coordinates) representing all the dominanthabitat types were taken using global positioning system(GPS) as an input for estimating the total area of each habitattype using geographic information system (GIS) and remotesensing technologies
23 Sampling Design Based on direct observation madeduring the reconnaissance survey and land cover infor-mation obtained from satellite images using geographicinformation system (GIS) and remote sensing the GerembaMountain was stratified into three dominant habitat typesnamely subalpine (Erica scrubland) alpine bamboo forestand modified dry ever green Afromontane forest habitats-e sub-Afroalpine habitat (Erica scrubland) covered theupland areas with rugged topography (3291ndash3305m asl)
2 International Journal of Ecology
and was dominated by remnants of Erica arborea interspersedwith Hypericum revolutum and scattered stands of the en-demic giant lobelia (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) (Figure 2) -ealpine bamboo habitat occurred in valleys and middle altitudeareas between 3189 and 3229m asl and was dominated byhighland bamboo (Arundinaria alpina) (Figure 3) It com-prised the highest proportion of the mountain fragmentModified dry evergreen Afromontane forest habitat occurredin areas with an altitude range 3075ndash3165m asl andencompassed buffer areas with 0-1 km distance from the edgeof the alpine bamboo forest -is habitat was characterized bymodified forest habitat (a remnant dry evergreen Afro-montane forest with human interventions severelyencroached by human settlement and agriculture) (Figure 4)[27]
To effectively survey the species diversity of largemammals two standardized survey techniques namelydirect (sighting) and indirect (scat) census were employed[28]
231 Direct Survey A total of ten (T1ndashT10) transect lineswere systematically generated with the help of GIS [29]using QGIS v 218 software (Figure 5(a)) Stratified sys-tematic sampling design was employed to establish tran-sects among the three dominant habitat types From fieldobservation and land cover analysis the approximate areaof each habitat type was determined in order to estimate theproportion of sample transects needed to represent eachhabitat type Accordingly five transect lines (T1 T2 T3 T4and T5) were laid representing the modified dry evergreenAfromontane forest habitat four transect lines (T6 T7 T8and T9) in the alpine bamboo forest habitat and onetransect line (T10) in sub-Afroalpine (Erica scrubland)habitat
From a total area of 125 km2 (1250 ha) 375 km2
(375 ha) (30 of the area) was sampled -e length of eachtransect line was 750m and the distance between two ad-jacent transects was 500m to avoid double counting -evariable transect width method ranging from 20m in thealpine bamboo habitat to 150m in the modified dry ever-green Afromontane habitat was employed (Figure 5(a)) Toavoid edge effects transects were spaced 250m from theedge of the forestshabitat type -e transect lines were laidlengthwise following the slope of the ground and orientedperpendicular to ecological or density gradients Aspectaccessibility terrain long roads streams and contour ofhills were also considered during the transect line setup
232 Indirect Survey As a double confirmation and toaccount for the difficult topography and effectively censuselusive and nocturnal large mammals indirect surveytechnique was also employed Indirect survey plots weresystematically generated with the help of geographic in-formation system [29] using QGIS v 218 software Ac-cordingly a total of 20 plots (P1ndashP20) spaced 750m apartwere established (Figure 5(b)) -e size of each plot was100m2 (20times 5m) To avoid edge effects plots were estab-lished 250m from the edge of the forest Plots wereestablished following the slope of the ground Ecological ordensity gradients including aspect accessibility terrain longroads streams and contour of hills were considered duringthe plots layout
24 Data Collection -e study was conducted for one yearbetween the months of August 2017 and February 2018covering both dry and wet seasons Data were collected infour sessions (Wet I Wet II Dry I and Dry II) Each transectline was visited six times per season Besides fixed line
Ethiopia
SNNP region
Bursa
Gorche
Kokosa
Bensa
Bona Zuria
N
15 3 6 9 12 km0
Projection Tranverse MercatorDatum Adindon_UTM_Zone_37NMap by Zerubabel Worku
Figure 1 Location map of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
International Journal of Ecology 3
transects surveys random search was conducted to recordthe occurrence of mammalian species in the study areas for acomplete species list as applied by [30]
Data on large mammal species richness and abundancewere recorded along the established transect lines duringmorning hours (600 to 1000 am) and late afternoon (300 to500 pm) following [31 32] Each line transect was navigatedby using Garmin 6078 global positioning system (GPS) andHandheld bearing compass Suunto KB-14360R G bywalking at a constant speed of sim1 kmh [33ndash35] During thestudy periods a silent detection method (suitable clothingfor camouflage moving against the direction of wind andkeeping quite) was practiced to minimize disturbance andincrease of animals detectability Observations were madewith naked eyes and Nikon action 10times 50 binoculars
During the study body weight was the parameter used tocategorize mammals as large-sized accordingly mammalsweighing above 7 kg were considered as large mammals asapplied by [8] -e number of individuals of each speciesapproximate perpendicular distance sex age group sizeand activity of the animals were recorded using pre-prepareddata sheet Morphological developments (horn ridges hornsize and body size) growth and maturation changes inpelage color or patterns sexual maturity (bacula testeslength condition of mammary glands and behavior duringbreeding) were used to determine the approximate age(adult subadult and young) [36]
Secondary sexual characteristics external genitalia be-havior (urination posture vocalizations nipples presenceand absence of bacula and descended testes) and sexually
dimorphic characteristics (such as absencepresence ofhorn) were used to determine sex -ose individuals seenwithin a distance of lt50m from the nearby group wererecorded as members of the same group as a means to avoiddouble counting [37] Double counting of the same indi-vidual or herd was avoided using easily recognizable featuresof individuals herd size and composition [38]
241 Indirect Survey Each field plot was scanned carefullyand all fresh scats of large mammals were counted andrecorded Identification of scats obtained was attempted inthe field by using specialized field guides for the identifi-cation of scats of mammals [39ndash41] Scats were distinguishedby different size (measurement of length and diameter)shape odor color and signs associated with feces such asscrapes feeding signs and footprint
25 Data Analysis Each species of large mammals en-countered was identified in the field based on the KingdonField Guide to African Mammals [42] and ldquoAtibiwochrdquo [43]
-e taxonomic treatment was based on the Mammals ofthe World 3rd Edition [7] -e conservation status of eachspecies was also identified based on the IUCN Red List [44]and the CITES Appendices
-e species similarity among the habitat types wascomputed using Sorensonrsquos coefficient (CC)
(CC) 2C
S1 + S2 (1)
where C is the number of species the two habitats have incommon S1 is the total number of species found in habitat 1and S2 is the total number of species found in habitat 2
Species diversity among habitat types was calculatedusing the Shannon-Weiner index of diversity
(Hprime) 1113944 Pi ln Pisi 1 (2)
where Pi is the proportion of the ith species in the habitatSimpsonrsquos diversity index among habitat types was
calculated as follows
(D) 1
ΣPi2si 1 (3)
where Pi is the proportion of the ith species which will beused to analyze the data
-e evenness of mammalian species among habitat typeswas also calculated as
J Hprime
Hprimemax (4)
where Hprime max ln(s) and s is the number of species in theparticular habitat type Evenness ranges between 1 (com-plete evenness) and 0 (complete unevenness)
-e relative abundance of particular large mammals wasdetermined using the following expression
6deg45prime0Prime
N
38deg39prime0PrimeE
T1
T6
T7
T2T3
T4T5
T8
T10
T9
38deg39prime18PrimeE
38deg39prime0PrimeE 38deg39prime18PrimeE
6deg44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
6deg45prime0Prime
N6deg
44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
(a)
38deg39prime0PrimeE
p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
p6 p7 p8 p9 p10
p11 p12 p13 p14
p16 p17 p18
p20 p21 p22
p19
p15
38deg39prime18PrimeE
38deg39prime0PrimeE 38deg39prime18PrimeE
6deg45prime0Prime
N6deg
44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
6deg45prime0Prime
N6deg
44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
(b)
Figure 5 Transects (a) and plots (b) layout at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
International Journal of Ecology 5
percent relative abundance () n
Ntimes 100 (5)
where n is the number of individuals of a particular recordedspecies and N is the total number of individuals of allrecorded species in the study site
-e results and findings of the research were presentedby simple descriptive statistical tools Following [45] and thecomputation of relative abundance the identified mammalswere grouped as common (if probability of observing theindividuals of the species is 100 in every session of the fieldwork) uncommon (if probability of observing is more than50) and rare (if probability of observing is less than 50)according to [37] Records of the number of individuals ofmammals in the line transect that fall in the same habitatswere summed together and treated as a record in one habitatand mean records of the survey were considered Eachspecies was classified into different group size-class age-sexcategories and ratios ie percentages of adults and youngones male per female and young ones per female AKruskal-Wallis test was used to compare differences inmammal species abundance among habitats -e effect ofthe season on species abundance between dry and wet seasonwas analyzed and compared using Chi-square test and theseasonal difference in sex ratio was evaluated by t-test For allstatistical tests p value of 005 was considered significantMinitab version 17 was used for all statistical test analyses
3 Results
31 Species Diversity A total of 10 species of large wildmammals distributed in 5 orders and 7 families wereidentified and recorded after a total effort of 30 km walkeddistance at Geremba Mountain fragment (Table 1) Twoendemic species (Bale monkey Chlorocebus djamdjamensisand Menelikrsquos bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus meneliki) andtwo vulnerable species (Bale monkey and leopard Pantherapardus) were recorded from the mountain (Table 1) Sevenspecies C djamdjamensis Canis aureus Crocuta crocutaFelis serval Papio anubis Sylvicapra grimmia and T smeneliki were recorded through direct observation whereasthree nocturnal and elusive species Hystrix cristata Oryc-teropus afer and P pardus were revealed using indirectevidence (scat survey) (Figure 6)
Seasonal variation in species richness of large wildmammals was observed among different habitat types -ehighest species richness (n 9) was recorded in the alpinebamboo forest habitat during the wet season (Table 2)-ere was a significant difference in species abundanceamong the three habitat types (H 20 df 2 plt 005) -eoverall Sorensen species similarity index (CC) of large wildmammal species among three habitat types of GerembaMountain was 0714 (Table 3) -e highest (0875) simi-larity index was recorded between modified dry evergreenAfromontane forest and alpine bamboo forest (Table 3)-e highest large mammals Simpsonrsquos index (1-D) of di-versity was obtained from the alpine bamboo forest habitat(D 7142) and the Erica scrubland habitat had the lowestdiversity (D 3802)
32 Relative Abundance Papio anubis was the mostabundant species comprising (21 n 48) the recordedindividuals followed by S grimmia (17 n 39) and T smeneliki (14 n 32) (Table 4) On the other hand F servalwas the least abundant species (08 n 2) (Table 4) Bothof the endemics C djamdjamensis and T s menelikiwere themost abundant in the alpine bamboo habitat type duringboth seasons and C djamdjamensis was closely associatedwith the alpine bamboo stands Seasonal variation in speciesabundance was observed and P anubis was the mostabundant during both dry and wet seasons (Figure 7) A totalof 227plusmn 9 individuals were recorded out of which 114plusmn 5(502) individuals were observed during the wet seasonand 113plusmn 6 (497) individuals during the dry season butthe seasonal species abundance of large wild mammals wasnot significantly different (χ2 0004 df 1 pgt 005)
33 Population Structure Out of the total recorded 10species of large wild mammals during the present studyperiod the populations of four species C djamdjamensis Sgrimmia P anubis and T s meneliki were characterized bymore adult andmore female individuals during both wet anddry seasons Generally the number of adult females wasrelatively higher than that of any other agesex group duringboth seasons the pooled sex ratio of adult animals of allspecies was biased towards females and the difference wassignificant (t 29259 df 41 plt 005 t 31440 df 41plt 005) during wet and dry seasons respectively For thecount of both seasons the number of young individuals of allspecies was disproportionately low relative to the number ofadult females However promising young individuals of theendemic mammals (C djamdjamensis and T s meneliki)and P anubis were recorded (Table 5)
4 Discussion
41 Species Diversity -e recorded relatively large numberof mammals indicated the potential of the mountain frag-ment as a home for diverse large mammal species despite itssmall size Furthermore despite the fact that the area issurrounded by human dominated landscape that oftenchallenged the survival of the mammals the mountainfragment harbored diverse large mammals including someendemic species Scholars have revealed the importance ofmountain fragments as last refuges for large mammalsespecially in areas where there is intense human en-croachment and expansion of agriculture [20 46] More-over the fact that the mountain is home for the endemic T smeneliki and C djamdjamensis makes it critical for wildlifeconservation T s meneliki has been reported to inhabit thenorthern central and southeastern highlands of Ethiopiaranging from 1800m to 3200m asl [11 24 47] Typicallythe species is reported to inhabit dry evergreen Afromontaneforest and alpine bamboo habitats [11 47] Furthermore itwas reported to be among the most abundant large mammalspecies in Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) [22 47]once known to be connected with the Geremba Mountainbefore habitat fragmentation caused by anthropogenic
6 International Journal of Ecology
factors disconnected the continuous forest Bale monkey is atypical species found in alpine bamboo forest that uses thehabitat as source of food cover and other habitat re-quirements [48] Studies have pointed out that C djamd-jamensis is fairly common in the Bale west Arsi and Sidamahighlands including mountain fragments in close associa-tion with alpine bamboo forest [48 49]
-e insignificant seasonal variation in the species rich-ness of mammals could be explained by the isolated natureof the mountain where movements to and from the patchfragment do not occur -is could imply a poor geneticmakeup that could lead to inbreeding effects on the meta-populations of large mammals over long period of time [50]unless the fragment is connected by wildlife corridors withother similar fragments in the surrounding area or extensiveforest in the adjacent BMNP
-e highest record of the species in the alpine bamboodominated forest could be due to the relatively dense andvast nature of the habitat type as compared to other habitattypes providing a better space cover and food satisfyingdiverse niche requirements of mammals -e possible rea-sons for the distribution and diversity of large-sizedmammal species might be due to the habitat types andquality (presence of food and water) and stability of the areafrom disturbances Disturbance is also a key factor thatdetermines the habitat use of large mammals [19 22 51 52]
42 Relative Abundance -e relatively higher abundance ofolive baboon in the area could be attributed to the feedingbehavior as the species is adapted to feed on variety of fooditems and survive different climatic and topographic
Table 1 Checklist of large wild mammals registered in Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Taxon scientific name Common name IUCN status CITES status CurrentLocal statusArtiodactylaBovidaeTragelaphus scriptus meneliki Menelikrsquos bushbuckE LC mdash Un-coSylvicapra grimmia Common duiker LC mdash Un-co
CarnivoraCanidaeCanis aureus
Hyaenidae Common jackal LC mdash Un-coCrocuta crocuta Spotted hyena LC mdash Co
Felidae Leopard VU App I RaPanthera pardus Serval cat LC App II RaFelis serval
PrimatesCercopithecidaeChlorocebus djamdjamensis Bale monkeyE VU App II RaPapio anubis Olive baboon LC App II Un-co
IUCN status EN endangered VU vulnerable NT near threatened LC least concern CITES status App III appendix III currentlocal status Cocommon Un-co uncommon Ra rare E endemic
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 6 Scats of large mammals recorded at Arbegona southern Ethiopia (a) Panthera pardus (b)Crocuta crocuta (c)Hystrix cristata (d)Papio anubis (photo Zerubabel Worku 2018)
International Journal of Ecology 7
Table 2 Diversity indices of large wild mammalrsquos indifferent habitat types of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Study site habitat types Specieshabitat Individualshabitat Hprime D Hmax EArbegona (30 km walked) 10 227plusmn 9
E Pielou evenness Hprime calculated Shannon-Weiner diversity Hmax ln(s) [species diversity under maximum equitability conditions] D Simpson Index
Table 3 Sorensen species similarity index for the large wild mammals among different habitat types of Geremba Mountain southernEthiopia
Study site habitat types No of species per habitat Sorensonrsquos species similarity indexArbegona (30 km walked) 10 0714Modified forest vs alpine bamboo forest (15 kmvs 12 km walked) 7 vs 9 0875Modified forest vs Erica scrubland (15 km vs 3 km walked) 7 vs 5 0833Alpine bamboo forest vs Erica scrubland (12 kmvs 3 km walked) 9 vs5 0714
Table 4 Relative abundance of large wild mammals among different habitat types of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Species
No of animals observed in different habitat types
Total animals observed Relative abundance ()Modified forestAlpinebambooforest
Figure 7 Seasonal variation in species composition and abundance of large wild mammals at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
8 International Journal of Ecology
variations Olive baboon is known to be widely distributed inAfrica in a wide variety of habitats ranging from savannagrass lands up to Afromontane forest [53] Similarly [54]noted wide distribution of olive baboon in an altitude rangeof 1700m asl to 2300m asl Different types of food itemsare targeted by olive baboon from cereals to fruits and fromvegetables to trees [55] Olive baboon is also disturbancetolerant species that can survive in areas where there aresevere human encroachments and poor cover [55] It is alsoamong the top crop raider species in Ethiopia that areattracted to inhabit fragmented mountain cliffs surroundedby agriculture [56]
-e relatively higher abundance of T s meneliki in thealpine bamboo forest could be due to its preferences fordense vegetation cover with abundant cover from predatorsand other threats and better foraging opportunities ascompared to the other two habitat types [11 19 24] Sim-ilarly the C djamdjamensis diet is predominantly alpinebamboo shoot that gives it an obligatory association withalpine bamboo forest Various studies have indicated thatalpine bamboo is the ideal habitat for Bale monkey and itsdiet mainly comprises alpine bamboo [49 57 58] -esignificant seasonal variation in the abundance of Balemonkey could be attributed to higher availability of its fa-vorite alpine bamboo shoots during the dry season com-pared to wet season [57 58] It is reported that alpinebamboo flushes fresh shoots during dry season in themonths of February and March [58] synchronized with thedry season data collection period of the study As a result thehigher availability of the bamboo shoots could concentratethe populations of the Bale monkey during dry season in thealpine bamboo forest
43 Population Structure -e relatively higher populationof females and good proportion of young individuals in-dicate a healthy population showing potential of populationgrowth in the future -is is supported by [59] which statedthat sex and age structure of a population at any given pointof time is also an indicator of the status of the population-is is supported by different studies in different areas[59ndash61] -e endemic T s meneliki and C djamdjamensishad considerable good number of young individuals that one
expects from a growing population [24 57] -erefore thestudy revealed that the endemic species populations can besustained at least for some time despite the overwhelmingthreats However the long-term viability of the speciespopulations in the area remains uncertain due to the isolatednature and small size of the fragment [58]
5 Conclusion and Recommendations
Despite the fact that Geremba Mountain fragment is a smallisolated patch of alpine bamboo dominated forest sur-rounded by human dominated landscape it supported aconsiderably large number of large mammals Furthermoreit is home for some endemic (Menelikrsquos bushbuck and Balemonkey) and vulnerable (Bale monkey and leopard) largemammals -e large mammal species richness and abun-dance varied among habitat types -e study revealed thatseasonality and habitat types were important factors indetermining the species abundance and distribution in thearea indicating specific habitat use by some of the species inresponse to ecological factors such as altitudes and vege-tation -e alpine bamboo forest was the richest in largemammal diversity with P Anubis being the most abundantspecies and the endemic and vulnerable Bale monkey isclosely associated with the alpine bamboo
However the anthropogenic activities in and around theremnant forest and the isolated nature of the fragment canshrink the available habitats to wild mammals and blockgene flow with metapopulations in nearby fragments ulti-mately affecting the abundance and survival of the largemammals As a result there is a need for full protection ofthe area from the surrounding threats through makingefforts like proclaiming the area as a protected area andcontinuous effort should be made to ecologically integratethe fragment with other fragments in the localities throughwildlife corridors Furthermore special considerationshould be made to protect the vulnerable endemic Balemonkey and its unique habitat alpine bamboo Furtherresearch should also be made to investigate the habitatassociation of Bale monkey and alpine bamboo in terms ofcover and food sources and genetic variations amongmetapopulations found in other fragments in the localities
Table 5 Populations structure and ratio of large wild mammals at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
-e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
-e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
-e authors are grateful to Hawassa University for the fi-nancial support through -ematic Research Project and forall the logistics -e authors sincerely thank ArbegonaAdministration Office for granting us the permission tocarry out this study in the area -e authors also appreciatethe help from their field assistants during the data collectionprocess
References
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[2] O M Makonjio and G Katie ldquo-e role of large mammals andprotected areas to tourist satisfaction in the northern circuitTanzaniardquo Tourism Analysis vol 14 pp 691ndash697 2009
[3] A Govindasamy and H J Minna ldquoDo animals suffer casteprejudice in Hinduismrdquo Social Compass vol 53 no 4pp 244-245 2006
[4] D A Duffus and P Dearden ldquoNon-consumptive wildlife-oriented recreation a conceptual frameworkrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 53 pp 13ndash231 1990
[5] C N Jenkinsa S L Pimmb and L N Joppac ldquoGlobalpatterns of terrestrial vertebrate diversity and conservationrdquoin Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of theUnited States of America New York NY USA June 2013
[6] G Ceballos and P R Ehrlich ldquoGlobal mammal distributionsbiodiversity hotspots and conservationrdquo Proceeding of theNational Academy of Science USA vol 103 no 51pp 19374ndash19379 2006
[7] D E Wilson and D M ReederMammal Species of the WorldJohns Hopkins University Press Baltimore MD USA 2005
[8] J W Sutherland Ecological Census Techniques University ofEast Anglia Norwich UK 2nd edition 2006
[9] A Bekele andDWYalden=eMammals of Ethiopia andEritreaAddis Ababa University Press Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2013
[10] World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) Biodi-versity Data Sourcebook World Conservation MonitoringCentre Cambridge UK 2013
[11] D W Yalden M J Largen D Kock and J C HillmanldquoCatalogue of the mammals of Ethiopia and Eritrea 7 Revisedchecklist zoogeography and conservationrdquo Tropical Zoologyvol 9 no 1 pp 73ndash164 1996
[13] A Kidane ldquoWildlife management problems in EthiopiardquoWalia vol 8 pp 3ndash9 1982
[14] P Evangelista P Swartzinski and RWaltermire ldquoA profile ofthe mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni)rdquo 2007 httpswwwafricanindabacoza
[15] T Hundessa Management Problems of Protected Areas inEthiopia UNESCO World Heritage Paris France 1992
[16] T Wiegand E Revilla and K A Moloney ldquoEffects of habitatloss and fragmentation on population dynamicsrdquo Conser-vation Biology vol 19 no 1 pp 108ndash121 2005
[17] L Nigatu and M Tadesse ldquoAn ecological study of the veg-etation of the Harenna Forest Bale Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethi-opian Journal of Science vol 12 pp 63ndash93 1989
[18] K Wesche G Miehe and M Kaeppeli ldquo-e significance offire for afroalpine ericaceous vegetationrdquo Mountain Researchand Development Mountain Research and Developmentvol 20 no 4 pp 340ndash347 2000
[19] Z Girma G Chuyong and M Yosef ldquoImpact of livestockencroachments and tree removal on populations of mountainnyala and Menelikrsquos bushbuck in Arsi mountains nationalPark Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology vol 2018p 8 2018
[20] Z Girma A Bekele and H Graham ldquoLarge mammals andmountain encroachments on mount kaka and hunkolofragments southeast Ethiopiardquo Asian Journal of AppliedSciences vol 5 no 5 pp 279ndash289 2012a
[21] Z Girma Y Mamo and M Ersado ldquoSpecies compositiondistribution and relative abundance of large mammals in andaround wondo genet forest patch southern Ethiopiardquo AsianJournal of Applied Sciences vol 5 no 8 pp 538ndash551 2012b
[22] P A Stephens C A drsquoSa C Sillero-Zubiri and N Leader-Williams ldquoImpact of livestock and settlement on the largemammalian wildlife of bale mountains National ParkSouthern Ethiopiardquo Biological Conservation vol 100 no 3pp 307ndash322 2001
[23] A Fetene G Mengesha and T Bekele ldquoSpatial distributionand habitat preferences of selected large mammalian speciesin the NechSar National Park (NSNP) Ethiopiardquo Nature andScience vol 9 pp 80ndash90 2011
[24] D Yazezew Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoPopulation ecology ofMenelikrsquos bushbuck (tragelaphusscriptusmeneliki Neu-mann1902) from donkoro forest proposed national Parknorthern Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology andEnvironmental Science vol 37 pp 1ndash13 2011
[25] ArbegonaWoreda Tourism and Communication Office(AWTCO) A Magazine General Information about Arbe-gonaWoreda AWTCO Publications Arbegona Ethiopia2003
[26] K A Wilson M F McBride M Bode and H P PossinghamldquoPrioritizing global conservation effortsrdquo Nature vol 440no 7082 pp 337ndash340 2006
[27] F Assefa T Tadesse and A Dancho ldquoChallenges and Op-portunities Of Village Poultry Production In Arbegona-Woreda Sidama Zone Southern Ethiopiardquo MSc thesisWolaitaSodo University Sodo Ethiopia 2015
[28] B Shrestha and K Basnet ldquoIndirect methods of identifyingmammals a case study from Shivapuri National Park NepalrdquoEco print An International Journal of Ecology vol 12pp 43ndash57 2004
[29] Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) Arc GISSoftware 101 Environmental Systems Research InstituteRedlands CA USA 2012
[30] International Union for the Conservation of Nature AntelopeSpecialist Group (IUCNASG) Tragelaphusimberbis IUCNRed List of threatened species Version 20121 IUCNASGGland Switzerland 2008
[31] T Wondimagegnehu and B Afework ldquoCurrent populationstatus of the endangered endemic subspecies of swaynersquoshartebeest (alcelaphusbuselaphusswaynei) in maze national
10 International Journal of Ecology
Park Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethiopian Journal of Science vol 34pp 39ndash48 2011
[32] C Peres ldquoGeneral guidelines for standardizing line-transectsurveys of tropical forest primatesrdquo Neotropical Primatesvol 7 pp 11ndash16 1999
[33] C A Peres and A Cunha Line-transect censuses of large-bodied tropical forest vertebrates a handbook WildlifeConservation Society Brazilia Rio de Jenero Brazil 2011
[34] A Singh A Mukherjee S Dookia and H N Kumara ldquoAnupdated account of mammal species and population status ofungulates in Keoladeo National Park Bharatpur RajasthanrdquoCurrent Science vol 113 no 01 p 103 2017
[35] L H Emmons and F Feer Neo-tropical Rainforest MammalsField Guide -e University of Chicago Press Chicago ILUSA 1997
[36] J C Hillman ldquoConservation in bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 20 pp 89ndash94 1987
[37] G J Wilson and R J Delahay ldquoA review of methods toestimate the abundance of terrestrial carnivores using fieldsigns and observationrdquo Wildlife Research vol 28 no 2pp 151ndash164 2001
[38] J Kingdon =eKingdon Field Guide to African MammalsAcademic Press London UK 1997
[39] D Macdonald and P Barrett Mammals of Europe PrincetonUniversity Press Princeton NJ USA 2002
[40] P Bang and P Dahlstrom Animal Tracks and Signs OxfordUniversity Press Oxford UK 2001
[41] International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)=e IUCN Red List of species Version 2016 httpwwwiucnredlistorgdetails 2016
[42] S Yirga Atibiwoch Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural HistorySociety Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[43] G Ohnesorge and B Scheiba Tierspuren and Fahrten in Feldund Wald BassermannVerlag Munchen Germany 2007
[44] R Regassa and S Yirga ldquoDistribution abundance andpopulation status of burchells zebra (Equus quagga) in yabellowildlife sanctuary southern Ethiopiardquo Journal of Ecology andthe Natural Environment vol 5 no 3 pp 40ndash49 2013
[45] R I M Dunbar and P Dunbar ldquo-e reproductive cycle of thegelada baboonrdquoAnimal Behaviour vol 22 no 1 pp 203ndash2101974
[46] G A Balme R Slotow and L T B Hunter ldquoEdge effects andthe impact of non-protected areas in carnivore conservationleopards in the Phinda-Mkhuze Complex South AfricardquoAnimal Conservation vol 13 no 3 pp 315ndash323 2010
[47] Z Girma G Chuyong P Evangelista and Y Mamo ldquoHabitatcharacterization and preferences of the mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni lydekker 1910) and Menelikrsquos bushbuck (trag-elaphusscriptusmeneliki neumann 1902) in Arsi mountainsnational Park south-eastern Ethiopiardquo International Journal ofCurrent Research vol 7 no 11 pp 23074ndash23082 2015
[48] A Mekonnen ldquoDistribution of the Bale monkey (chlor-ocebusdjamdjamensis) in the Bale Mountains and its Ecologyin the odobullu forest Ethiopiandasha Study of habitat preferencepopulation size feeding behaviour Activity and rangingpatternsrdquo MSc thesis Addis Ababa University Addis AbabaEthiopia 2009
[49] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing G Hemson andA Atickem ldquoDiet activity patterns and ranging ecology ofthe bale monkey (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis) in odobulluforest Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Primatology vol 31no 3 pp 339ndash362 2010a
[50] E A Archie J A Hollister-Smith J H Poole et alldquoBehavioural inbreeding avoidance in wild African
elephantsrdquo Molecular Ecology vol 16 no 19 pp 4138ndash41482007
[51] Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoHuman and livestock encroach-ments into the habitat of mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni) in the bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Tropical Ecology vol 52 pp 265ndash273 2011
[52] J M Hall ldquoBradykinin receptorsrdquoGeneral Pharmacology=eVascular System vol 28 no 1 pp 1ndash6 1997
[53] C Sillero-Zubiri and D Switzer Crop Raiding PrimatesSearching For Alternative Humane Ways to Resolve Conflictwith Farmers In Africa Wildlife Conservation Research UnitOxford University Press Oxford UK 2001
[54] Y Mamo A Bekele and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use ofmountain nyala (tragelaphusbuxtoni lyddeker 1911) in thebale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo InternationalJournal of Biodiversity and Conservation vol 4 pp 642ndash6512012
[55] M Chane and S Yirga ldquoDiversity of medium and large-sizedmammals in BorenaSayint national Park south wolloE-thiopiardquo International Journal of Science vol 15 pp 95ndash1062009
[56] B Tufa Z Girma and G Mengesha ldquoHuman-large wildmammals conflict in dhera-dilfaqar block of Arsi mountainsnational Park south eastern Ethiopiardquo Human Dimensions ofWildlife vol 23 no 5 pp 474ndash481 2018
[57] A Mekonnen A Bekele G Hemson E Teshome andA Atickem ldquoPopulation size and habitat preference of thevulnerable bale monkey chlorocebus djamdjamensis inodobullu forest and its distribution across the bale mountainsEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 44 no 4 pp 558ndash563 2010b
[58] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing J-M LernouldA Atickem and N C Stenseth ldquoNewly discovered balemonkey populations in forest fragments in southern Ethiopiaevidence of crop raiding hybridization with grivets and otherconservation threatsrdquo American Journal of Primatologyvol 74 no 5 pp 423ndash432 2012
[59] L H Brown ldquoObservations on the status habitat and be-havior of the mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni) inEthiopiardquo Mammalia vol 33 pp 545ndash597 1969
[60] United Nations Economic Social and Cultural Organization(UNESCO) Faunal survey Final Report on Status And Dis-tribution of Faunal Diversity in Kaffa Afro-Montane ForestUNESCO Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[61] Y Mamo A Asefa and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use of un-gulates in bale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo AfricanJournal of Ecology vol 53 no 4 pp 512ndash520 2015
International Journal of Ecology 11
continuously being updated To date there are 5416 speciesof mammals out of which 2277 (42) rodents (Rodentia)1116 (206) bats (Chiroptera) and 428 (79) shrews andallies (Soricomorpha) comprise the largest species [7]
Ethiopia is among the biodiversity rich countries inAfrica -e species of mammals are estimated to be around320 species including 39 endemics (both small and largemammals) distributed in 14 orders and 39 families [9]which ranks the country among the most diverse mam-malian faunas in Africa [10] It has been indicated that largemammals were once widely distributed in most parts of thecountry and were fairly abundant [11] when the forest coverof the country was estimated to be 60 [12] However themajority of the large mammals are now confined to isolatedprotected areas and mountain fragments mostly found insouthern and southeastern part of the country [10]
Wildlife habitat degradation fragmentation and loss arecommon threats to mammals in Ethiopia have remained asthe most important challenges of wildlife conservation inEthiopia [13] and have been escalating in the recent decades[14] Expansions of agriculture human settlement fire woodcollection wood extraction livestock encroachment andanthropogenic fire have been the major drivers for wildlifehabitat degradation fragmentation and loss [14ndash16] -esethreats have led to loss of vast areas of wildlife habitat andhave been degrading factors in Ethiopia including in pro-tected areas [17ndash19] Most fragments are montane fragmentsthat are inaccessible for agricultural and human settlements[14] Mountain fragments are common throughout thedensely populated highlands of Ethiopia and have beenrecently known for their enormous potential for conser-vation of biodiversity [14 20 21]-ese mountain fragmentshave been serving as last refugees for diverse large mammalsincluding endangered and endemic species [20 22 23]However most of these mountain fragments are not pro-tected legally and have been disconnected ecologically fromother fragments in the surroundings [24] Although it isbelieved that habitats outside protected areas have anenormous role in supporting diverse wildlife species therehave been few surveys of these sites and comprehensivescientific baseline information is lacking [25]
Mount Geremba is fragmented mountain (125 km2) inthe southern highlands of Ethiopia [25] -e mountain ispredominantly covered by alpine bamboo and with spareErica scrubland vegetation at the summit of the mountainDespite its small size it is known as home for diverse wildlifespecies including endemic and vulnerable large mammals[25] -e fragment is totally disconnected from similarfragments in the locality and has been often challenged bythe human dominated landscape surrounding the mountainDespite the fact that the mountain fragment harbors diverselarge mammal species in increasingly distributed environ-ment little is known about the large mammal diversity andecology Furthermore how these mammals survive in thepresence of continuing disturbance is unknown to the sci-entific community Comprehensive information on faunalresources and their specific habitat association should bemade available for sustainable wildlife conservation Inparticular this study attempted to answer research questions
such as the following What is the large mammals speciescomposition in the fragment What is the relative abun-dance of each species What is the population structurenexus to further demographic stochastic -erefore thestudy is aimed at investigating large mammals speciescomposition relative abundance and population structure
2 Materials and Methods
21 Study Area Mount Geremba is located in Arbegonaworeda (district) administered under Sidama zone of theSouthern Nations Nationalities and Peoplesrsquo Region State(SNNPRS) of Ethiopia (Figure 1) Arbegona is bordered byBona Zuria woreda to the south Bursa to the southwestGorche to the northwest and Bensa woreda of the Sidamazone of SNNPRS to the east whereas in north it is boardedby Kokosa woreda of theWest Arsi zone of Oromia RegionalState (Figure 1) It is located about 361 km to the south of thecapital Addis Ababa Geographically it is situated between6deg38prime to 6deg49prime N and 38deg34prime to 38deg49prime E covering a total areaof 125 km2 (1250 ha) (Figure 1)
Arbegona is characterized by a hilly and mountainouslandscape with an altitude range from 2000 to 3336m asl[25] -ere are various mountain fragments in the woredacovered by sparse vegetation and highly encroached byhuman activities Mountain fragments in the woreda includeGeremba Yerke Idoro Udume Werbadule and HafursaPerennial rivers of Arbegona include Gange Gabata Che-leleka Tare Gorenti Bulichana and Malawe [25] -eworeda exhibits a bimodal rainfall pattern with a minorrainy season between the months of February and April andmajor rainfall between the months of July and October -eannual rainfall ranges from 1250 to 1300mm [25]-emeanmonthly temperature ranges from a minimum of 14degC to amaximum of 18degC [25]
22 Reconnaissance Survey A reconnaissance survey wascarried out to get basic information on accessibility to-pography and infrastructures [26] -e reconnaissancesurvey was carried out during the second week of May 2017for five days During the survey all the dominant habitattypes were transverse on foot visual estimation of the area ofeach habitat type was made and 20 ground truth points(geographical coordinates) representing all the dominanthabitat types were taken using global positioning system(GPS) as an input for estimating the total area of each habitattype using geographic information system (GIS) and remotesensing technologies
23 Sampling Design Based on direct observation madeduring the reconnaissance survey and land cover infor-mation obtained from satellite images using geographicinformation system (GIS) and remote sensing the GerembaMountain was stratified into three dominant habitat typesnamely subalpine (Erica scrubland) alpine bamboo forestand modified dry ever green Afromontane forest habitats-e sub-Afroalpine habitat (Erica scrubland) covered theupland areas with rugged topography (3291ndash3305m asl)
2 International Journal of Ecology
and was dominated by remnants of Erica arborea interspersedwith Hypericum revolutum and scattered stands of the en-demic giant lobelia (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) (Figure 2) -ealpine bamboo habitat occurred in valleys and middle altitudeareas between 3189 and 3229m asl and was dominated byhighland bamboo (Arundinaria alpina) (Figure 3) It com-prised the highest proportion of the mountain fragmentModified dry evergreen Afromontane forest habitat occurredin areas with an altitude range 3075ndash3165m asl andencompassed buffer areas with 0-1 km distance from the edgeof the alpine bamboo forest -is habitat was characterized bymodified forest habitat (a remnant dry evergreen Afro-montane forest with human interventions severelyencroached by human settlement and agriculture) (Figure 4)[27]
To effectively survey the species diversity of largemammals two standardized survey techniques namelydirect (sighting) and indirect (scat) census were employed[28]
231 Direct Survey A total of ten (T1ndashT10) transect lineswere systematically generated with the help of GIS [29]using QGIS v 218 software (Figure 5(a)) Stratified sys-tematic sampling design was employed to establish tran-sects among the three dominant habitat types From fieldobservation and land cover analysis the approximate areaof each habitat type was determined in order to estimate theproportion of sample transects needed to represent eachhabitat type Accordingly five transect lines (T1 T2 T3 T4and T5) were laid representing the modified dry evergreenAfromontane forest habitat four transect lines (T6 T7 T8and T9) in the alpine bamboo forest habitat and onetransect line (T10) in sub-Afroalpine (Erica scrubland)habitat
From a total area of 125 km2 (1250 ha) 375 km2
(375 ha) (30 of the area) was sampled -e length of eachtransect line was 750m and the distance between two ad-jacent transects was 500m to avoid double counting -evariable transect width method ranging from 20m in thealpine bamboo habitat to 150m in the modified dry ever-green Afromontane habitat was employed (Figure 5(a)) Toavoid edge effects transects were spaced 250m from theedge of the forestshabitat type -e transect lines were laidlengthwise following the slope of the ground and orientedperpendicular to ecological or density gradients Aspectaccessibility terrain long roads streams and contour ofhills were also considered during the transect line setup
232 Indirect Survey As a double confirmation and toaccount for the difficult topography and effectively censuselusive and nocturnal large mammals indirect surveytechnique was also employed Indirect survey plots weresystematically generated with the help of geographic in-formation system [29] using QGIS v 218 software Ac-cordingly a total of 20 plots (P1ndashP20) spaced 750m apartwere established (Figure 5(b)) -e size of each plot was100m2 (20times 5m) To avoid edge effects plots were estab-lished 250m from the edge of the forest Plots wereestablished following the slope of the ground Ecological ordensity gradients including aspect accessibility terrain longroads streams and contour of hills were considered duringthe plots layout
24 Data Collection -e study was conducted for one yearbetween the months of August 2017 and February 2018covering both dry and wet seasons Data were collected infour sessions (Wet I Wet II Dry I and Dry II) Each transectline was visited six times per season Besides fixed line
Ethiopia
SNNP region
Bursa
Gorche
Kokosa
Bensa
Bona Zuria
N
15 3 6 9 12 km0
Projection Tranverse MercatorDatum Adindon_UTM_Zone_37NMap by Zerubabel Worku
Figure 1 Location map of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
International Journal of Ecology 3
transects surveys random search was conducted to recordthe occurrence of mammalian species in the study areas for acomplete species list as applied by [30]
Data on large mammal species richness and abundancewere recorded along the established transect lines duringmorning hours (600 to 1000 am) and late afternoon (300 to500 pm) following [31 32] Each line transect was navigatedby using Garmin 6078 global positioning system (GPS) andHandheld bearing compass Suunto KB-14360R G bywalking at a constant speed of sim1 kmh [33ndash35] During thestudy periods a silent detection method (suitable clothingfor camouflage moving against the direction of wind andkeeping quite) was practiced to minimize disturbance andincrease of animals detectability Observations were madewith naked eyes and Nikon action 10times 50 binoculars
During the study body weight was the parameter used tocategorize mammals as large-sized accordingly mammalsweighing above 7 kg were considered as large mammals asapplied by [8] -e number of individuals of each speciesapproximate perpendicular distance sex age group sizeand activity of the animals were recorded using pre-prepareddata sheet Morphological developments (horn ridges hornsize and body size) growth and maturation changes inpelage color or patterns sexual maturity (bacula testeslength condition of mammary glands and behavior duringbreeding) were used to determine the approximate age(adult subadult and young) [36]
Secondary sexual characteristics external genitalia be-havior (urination posture vocalizations nipples presenceand absence of bacula and descended testes) and sexually
dimorphic characteristics (such as absencepresence ofhorn) were used to determine sex -ose individuals seenwithin a distance of lt50m from the nearby group wererecorded as members of the same group as a means to avoiddouble counting [37] Double counting of the same indi-vidual or herd was avoided using easily recognizable featuresof individuals herd size and composition [38]
241 Indirect Survey Each field plot was scanned carefullyand all fresh scats of large mammals were counted andrecorded Identification of scats obtained was attempted inthe field by using specialized field guides for the identifi-cation of scats of mammals [39ndash41] Scats were distinguishedby different size (measurement of length and diameter)shape odor color and signs associated with feces such asscrapes feeding signs and footprint
25 Data Analysis Each species of large mammals en-countered was identified in the field based on the KingdonField Guide to African Mammals [42] and ldquoAtibiwochrdquo [43]
-e taxonomic treatment was based on the Mammals ofthe World 3rd Edition [7] -e conservation status of eachspecies was also identified based on the IUCN Red List [44]and the CITES Appendices
-e species similarity among the habitat types wascomputed using Sorensonrsquos coefficient (CC)
(CC) 2C
S1 + S2 (1)
where C is the number of species the two habitats have incommon S1 is the total number of species found in habitat 1and S2 is the total number of species found in habitat 2
Species diversity among habitat types was calculatedusing the Shannon-Weiner index of diversity
(Hprime) 1113944 Pi ln Pisi 1 (2)
where Pi is the proportion of the ith species in the habitatSimpsonrsquos diversity index among habitat types was
calculated as follows
(D) 1
ΣPi2si 1 (3)
where Pi is the proportion of the ith species which will beused to analyze the data
-e evenness of mammalian species among habitat typeswas also calculated as
J Hprime
Hprimemax (4)
where Hprime max ln(s) and s is the number of species in theparticular habitat type Evenness ranges between 1 (com-plete evenness) and 0 (complete unevenness)
-e relative abundance of particular large mammals wasdetermined using the following expression
6deg45prime0Prime
N
38deg39prime0PrimeE
T1
T6
T7
T2T3
T4T5
T8
T10
T9
38deg39prime18PrimeE
38deg39prime0PrimeE 38deg39prime18PrimeE
6deg44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
6deg45prime0Prime
N6deg
44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
(a)
38deg39prime0PrimeE
p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
p6 p7 p8 p9 p10
p11 p12 p13 p14
p16 p17 p18
p20 p21 p22
p19
p15
38deg39prime18PrimeE
38deg39prime0PrimeE 38deg39prime18PrimeE
6deg45prime0Prime
N6deg
44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
6deg45prime0Prime
N6deg
44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
(b)
Figure 5 Transects (a) and plots (b) layout at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
International Journal of Ecology 5
percent relative abundance () n
Ntimes 100 (5)
where n is the number of individuals of a particular recordedspecies and N is the total number of individuals of allrecorded species in the study site
-e results and findings of the research were presentedby simple descriptive statistical tools Following [45] and thecomputation of relative abundance the identified mammalswere grouped as common (if probability of observing theindividuals of the species is 100 in every session of the fieldwork) uncommon (if probability of observing is more than50) and rare (if probability of observing is less than 50)according to [37] Records of the number of individuals ofmammals in the line transect that fall in the same habitatswere summed together and treated as a record in one habitatand mean records of the survey were considered Eachspecies was classified into different group size-class age-sexcategories and ratios ie percentages of adults and youngones male per female and young ones per female AKruskal-Wallis test was used to compare differences inmammal species abundance among habitats -e effect ofthe season on species abundance between dry and wet seasonwas analyzed and compared using Chi-square test and theseasonal difference in sex ratio was evaluated by t-test For allstatistical tests p value of 005 was considered significantMinitab version 17 was used for all statistical test analyses
3 Results
31 Species Diversity A total of 10 species of large wildmammals distributed in 5 orders and 7 families wereidentified and recorded after a total effort of 30 km walkeddistance at Geremba Mountain fragment (Table 1) Twoendemic species (Bale monkey Chlorocebus djamdjamensisand Menelikrsquos bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus meneliki) andtwo vulnerable species (Bale monkey and leopard Pantherapardus) were recorded from the mountain (Table 1) Sevenspecies C djamdjamensis Canis aureus Crocuta crocutaFelis serval Papio anubis Sylvicapra grimmia and T smeneliki were recorded through direct observation whereasthree nocturnal and elusive species Hystrix cristata Oryc-teropus afer and P pardus were revealed using indirectevidence (scat survey) (Figure 6)
Seasonal variation in species richness of large wildmammals was observed among different habitat types -ehighest species richness (n 9) was recorded in the alpinebamboo forest habitat during the wet season (Table 2)-ere was a significant difference in species abundanceamong the three habitat types (H 20 df 2 plt 005) -eoverall Sorensen species similarity index (CC) of large wildmammal species among three habitat types of GerembaMountain was 0714 (Table 3) -e highest (0875) simi-larity index was recorded between modified dry evergreenAfromontane forest and alpine bamboo forest (Table 3)-e highest large mammals Simpsonrsquos index (1-D) of di-versity was obtained from the alpine bamboo forest habitat(D 7142) and the Erica scrubland habitat had the lowestdiversity (D 3802)
32 Relative Abundance Papio anubis was the mostabundant species comprising (21 n 48) the recordedindividuals followed by S grimmia (17 n 39) and T smeneliki (14 n 32) (Table 4) On the other hand F servalwas the least abundant species (08 n 2) (Table 4) Bothof the endemics C djamdjamensis and T s menelikiwere themost abundant in the alpine bamboo habitat type duringboth seasons and C djamdjamensis was closely associatedwith the alpine bamboo stands Seasonal variation in speciesabundance was observed and P anubis was the mostabundant during both dry and wet seasons (Figure 7) A totalof 227plusmn 9 individuals were recorded out of which 114plusmn 5(502) individuals were observed during the wet seasonand 113plusmn 6 (497) individuals during the dry season butthe seasonal species abundance of large wild mammals wasnot significantly different (χ2 0004 df 1 pgt 005)
33 Population Structure Out of the total recorded 10species of large wild mammals during the present studyperiod the populations of four species C djamdjamensis Sgrimmia P anubis and T s meneliki were characterized bymore adult andmore female individuals during both wet anddry seasons Generally the number of adult females wasrelatively higher than that of any other agesex group duringboth seasons the pooled sex ratio of adult animals of allspecies was biased towards females and the difference wassignificant (t 29259 df 41 plt 005 t 31440 df 41plt 005) during wet and dry seasons respectively For thecount of both seasons the number of young individuals of allspecies was disproportionately low relative to the number ofadult females However promising young individuals of theendemic mammals (C djamdjamensis and T s meneliki)and P anubis were recorded (Table 5)
4 Discussion
41 Species Diversity -e recorded relatively large numberof mammals indicated the potential of the mountain frag-ment as a home for diverse large mammal species despite itssmall size Furthermore despite the fact that the area issurrounded by human dominated landscape that oftenchallenged the survival of the mammals the mountainfragment harbored diverse large mammals including someendemic species Scholars have revealed the importance ofmountain fragments as last refuges for large mammalsespecially in areas where there is intense human en-croachment and expansion of agriculture [20 46] More-over the fact that the mountain is home for the endemic T smeneliki and C djamdjamensis makes it critical for wildlifeconservation T s meneliki has been reported to inhabit thenorthern central and southeastern highlands of Ethiopiaranging from 1800m to 3200m asl [11 24 47] Typicallythe species is reported to inhabit dry evergreen Afromontaneforest and alpine bamboo habitats [11 47] Furthermore itwas reported to be among the most abundant large mammalspecies in Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) [22 47]once known to be connected with the Geremba Mountainbefore habitat fragmentation caused by anthropogenic
6 International Journal of Ecology
factors disconnected the continuous forest Bale monkey is atypical species found in alpine bamboo forest that uses thehabitat as source of food cover and other habitat re-quirements [48] Studies have pointed out that C djamd-jamensis is fairly common in the Bale west Arsi and Sidamahighlands including mountain fragments in close associa-tion with alpine bamboo forest [48 49]
-e insignificant seasonal variation in the species rich-ness of mammals could be explained by the isolated natureof the mountain where movements to and from the patchfragment do not occur -is could imply a poor geneticmakeup that could lead to inbreeding effects on the meta-populations of large mammals over long period of time [50]unless the fragment is connected by wildlife corridors withother similar fragments in the surrounding area or extensiveforest in the adjacent BMNP
-e highest record of the species in the alpine bamboodominated forest could be due to the relatively dense andvast nature of the habitat type as compared to other habitattypes providing a better space cover and food satisfyingdiverse niche requirements of mammals -e possible rea-sons for the distribution and diversity of large-sizedmammal species might be due to the habitat types andquality (presence of food and water) and stability of the areafrom disturbances Disturbance is also a key factor thatdetermines the habitat use of large mammals [19 22 51 52]
42 Relative Abundance -e relatively higher abundance ofolive baboon in the area could be attributed to the feedingbehavior as the species is adapted to feed on variety of fooditems and survive different climatic and topographic
Table 1 Checklist of large wild mammals registered in Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Taxon scientific name Common name IUCN status CITES status CurrentLocal statusArtiodactylaBovidaeTragelaphus scriptus meneliki Menelikrsquos bushbuckE LC mdash Un-coSylvicapra grimmia Common duiker LC mdash Un-co
CarnivoraCanidaeCanis aureus
Hyaenidae Common jackal LC mdash Un-coCrocuta crocuta Spotted hyena LC mdash Co
Felidae Leopard VU App I RaPanthera pardus Serval cat LC App II RaFelis serval
PrimatesCercopithecidaeChlorocebus djamdjamensis Bale monkeyE VU App II RaPapio anubis Olive baboon LC App II Un-co
IUCN status EN endangered VU vulnerable NT near threatened LC least concern CITES status App III appendix III currentlocal status Cocommon Un-co uncommon Ra rare E endemic
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 6 Scats of large mammals recorded at Arbegona southern Ethiopia (a) Panthera pardus (b)Crocuta crocuta (c)Hystrix cristata (d)Papio anubis (photo Zerubabel Worku 2018)
International Journal of Ecology 7
Table 2 Diversity indices of large wild mammalrsquos indifferent habitat types of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Study site habitat types Specieshabitat Individualshabitat Hprime D Hmax EArbegona (30 km walked) 10 227plusmn 9
E Pielou evenness Hprime calculated Shannon-Weiner diversity Hmax ln(s) [species diversity under maximum equitability conditions] D Simpson Index
Table 3 Sorensen species similarity index for the large wild mammals among different habitat types of Geremba Mountain southernEthiopia
Study site habitat types No of species per habitat Sorensonrsquos species similarity indexArbegona (30 km walked) 10 0714Modified forest vs alpine bamboo forest (15 kmvs 12 km walked) 7 vs 9 0875Modified forest vs Erica scrubland (15 km vs 3 km walked) 7 vs 5 0833Alpine bamboo forest vs Erica scrubland (12 kmvs 3 km walked) 9 vs5 0714
Table 4 Relative abundance of large wild mammals among different habitat types of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Species
No of animals observed in different habitat types
Total animals observed Relative abundance ()Modified forestAlpinebambooforest
Figure 7 Seasonal variation in species composition and abundance of large wild mammals at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
8 International Journal of Ecology
variations Olive baboon is known to be widely distributed inAfrica in a wide variety of habitats ranging from savannagrass lands up to Afromontane forest [53] Similarly [54]noted wide distribution of olive baboon in an altitude rangeof 1700m asl to 2300m asl Different types of food itemsare targeted by olive baboon from cereals to fruits and fromvegetables to trees [55] Olive baboon is also disturbancetolerant species that can survive in areas where there aresevere human encroachments and poor cover [55] It is alsoamong the top crop raider species in Ethiopia that areattracted to inhabit fragmented mountain cliffs surroundedby agriculture [56]
-e relatively higher abundance of T s meneliki in thealpine bamboo forest could be due to its preferences fordense vegetation cover with abundant cover from predatorsand other threats and better foraging opportunities ascompared to the other two habitat types [11 19 24] Sim-ilarly the C djamdjamensis diet is predominantly alpinebamboo shoot that gives it an obligatory association withalpine bamboo forest Various studies have indicated thatalpine bamboo is the ideal habitat for Bale monkey and itsdiet mainly comprises alpine bamboo [49 57 58] -esignificant seasonal variation in the abundance of Balemonkey could be attributed to higher availability of its fa-vorite alpine bamboo shoots during the dry season com-pared to wet season [57 58] It is reported that alpinebamboo flushes fresh shoots during dry season in themonths of February and March [58] synchronized with thedry season data collection period of the study As a result thehigher availability of the bamboo shoots could concentratethe populations of the Bale monkey during dry season in thealpine bamboo forest
43 Population Structure -e relatively higher populationof females and good proportion of young individuals in-dicate a healthy population showing potential of populationgrowth in the future -is is supported by [59] which statedthat sex and age structure of a population at any given pointof time is also an indicator of the status of the population-is is supported by different studies in different areas[59ndash61] -e endemic T s meneliki and C djamdjamensishad considerable good number of young individuals that one
expects from a growing population [24 57] -erefore thestudy revealed that the endemic species populations can besustained at least for some time despite the overwhelmingthreats However the long-term viability of the speciespopulations in the area remains uncertain due to the isolatednature and small size of the fragment [58]
5 Conclusion and Recommendations
Despite the fact that Geremba Mountain fragment is a smallisolated patch of alpine bamboo dominated forest sur-rounded by human dominated landscape it supported aconsiderably large number of large mammals Furthermoreit is home for some endemic (Menelikrsquos bushbuck and Balemonkey) and vulnerable (Bale monkey and leopard) largemammals -e large mammal species richness and abun-dance varied among habitat types -e study revealed thatseasonality and habitat types were important factors indetermining the species abundance and distribution in thearea indicating specific habitat use by some of the species inresponse to ecological factors such as altitudes and vege-tation -e alpine bamboo forest was the richest in largemammal diversity with P Anubis being the most abundantspecies and the endemic and vulnerable Bale monkey isclosely associated with the alpine bamboo
However the anthropogenic activities in and around theremnant forest and the isolated nature of the fragment canshrink the available habitats to wild mammals and blockgene flow with metapopulations in nearby fragments ulti-mately affecting the abundance and survival of the largemammals As a result there is a need for full protection ofthe area from the surrounding threats through makingefforts like proclaiming the area as a protected area andcontinuous effort should be made to ecologically integratethe fragment with other fragments in the localities throughwildlife corridors Furthermore special considerationshould be made to protect the vulnerable endemic Balemonkey and its unique habitat alpine bamboo Furtherresearch should also be made to investigate the habitatassociation of Bale monkey and alpine bamboo in terms ofcover and food sources and genetic variations amongmetapopulations found in other fragments in the localities
Table 5 Populations structure and ratio of large wild mammals at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
-e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
-e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
-e authors are grateful to Hawassa University for the fi-nancial support through -ematic Research Project and forall the logistics -e authors sincerely thank ArbegonaAdministration Office for granting us the permission tocarry out this study in the area -e authors also appreciatethe help from their field assistants during the data collectionprocess
References
[1] MA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) Ecosystems and Hu-man Well-Being Synthesis httpwwwmillenniumassessmentorgdocumentsdocument356aspxpdf 2005
[2] O M Makonjio and G Katie ldquo-e role of large mammals andprotected areas to tourist satisfaction in the northern circuitTanzaniardquo Tourism Analysis vol 14 pp 691ndash697 2009
[3] A Govindasamy and H J Minna ldquoDo animals suffer casteprejudice in Hinduismrdquo Social Compass vol 53 no 4pp 244-245 2006
[4] D A Duffus and P Dearden ldquoNon-consumptive wildlife-oriented recreation a conceptual frameworkrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 53 pp 13ndash231 1990
[5] C N Jenkinsa S L Pimmb and L N Joppac ldquoGlobalpatterns of terrestrial vertebrate diversity and conservationrdquoin Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of theUnited States of America New York NY USA June 2013
[6] G Ceballos and P R Ehrlich ldquoGlobal mammal distributionsbiodiversity hotspots and conservationrdquo Proceeding of theNational Academy of Science USA vol 103 no 51pp 19374ndash19379 2006
[7] D E Wilson and D M ReederMammal Species of the WorldJohns Hopkins University Press Baltimore MD USA 2005
[8] J W Sutherland Ecological Census Techniques University ofEast Anglia Norwich UK 2nd edition 2006
[9] A Bekele andDWYalden=eMammals of Ethiopia andEritreaAddis Ababa University Press Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2013
[10] World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) Biodi-versity Data Sourcebook World Conservation MonitoringCentre Cambridge UK 2013
[11] D W Yalden M J Largen D Kock and J C HillmanldquoCatalogue of the mammals of Ethiopia and Eritrea 7 Revisedchecklist zoogeography and conservationrdquo Tropical Zoologyvol 9 no 1 pp 73ndash164 1996
[13] A Kidane ldquoWildlife management problems in EthiopiardquoWalia vol 8 pp 3ndash9 1982
[14] P Evangelista P Swartzinski and RWaltermire ldquoA profile ofthe mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni)rdquo 2007 httpswwwafricanindabacoza
[15] T Hundessa Management Problems of Protected Areas inEthiopia UNESCO World Heritage Paris France 1992
[16] T Wiegand E Revilla and K A Moloney ldquoEffects of habitatloss and fragmentation on population dynamicsrdquo Conser-vation Biology vol 19 no 1 pp 108ndash121 2005
[17] L Nigatu and M Tadesse ldquoAn ecological study of the veg-etation of the Harenna Forest Bale Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethi-opian Journal of Science vol 12 pp 63ndash93 1989
[18] K Wesche G Miehe and M Kaeppeli ldquo-e significance offire for afroalpine ericaceous vegetationrdquo Mountain Researchand Development Mountain Research and Developmentvol 20 no 4 pp 340ndash347 2000
[19] Z Girma G Chuyong and M Yosef ldquoImpact of livestockencroachments and tree removal on populations of mountainnyala and Menelikrsquos bushbuck in Arsi mountains nationalPark Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology vol 2018p 8 2018
[20] Z Girma A Bekele and H Graham ldquoLarge mammals andmountain encroachments on mount kaka and hunkolofragments southeast Ethiopiardquo Asian Journal of AppliedSciences vol 5 no 5 pp 279ndash289 2012a
[21] Z Girma Y Mamo and M Ersado ldquoSpecies compositiondistribution and relative abundance of large mammals in andaround wondo genet forest patch southern Ethiopiardquo AsianJournal of Applied Sciences vol 5 no 8 pp 538ndash551 2012b
[22] P A Stephens C A drsquoSa C Sillero-Zubiri and N Leader-Williams ldquoImpact of livestock and settlement on the largemammalian wildlife of bale mountains National ParkSouthern Ethiopiardquo Biological Conservation vol 100 no 3pp 307ndash322 2001
[23] A Fetene G Mengesha and T Bekele ldquoSpatial distributionand habitat preferences of selected large mammalian speciesin the NechSar National Park (NSNP) Ethiopiardquo Nature andScience vol 9 pp 80ndash90 2011
[24] D Yazezew Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoPopulation ecology ofMenelikrsquos bushbuck (tragelaphusscriptusmeneliki Neu-mann1902) from donkoro forest proposed national Parknorthern Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology andEnvironmental Science vol 37 pp 1ndash13 2011
[25] ArbegonaWoreda Tourism and Communication Office(AWTCO) A Magazine General Information about Arbe-gonaWoreda AWTCO Publications Arbegona Ethiopia2003
[26] K A Wilson M F McBride M Bode and H P PossinghamldquoPrioritizing global conservation effortsrdquo Nature vol 440no 7082 pp 337ndash340 2006
[27] F Assefa T Tadesse and A Dancho ldquoChallenges and Op-portunities Of Village Poultry Production In Arbegona-Woreda Sidama Zone Southern Ethiopiardquo MSc thesisWolaitaSodo University Sodo Ethiopia 2015
[28] B Shrestha and K Basnet ldquoIndirect methods of identifyingmammals a case study from Shivapuri National Park NepalrdquoEco print An International Journal of Ecology vol 12pp 43ndash57 2004
[29] Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) Arc GISSoftware 101 Environmental Systems Research InstituteRedlands CA USA 2012
[30] International Union for the Conservation of Nature AntelopeSpecialist Group (IUCNASG) Tragelaphusimberbis IUCNRed List of threatened species Version 20121 IUCNASGGland Switzerland 2008
[31] T Wondimagegnehu and B Afework ldquoCurrent populationstatus of the endangered endemic subspecies of swaynersquoshartebeest (alcelaphusbuselaphusswaynei) in maze national
10 International Journal of Ecology
Park Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethiopian Journal of Science vol 34pp 39ndash48 2011
[32] C Peres ldquoGeneral guidelines for standardizing line-transectsurveys of tropical forest primatesrdquo Neotropical Primatesvol 7 pp 11ndash16 1999
[33] C A Peres and A Cunha Line-transect censuses of large-bodied tropical forest vertebrates a handbook WildlifeConservation Society Brazilia Rio de Jenero Brazil 2011
[34] A Singh A Mukherjee S Dookia and H N Kumara ldquoAnupdated account of mammal species and population status ofungulates in Keoladeo National Park Bharatpur RajasthanrdquoCurrent Science vol 113 no 01 p 103 2017
[35] L H Emmons and F Feer Neo-tropical Rainforest MammalsField Guide -e University of Chicago Press Chicago ILUSA 1997
[36] J C Hillman ldquoConservation in bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 20 pp 89ndash94 1987
[37] G J Wilson and R J Delahay ldquoA review of methods toestimate the abundance of terrestrial carnivores using fieldsigns and observationrdquo Wildlife Research vol 28 no 2pp 151ndash164 2001
[38] J Kingdon =eKingdon Field Guide to African MammalsAcademic Press London UK 1997
[39] D Macdonald and P Barrett Mammals of Europe PrincetonUniversity Press Princeton NJ USA 2002
[40] P Bang and P Dahlstrom Animal Tracks and Signs OxfordUniversity Press Oxford UK 2001
[41] International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)=e IUCN Red List of species Version 2016 httpwwwiucnredlistorgdetails 2016
[42] S Yirga Atibiwoch Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural HistorySociety Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[43] G Ohnesorge and B Scheiba Tierspuren and Fahrten in Feldund Wald BassermannVerlag Munchen Germany 2007
[44] R Regassa and S Yirga ldquoDistribution abundance andpopulation status of burchells zebra (Equus quagga) in yabellowildlife sanctuary southern Ethiopiardquo Journal of Ecology andthe Natural Environment vol 5 no 3 pp 40ndash49 2013
[45] R I M Dunbar and P Dunbar ldquo-e reproductive cycle of thegelada baboonrdquoAnimal Behaviour vol 22 no 1 pp 203ndash2101974
[46] G A Balme R Slotow and L T B Hunter ldquoEdge effects andthe impact of non-protected areas in carnivore conservationleopards in the Phinda-Mkhuze Complex South AfricardquoAnimal Conservation vol 13 no 3 pp 315ndash323 2010
[47] Z Girma G Chuyong P Evangelista and Y Mamo ldquoHabitatcharacterization and preferences of the mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni lydekker 1910) and Menelikrsquos bushbuck (trag-elaphusscriptusmeneliki neumann 1902) in Arsi mountainsnational Park south-eastern Ethiopiardquo International Journal ofCurrent Research vol 7 no 11 pp 23074ndash23082 2015
[48] A Mekonnen ldquoDistribution of the Bale monkey (chlor-ocebusdjamdjamensis) in the Bale Mountains and its Ecologyin the odobullu forest Ethiopiandasha Study of habitat preferencepopulation size feeding behaviour Activity and rangingpatternsrdquo MSc thesis Addis Ababa University Addis AbabaEthiopia 2009
[49] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing G Hemson andA Atickem ldquoDiet activity patterns and ranging ecology ofthe bale monkey (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis) in odobulluforest Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Primatology vol 31no 3 pp 339ndash362 2010a
[50] E A Archie J A Hollister-Smith J H Poole et alldquoBehavioural inbreeding avoidance in wild African
elephantsrdquo Molecular Ecology vol 16 no 19 pp 4138ndash41482007
[51] Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoHuman and livestock encroach-ments into the habitat of mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni) in the bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Tropical Ecology vol 52 pp 265ndash273 2011
[52] J M Hall ldquoBradykinin receptorsrdquoGeneral Pharmacology=eVascular System vol 28 no 1 pp 1ndash6 1997
[53] C Sillero-Zubiri and D Switzer Crop Raiding PrimatesSearching For Alternative Humane Ways to Resolve Conflictwith Farmers In Africa Wildlife Conservation Research UnitOxford University Press Oxford UK 2001
[54] Y Mamo A Bekele and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use ofmountain nyala (tragelaphusbuxtoni lyddeker 1911) in thebale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo InternationalJournal of Biodiversity and Conservation vol 4 pp 642ndash6512012
[55] M Chane and S Yirga ldquoDiversity of medium and large-sizedmammals in BorenaSayint national Park south wolloE-thiopiardquo International Journal of Science vol 15 pp 95ndash1062009
[56] B Tufa Z Girma and G Mengesha ldquoHuman-large wildmammals conflict in dhera-dilfaqar block of Arsi mountainsnational Park south eastern Ethiopiardquo Human Dimensions ofWildlife vol 23 no 5 pp 474ndash481 2018
[57] A Mekonnen A Bekele G Hemson E Teshome andA Atickem ldquoPopulation size and habitat preference of thevulnerable bale monkey chlorocebus djamdjamensis inodobullu forest and its distribution across the bale mountainsEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 44 no 4 pp 558ndash563 2010b
[58] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing J-M LernouldA Atickem and N C Stenseth ldquoNewly discovered balemonkey populations in forest fragments in southern Ethiopiaevidence of crop raiding hybridization with grivets and otherconservation threatsrdquo American Journal of Primatologyvol 74 no 5 pp 423ndash432 2012
[59] L H Brown ldquoObservations on the status habitat and be-havior of the mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni) inEthiopiardquo Mammalia vol 33 pp 545ndash597 1969
[60] United Nations Economic Social and Cultural Organization(UNESCO) Faunal survey Final Report on Status And Dis-tribution of Faunal Diversity in Kaffa Afro-Montane ForestUNESCO Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[61] Y Mamo A Asefa and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use of un-gulates in bale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo AfricanJournal of Ecology vol 53 no 4 pp 512ndash520 2015
International Journal of Ecology 11
and was dominated by remnants of Erica arborea interspersedwith Hypericum revolutum and scattered stands of the en-demic giant lobelia (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) (Figure 2) -ealpine bamboo habitat occurred in valleys and middle altitudeareas between 3189 and 3229m asl and was dominated byhighland bamboo (Arundinaria alpina) (Figure 3) It com-prised the highest proportion of the mountain fragmentModified dry evergreen Afromontane forest habitat occurredin areas with an altitude range 3075ndash3165m asl andencompassed buffer areas with 0-1 km distance from the edgeof the alpine bamboo forest -is habitat was characterized bymodified forest habitat (a remnant dry evergreen Afro-montane forest with human interventions severelyencroached by human settlement and agriculture) (Figure 4)[27]
To effectively survey the species diversity of largemammals two standardized survey techniques namelydirect (sighting) and indirect (scat) census were employed[28]
231 Direct Survey A total of ten (T1ndashT10) transect lineswere systematically generated with the help of GIS [29]using QGIS v 218 software (Figure 5(a)) Stratified sys-tematic sampling design was employed to establish tran-sects among the three dominant habitat types From fieldobservation and land cover analysis the approximate areaof each habitat type was determined in order to estimate theproportion of sample transects needed to represent eachhabitat type Accordingly five transect lines (T1 T2 T3 T4and T5) were laid representing the modified dry evergreenAfromontane forest habitat four transect lines (T6 T7 T8and T9) in the alpine bamboo forest habitat and onetransect line (T10) in sub-Afroalpine (Erica scrubland)habitat
From a total area of 125 km2 (1250 ha) 375 km2
(375 ha) (30 of the area) was sampled -e length of eachtransect line was 750m and the distance between two ad-jacent transects was 500m to avoid double counting -evariable transect width method ranging from 20m in thealpine bamboo habitat to 150m in the modified dry ever-green Afromontane habitat was employed (Figure 5(a)) Toavoid edge effects transects were spaced 250m from theedge of the forestshabitat type -e transect lines were laidlengthwise following the slope of the ground and orientedperpendicular to ecological or density gradients Aspectaccessibility terrain long roads streams and contour ofhills were also considered during the transect line setup
232 Indirect Survey As a double confirmation and toaccount for the difficult topography and effectively censuselusive and nocturnal large mammals indirect surveytechnique was also employed Indirect survey plots weresystematically generated with the help of geographic in-formation system [29] using QGIS v 218 software Ac-cordingly a total of 20 plots (P1ndashP20) spaced 750m apartwere established (Figure 5(b)) -e size of each plot was100m2 (20times 5m) To avoid edge effects plots were estab-lished 250m from the edge of the forest Plots wereestablished following the slope of the ground Ecological ordensity gradients including aspect accessibility terrain longroads streams and contour of hills were considered duringthe plots layout
24 Data Collection -e study was conducted for one yearbetween the months of August 2017 and February 2018covering both dry and wet seasons Data were collected infour sessions (Wet I Wet II Dry I and Dry II) Each transectline was visited six times per season Besides fixed line
Ethiopia
SNNP region
Bursa
Gorche
Kokosa
Bensa
Bona Zuria
N
15 3 6 9 12 km0
Projection Tranverse MercatorDatum Adindon_UTM_Zone_37NMap by Zerubabel Worku
Figure 1 Location map of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
International Journal of Ecology 3
transects surveys random search was conducted to recordthe occurrence of mammalian species in the study areas for acomplete species list as applied by [30]
Data on large mammal species richness and abundancewere recorded along the established transect lines duringmorning hours (600 to 1000 am) and late afternoon (300 to500 pm) following [31 32] Each line transect was navigatedby using Garmin 6078 global positioning system (GPS) andHandheld bearing compass Suunto KB-14360R G bywalking at a constant speed of sim1 kmh [33ndash35] During thestudy periods a silent detection method (suitable clothingfor camouflage moving against the direction of wind andkeeping quite) was practiced to minimize disturbance andincrease of animals detectability Observations were madewith naked eyes and Nikon action 10times 50 binoculars
During the study body weight was the parameter used tocategorize mammals as large-sized accordingly mammalsweighing above 7 kg were considered as large mammals asapplied by [8] -e number of individuals of each speciesapproximate perpendicular distance sex age group sizeand activity of the animals were recorded using pre-prepareddata sheet Morphological developments (horn ridges hornsize and body size) growth and maturation changes inpelage color or patterns sexual maturity (bacula testeslength condition of mammary glands and behavior duringbreeding) were used to determine the approximate age(adult subadult and young) [36]
Secondary sexual characteristics external genitalia be-havior (urination posture vocalizations nipples presenceand absence of bacula and descended testes) and sexually
dimorphic characteristics (such as absencepresence ofhorn) were used to determine sex -ose individuals seenwithin a distance of lt50m from the nearby group wererecorded as members of the same group as a means to avoiddouble counting [37] Double counting of the same indi-vidual or herd was avoided using easily recognizable featuresof individuals herd size and composition [38]
241 Indirect Survey Each field plot was scanned carefullyand all fresh scats of large mammals were counted andrecorded Identification of scats obtained was attempted inthe field by using specialized field guides for the identifi-cation of scats of mammals [39ndash41] Scats were distinguishedby different size (measurement of length and diameter)shape odor color and signs associated with feces such asscrapes feeding signs and footprint
25 Data Analysis Each species of large mammals en-countered was identified in the field based on the KingdonField Guide to African Mammals [42] and ldquoAtibiwochrdquo [43]
-e taxonomic treatment was based on the Mammals ofthe World 3rd Edition [7] -e conservation status of eachspecies was also identified based on the IUCN Red List [44]and the CITES Appendices
-e species similarity among the habitat types wascomputed using Sorensonrsquos coefficient (CC)
(CC) 2C
S1 + S2 (1)
where C is the number of species the two habitats have incommon S1 is the total number of species found in habitat 1and S2 is the total number of species found in habitat 2
Species diversity among habitat types was calculatedusing the Shannon-Weiner index of diversity
(Hprime) 1113944 Pi ln Pisi 1 (2)
where Pi is the proportion of the ith species in the habitatSimpsonrsquos diversity index among habitat types was
calculated as follows
(D) 1
ΣPi2si 1 (3)
where Pi is the proportion of the ith species which will beused to analyze the data
-e evenness of mammalian species among habitat typeswas also calculated as
J Hprime
Hprimemax (4)
where Hprime max ln(s) and s is the number of species in theparticular habitat type Evenness ranges between 1 (com-plete evenness) and 0 (complete unevenness)
-e relative abundance of particular large mammals wasdetermined using the following expression
6deg45prime0Prime
N
38deg39prime0PrimeE
T1
T6
T7
T2T3
T4T5
T8
T10
T9
38deg39prime18PrimeE
38deg39prime0PrimeE 38deg39prime18PrimeE
6deg44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
6deg45prime0Prime
N6deg
44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
(a)
38deg39prime0PrimeE
p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
p6 p7 p8 p9 p10
p11 p12 p13 p14
p16 p17 p18
p20 p21 p22
p19
p15
38deg39prime18PrimeE
38deg39prime0PrimeE 38deg39prime18PrimeE
6deg45prime0Prime
N6deg
44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
6deg45prime0Prime
N6deg
44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
(b)
Figure 5 Transects (a) and plots (b) layout at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
International Journal of Ecology 5
percent relative abundance () n
Ntimes 100 (5)
where n is the number of individuals of a particular recordedspecies and N is the total number of individuals of allrecorded species in the study site
-e results and findings of the research were presentedby simple descriptive statistical tools Following [45] and thecomputation of relative abundance the identified mammalswere grouped as common (if probability of observing theindividuals of the species is 100 in every session of the fieldwork) uncommon (if probability of observing is more than50) and rare (if probability of observing is less than 50)according to [37] Records of the number of individuals ofmammals in the line transect that fall in the same habitatswere summed together and treated as a record in one habitatand mean records of the survey were considered Eachspecies was classified into different group size-class age-sexcategories and ratios ie percentages of adults and youngones male per female and young ones per female AKruskal-Wallis test was used to compare differences inmammal species abundance among habitats -e effect ofthe season on species abundance between dry and wet seasonwas analyzed and compared using Chi-square test and theseasonal difference in sex ratio was evaluated by t-test For allstatistical tests p value of 005 was considered significantMinitab version 17 was used for all statistical test analyses
3 Results
31 Species Diversity A total of 10 species of large wildmammals distributed in 5 orders and 7 families wereidentified and recorded after a total effort of 30 km walkeddistance at Geremba Mountain fragment (Table 1) Twoendemic species (Bale monkey Chlorocebus djamdjamensisand Menelikrsquos bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus meneliki) andtwo vulnerable species (Bale monkey and leopard Pantherapardus) were recorded from the mountain (Table 1) Sevenspecies C djamdjamensis Canis aureus Crocuta crocutaFelis serval Papio anubis Sylvicapra grimmia and T smeneliki were recorded through direct observation whereasthree nocturnal and elusive species Hystrix cristata Oryc-teropus afer and P pardus were revealed using indirectevidence (scat survey) (Figure 6)
Seasonal variation in species richness of large wildmammals was observed among different habitat types -ehighest species richness (n 9) was recorded in the alpinebamboo forest habitat during the wet season (Table 2)-ere was a significant difference in species abundanceamong the three habitat types (H 20 df 2 plt 005) -eoverall Sorensen species similarity index (CC) of large wildmammal species among three habitat types of GerembaMountain was 0714 (Table 3) -e highest (0875) simi-larity index was recorded between modified dry evergreenAfromontane forest and alpine bamboo forest (Table 3)-e highest large mammals Simpsonrsquos index (1-D) of di-versity was obtained from the alpine bamboo forest habitat(D 7142) and the Erica scrubland habitat had the lowestdiversity (D 3802)
32 Relative Abundance Papio anubis was the mostabundant species comprising (21 n 48) the recordedindividuals followed by S grimmia (17 n 39) and T smeneliki (14 n 32) (Table 4) On the other hand F servalwas the least abundant species (08 n 2) (Table 4) Bothof the endemics C djamdjamensis and T s menelikiwere themost abundant in the alpine bamboo habitat type duringboth seasons and C djamdjamensis was closely associatedwith the alpine bamboo stands Seasonal variation in speciesabundance was observed and P anubis was the mostabundant during both dry and wet seasons (Figure 7) A totalof 227plusmn 9 individuals were recorded out of which 114plusmn 5(502) individuals were observed during the wet seasonand 113plusmn 6 (497) individuals during the dry season butthe seasonal species abundance of large wild mammals wasnot significantly different (χ2 0004 df 1 pgt 005)
33 Population Structure Out of the total recorded 10species of large wild mammals during the present studyperiod the populations of four species C djamdjamensis Sgrimmia P anubis and T s meneliki were characterized bymore adult andmore female individuals during both wet anddry seasons Generally the number of adult females wasrelatively higher than that of any other agesex group duringboth seasons the pooled sex ratio of adult animals of allspecies was biased towards females and the difference wassignificant (t 29259 df 41 plt 005 t 31440 df 41plt 005) during wet and dry seasons respectively For thecount of both seasons the number of young individuals of allspecies was disproportionately low relative to the number ofadult females However promising young individuals of theendemic mammals (C djamdjamensis and T s meneliki)and P anubis were recorded (Table 5)
4 Discussion
41 Species Diversity -e recorded relatively large numberof mammals indicated the potential of the mountain frag-ment as a home for diverse large mammal species despite itssmall size Furthermore despite the fact that the area issurrounded by human dominated landscape that oftenchallenged the survival of the mammals the mountainfragment harbored diverse large mammals including someendemic species Scholars have revealed the importance ofmountain fragments as last refuges for large mammalsespecially in areas where there is intense human en-croachment and expansion of agriculture [20 46] More-over the fact that the mountain is home for the endemic T smeneliki and C djamdjamensis makes it critical for wildlifeconservation T s meneliki has been reported to inhabit thenorthern central and southeastern highlands of Ethiopiaranging from 1800m to 3200m asl [11 24 47] Typicallythe species is reported to inhabit dry evergreen Afromontaneforest and alpine bamboo habitats [11 47] Furthermore itwas reported to be among the most abundant large mammalspecies in Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) [22 47]once known to be connected with the Geremba Mountainbefore habitat fragmentation caused by anthropogenic
6 International Journal of Ecology
factors disconnected the continuous forest Bale monkey is atypical species found in alpine bamboo forest that uses thehabitat as source of food cover and other habitat re-quirements [48] Studies have pointed out that C djamd-jamensis is fairly common in the Bale west Arsi and Sidamahighlands including mountain fragments in close associa-tion with alpine bamboo forest [48 49]
-e insignificant seasonal variation in the species rich-ness of mammals could be explained by the isolated natureof the mountain where movements to and from the patchfragment do not occur -is could imply a poor geneticmakeup that could lead to inbreeding effects on the meta-populations of large mammals over long period of time [50]unless the fragment is connected by wildlife corridors withother similar fragments in the surrounding area or extensiveforest in the adjacent BMNP
-e highest record of the species in the alpine bamboodominated forest could be due to the relatively dense andvast nature of the habitat type as compared to other habitattypes providing a better space cover and food satisfyingdiverse niche requirements of mammals -e possible rea-sons for the distribution and diversity of large-sizedmammal species might be due to the habitat types andquality (presence of food and water) and stability of the areafrom disturbances Disturbance is also a key factor thatdetermines the habitat use of large mammals [19 22 51 52]
42 Relative Abundance -e relatively higher abundance ofolive baboon in the area could be attributed to the feedingbehavior as the species is adapted to feed on variety of fooditems and survive different climatic and topographic
Table 1 Checklist of large wild mammals registered in Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Taxon scientific name Common name IUCN status CITES status CurrentLocal statusArtiodactylaBovidaeTragelaphus scriptus meneliki Menelikrsquos bushbuckE LC mdash Un-coSylvicapra grimmia Common duiker LC mdash Un-co
CarnivoraCanidaeCanis aureus
Hyaenidae Common jackal LC mdash Un-coCrocuta crocuta Spotted hyena LC mdash Co
Felidae Leopard VU App I RaPanthera pardus Serval cat LC App II RaFelis serval
PrimatesCercopithecidaeChlorocebus djamdjamensis Bale monkeyE VU App II RaPapio anubis Olive baboon LC App II Un-co
IUCN status EN endangered VU vulnerable NT near threatened LC least concern CITES status App III appendix III currentlocal status Cocommon Un-co uncommon Ra rare E endemic
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 6 Scats of large mammals recorded at Arbegona southern Ethiopia (a) Panthera pardus (b)Crocuta crocuta (c)Hystrix cristata (d)Papio anubis (photo Zerubabel Worku 2018)
International Journal of Ecology 7
Table 2 Diversity indices of large wild mammalrsquos indifferent habitat types of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Study site habitat types Specieshabitat Individualshabitat Hprime D Hmax EArbegona (30 km walked) 10 227plusmn 9
E Pielou evenness Hprime calculated Shannon-Weiner diversity Hmax ln(s) [species diversity under maximum equitability conditions] D Simpson Index
Table 3 Sorensen species similarity index for the large wild mammals among different habitat types of Geremba Mountain southernEthiopia
Study site habitat types No of species per habitat Sorensonrsquos species similarity indexArbegona (30 km walked) 10 0714Modified forest vs alpine bamboo forest (15 kmvs 12 km walked) 7 vs 9 0875Modified forest vs Erica scrubland (15 km vs 3 km walked) 7 vs 5 0833Alpine bamboo forest vs Erica scrubland (12 kmvs 3 km walked) 9 vs5 0714
Table 4 Relative abundance of large wild mammals among different habitat types of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Species
No of animals observed in different habitat types
Total animals observed Relative abundance ()Modified forestAlpinebambooforest
Figure 7 Seasonal variation in species composition and abundance of large wild mammals at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
8 International Journal of Ecology
variations Olive baboon is known to be widely distributed inAfrica in a wide variety of habitats ranging from savannagrass lands up to Afromontane forest [53] Similarly [54]noted wide distribution of olive baboon in an altitude rangeof 1700m asl to 2300m asl Different types of food itemsare targeted by olive baboon from cereals to fruits and fromvegetables to trees [55] Olive baboon is also disturbancetolerant species that can survive in areas where there aresevere human encroachments and poor cover [55] It is alsoamong the top crop raider species in Ethiopia that areattracted to inhabit fragmented mountain cliffs surroundedby agriculture [56]
-e relatively higher abundance of T s meneliki in thealpine bamboo forest could be due to its preferences fordense vegetation cover with abundant cover from predatorsand other threats and better foraging opportunities ascompared to the other two habitat types [11 19 24] Sim-ilarly the C djamdjamensis diet is predominantly alpinebamboo shoot that gives it an obligatory association withalpine bamboo forest Various studies have indicated thatalpine bamboo is the ideal habitat for Bale monkey and itsdiet mainly comprises alpine bamboo [49 57 58] -esignificant seasonal variation in the abundance of Balemonkey could be attributed to higher availability of its fa-vorite alpine bamboo shoots during the dry season com-pared to wet season [57 58] It is reported that alpinebamboo flushes fresh shoots during dry season in themonths of February and March [58] synchronized with thedry season data collection period of the study As a result thehigher availability of the bamboo shoots could concentratethe populations of the Bale monkey during dry season in thealpine bamboo forest
43 Population Structure -e relatively higher populationof females and good proportion of young individuals in-dicate a healthy population showing potential of populationgrowth in the future -is is supported by [59] which statedthat sex and age structure of a population at any given pointof time is also an indicator of the status of the population-is is supported by different studies in different areas[59ndash61] -e endemic T s meneliki and C djamdjamensishad considerable good number of young individuals that one
expects from a growing population [24 57] -erefore thestudy revealed that the endemic species populations can besustained at least for some time despite the overwhelmingthreats However the long-term viability of the speciespopulations in the area remains uncertain due to the isolatednature and small size of the fragment [58]
5 Conclusion and Recommendations
Despite the fact that Geremba Mountain fragment is a smallisolated patch of alpine bamboo dominated forest sur-rounded by human dominated landscape it supported aconsiderably large number of large mammals Furthermoreit is home for some endemic (Menelikrsquos bushbuck and Balemonkey) and vulnerable (Bale monkey and leopard) largemammals -e large mammal species richness and abun-dance varied among habitat types -e study revealed thatseasonality and habitat types were important factors indetermining the species abundance and distribution in thearea indicating specific habitat use by some of the species inresponse to ecological factors such as altitudes and vege-tation -e alpine bamboo forest was the richest in largemammal diversity with P Anubis being the most abundantspecies and the endemic and vulnerable Bale monkey isclosely associated with the alpine bamboo
However the anthropogenic activities in and around theremnant forest and the isolated nature of the fragment canshrink the available habitats to wild mammals and blockgene flow with metapopulations in nearby fragments ulti-mately affecting the abundance and survival of the largemammals As a result there is a need for full protection ofthe area from the surrounding threats through makingefforts like proclaiming the area as a protected area andcontinuous effort should be made to ecologically integratethe fragment with other fragments in the localities throughwildlife corridors Furthermore special considerationshould be made to protect the vulnerable endemic Balemonkey and its unique habitat alpine bamboo Furtherresearch should also be made to investigate the habitatassociation of Bale monkey and alpine bamboo in terms ofcover and food sources and genetic variations amongmetapopulations found in other fragments in the localities
Table 5 Populations structure and ratio of large wild mammals at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
-e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
-e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
-e authors are grateful to Hawassa University for the fi-nancial support through -ematic Research Project and forall the logistics -e authors sincerely thank ArbegonaAdministration Office for granting us the permission tocarry out this study in the area -e authors also appreciatethe help from their field assistants during the data collectionprocess
References
[1] MA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) Ecosystems and Hu-man Well-Being Synthesis httpwwwmillenniumassessmentorgdocumentsdocument356aspxpdf 2005
[2] O M Makonjio and G Katie ldquo-e role of large mammals andprotected areas to tourist satisfaction in the northern circuitTanzaniardquo Tourism Analysis vol 14 pp 691ndash697 2009
[3] A Govindasamy and H J Minna ldquoDo animals suffer casteprejudice in Hinduismrdquo Social Compass vol 53 no 4pp 244-245 2006
[4] D A Duffus and P Dearden ldquoNon-consumptive wildlife-oriented recreation a conceptual frameworkrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 53 pp 13ndash231 1990
[5] C N Jenkinsa S L Pimmb and L N Joppac ldquoGlobalpatterns of terrestrial vertebrate diversity and conservationrdquoin Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of theUnited States of America New York NY USA June 2013
[6] G Ceballos and P R Ehrlich ldquoGlobal mammal distributionsbiodiversity hotspots and conservationrdquo Proceeding of theNational Academy of Science USA vol 103 no 51pp 19374ndash19379 2006
[7] D E Wilson and D M ReederMammal Species of the WorldJohns Hopkins University Press Baltimore MD USA 2005
[8] J W Sutherland Ecological Census Techniques University ofEast Anglia Norwich UK 2nd edition 2006
[9] A Bekele andDWYalden=eMammals of Ethiopia andEritreaAddis Ababa University Press Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2013
[10] World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) Biodi-versity Data Sourcebook World Conservation MonitoringCentre Cambridge UK 2013
[11] D W Yalden M J Largen D Kock and J C HillmanldquoCatalogue of the mammals of Ethiopia and Eritrea 7 Revisedchecklist zoogeography and conservationrdquo Tropical Zoologyvol 9 no 1 pp 73ndash164 1996
[13] A Kidane ldquoWildlife management problems in EthiopiardquoWalia vol 8 pp 3ndash9 1982
[14] P Evangelista P Swartzinski and RWaltermire ldquoA profile ofthe mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni)rdquo 2007 httpswwwafricanindabacoza
[15] T Hundessa Management Problems of Protected Areas inEthiopia UNESCO World Heritage Paris France 1992
[16] T Wiegand E Revilla and K A Moloney ldquoEffects of habitatloss and fragmentation on population dynamicsrdquo Conser-vation Biology vol 19 no 1 pp 108ndash121 2005
[17] L Nigatu and M Tadesse ldquoAn ecological study of the veg-etation of the Harenna Forest Bale Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethi-opian Journal of Science vol 12 pp 63ndash93 1989
[18] K Wesche G Miehe and M Kaeppeli ldquo-e significance offire for afroalpine ericaceous vegetationrdquo Mountain Researchand Development Mountain Research and Developmentvol 20 no 4 pp 340ndash347 2000
[19] Z Girma G Chuyong and M Yosef ldquoImpact of livestockencroachments and tree removal on populations of mountainnyala and Menelikrsquos bushbuck in Arsi mountains nationalPark Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology vol 2018p 8 2018
[20] Z Girma A Bekele and H Graham ldquoLarge mammals andmountain encroachments on mount kaka and hunkolofragments southeast Ethiopiardquo Asian Journal of AppliedSciences vol 5 no 5 pp 279ndash289 2012a
[21] Z Girma Y Mamo and M Ersado ldquoSpecies compositiondistribution and relative abundance of large mammals in andaround wondo genet forest patch southern Ethiopiardquo AsianJournal of Applied Sciences vol 5 no 8 pp 538ndash551 2012b
[22] P A Stephens C A drsquoSa C Sillero-Zubiri and N Leader-Williams ldquoImpact of livestock and settlement on the largemammalian wildlife of bale mountains National ParkSouthern Ethiopiardquo Biological Conservation vol 100 no 3pp 307ndash322 2001
[23] A Fetene G Mengesha and T Bekele ldquoSpatial distributionand habitat preferences of selected large mammalian speciesin the NechSar National Park (NSNP) Ethiopiardquo Nature andScience vol 9 pp 80ndash90 2011
[24] D Yazezew Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoPopulation ecology ofMenelikrsquos bushbuck (tragelaphusscriptusmeneliki Neu-mann1902) from donkoro forest proposed national Parknorthern Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology andEnvironmental Science vol 37 pp 1ndash13 2011
[25] ArbegonaWoreda Tourism and Communication Office(AWTCO) A Magazine General Information about Arbe-gonaWoreda AWTCO Publications Arbegona Ethiopia2003
[26] K A Wilson M F McBride M Bode and H P PossinghamldquoPrioritizing global conservation effortsrdquo Nature vol 440no 7082 pp 337ndash340 2006
[27] F Assefa T Tadesse and A Dancho ldquoChallenges and Op-portunities Of Village Poultry Production In Arbegona-Woreda Sidama Zone Southern Ethiopiardquo MSc thesisWolaitaSodo University Sodo Ethiopia 2015
[28] B Shrestha and K Basnet ldquoIndirect methods of identifyingmammals a case study from Shivapuri National Park NepalrdquoEco print An International Journal of Ecology vol 12pp 43ndash57 2004
[29] Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) Arc GISSoftware 101 Environmental Systems Research InstituteRedlands CA USA 2012
[30] International Union for the Conservation of Nature AntelopeSpecialist Group (IUCNASG) Tragelaphusimberbis IUCNRed List of threatened species Version 20121 IUCNASGGland Switzerland 2008
[31] T Wondimagegnehu and B Afework ldquoCurrent populationstatus of the endangered endemic subspecies of swaynersquoshartebeest (alcelaphusbuselaphusswaynei) in maze national
10 International Journal of Ecology
Park Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethiopian Journal of Science vol 34pp 39ndash48 2011
[32] C Peres ldquoGeneral guidelines for standardizing line-transectsurveys of tropical forest primatesrdquo Neotropical Primatesvol 7 pp 11ndash16 1999
[33] C A Peres and A Cunha Line-transect censuses of large-bodied tropical forest vertebrates a handbook WildlifeConservation Society Brazilia Rio de Jenero Brazil 2011
[34] A Singh A Mukherjee S Dookia and H N Kumara ldquoAnupdated account of mammal species and population status ofungulates in Keoladeo National Park Bharatpur RajasthanrdquoCurrent Science vol 113 no 01 p 103 2017
[35] L H Emmons and F Feer Neo-tropical Rainforest MammalsField Guide -e University of Chicago Press Chicago ILUSA 1997
[36] J C Hillman ldquoConservation in bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 20 pp 89ndash94 1987
[37] G J Wilson and R J Delahay ldquoA review of methods toestimate the abundance of terrestrial carnivores using fieldsigns and observationrdquo Wildlife Research vol 28 no 2pp 151ndash164 2001
[38] J Kingdon =eKingdon Field Guide to African MammalsAcademic Press London UK 1997
[39] D Macdonald and P Barrett Mammals of Europe PrincetonUniversity Press Princeton NJ USA 2002
[40] P Bang and P Dahlstrom Animal Tracks and Signs OxfordUniversity Press Oxford UK 2001
[41] International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)=e IUCN Red List of species Version 2016 httpwwwiucnredlistorgdetails 2016
[42] S Yirga Atibiwoch Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural HistorySociety Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[43] G Ohnesorge and B Scheiba Tierspuren and Fahrten in Feldund Wald BassermannVerlag Munchen Germany 2007
[44] R Regassa and S Yirga ldquoDistribution abundance andpopulation status of burchells zebra (Equus quagga) in yabellowildlife sanctuary southern Ethiopiardquo Journal of Ecology andthe Natural Environment vol 5 no 3 pp 40ndash49 2013
[45] R I M Dunbar and P Dunbar ldquo-e reproductive cycle of thegelada baboonrdquoAnimal Behaviour vol 22 no 1 pp 203ndash2101974
[46] G A Balme R Slotow and L T B Hunter ldquoEdge effects andthe impact of non-protected areas in carnivore conservationleopards in the Phinda-Mkhuze Complex South AfricardquoAnimal Conservation vol 13 no 3 pp 315ndash323 2010
[47] Z Girma G Chuyong P Evangelista and Y Mamo ldquoHabitatcharacterization and preferences of the mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni lydekker 1910) and Menelikrsquos bushbuck (trag-elaphusscriptusmeneliki neumann 1902) in Arsi mountainsnational Park south-eastern Ethiopiardquo International Journal ofCurrent Research vol 7 no 11 pp 23074ndash23082 2015
[48] A Mekonnen ldquoDistribution of the Bale monkey (chlor-ocebusdjamdjamensis) in the Bale Mountains and its Ecologyin the odobullu forest Ethiopiandasha Study of habitat preferencepopulation size feeding behaviour Activity and rangingpatternsrdquo MSc thesis Addis Ababa University Addis AbabaEthiopia 2009
[49] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing G Hemson andA Atickem ldquoDiet activity patterns and ranging ecology ofthe bale monkey (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis) in odobulluforest Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Primatology vol 31no 3 pp 339ndash362 2010a
[50] E A Archie J A Hollister-Smith J H Poole et alldquoBehavioural inbreeding avoidance in wild African
elephantsrdquo Molecular Ecology vol 16 no 19 pp 4138ndash41482007
[51] Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoHuman and livestock encroach-ments into the habitat of mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni) in the bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Tropical Ecology vol 52 pp 265ndash273 2011
[52] J M Hall ldquoBradykinin receptorsrdquoGeneral Pharmacology=eVascular System vol 28 no 1 pp 1ndash6 1997
[53] C Sillero-Zubiri and D Switzer Crop Raiding PrimatesSearching For Alternative Humane Ways to Resolve Conflictwith Farmers In Africa Wildlife Conservation Research UnitOxford University Press Oxford UK 2001
[54] Y Mamo A Bekele and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use ofmountain nyala (tragelaphusbuxtoni lyddeker 1911) in thebale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo InternationalJournal of Biodiversity and Conservation vol 4 pp 642ndash6512012
[55] M Chane and S Yirga ldquoDiversity of medium and large-sizedmammals in BorenaSayint national Park south wolloE-thiopiardquo International Journal of Science vol 15 pp 95ndash1062009
[56] B Tufa Z Girma and G Mengesha ldquoHuman-large wildmammals conflict in dhera-dilfaqar block of Arsi mountainsnational Park south eastern Ethiopiardquo Human Dimensions ofWildlife vol 23 no 5 pp 474ndash481 2018
[57] A Mekonnen A Bekele G Hemson E Teshome andA Atickem ldquoPopulation size and habitat preference of thevulnerable bale monkey chlorocebus djamdjamensis inodobullu forest and its distribution across the bale mountainsEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 44 no 4 pp 558ndash563 2010b
[58] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing J-M LernouldA Atickem and N C Stenseth ldquoNewly discovered balemonkey populations in forest fragments in southern Ethiopiaevidence of crop raiding hybridization with grivets and otherconservation threatsrdquo American Journal of Primatologyvol 74 no 5 pp 423ndash432 2012
[59] L H Brown ldquoObservations on the status habitat and be-havior of the mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni) inEthiopiardquo Mammalia vol 33 pp 545ndash597 1969
[60] United Nations Economic Social and Cultural Organization(UNESCO) Faunal survey Final Report on Status And Dis-tribution of Faunal Diversity in Kaffa Afro-Montane ForestUNESCO Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[61] Y Mamo A Asefa and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use of un-gulates in bale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo AfricanJournal of Ecology vol 53 no 4 pp 512ndash520 2015
International Journal of Ecology 11
transects surveys random search was conducted to recordthe occurrence of mammalian species in the study areas for acomplete species list as applied by [30]
Data on large mammal species richness and abundancewere recorded along the established transect lines duringmorning hours (600 to 1000 am) and late afternoon (300 to500 pm) following [31 32] Each line transect was navigatedby using Garmin 6078 global positioning system (GPS) andHandheld bearing compass Suunto KB-14360R G bywalking at a constant speed of sim1 kmh [33ndash35] During thestudy periods a silent detection method (suitable clothingfor camouflage moving against the direction of wind andkeeping quite) was practiced to minimize disturbance andincrease of animals detectability Observations were madewith naked eyes and Nikon action 10times 50 binoculars
During the study body weight was the parameter used tocategorize mammals as large-sized accordingly mammalsweighing above 7 kg were considered as large mammals asapplied by [8] -e number of individuals of each speciesapproximate perpendicular distance sex age group sizeand activity of the animals were recorded using pre-prepareddata sheet Morphological developments (horn ridges hornsize and body size) growth and maturation changes inpelage color or patterns sexual maturity (bacula testeslength condition of mammary glands and behavior duringbreeding) were used to determine the approximate age(adult subadult and young) [36]
Secondary sexual characteristics external genitalia be-havior (urination posture vocalizations nipples presenceand absence of bacula and descended testes) and sexually
dimorphic characteristics (such as absencepresence ofhorn) were used to determine sex -ose individuals seenwithin a distance of lt50m from the nearby group wererecorded as members of the same group as a means to avoiddouble counting [37] Double counting of the same indi-vidual or herd was avoided using easily recognizable featuresof individuals herd size and composition [38]
241 Indirect Survey Each field plot was scanned carefullyand all fresh scats of large mammals were counted andrecorded Identification of scats obtained was attempted inthe field by using specialized field guides for the identifi-cation of scats of mammals [39ndash41] Scats were distinguishedby different size (measurement of length and diameter)shape odor color and signs associated with feces such asscrapes feeding signs and footprint
25 Data Analysis Each species of large mammals en-countered was identified in the field based on the KingdonField Guide to African Mammals [42] and ldquoAtibiwochrdquo [43]
-e taxonomic treatment was based on the Mammals ofthe World 3rd Edition [7] -e conservation status of eachspecies was also identified based on the IUCN Red List [44]and the CITES Appendices
-e species similarity among the habitat types wascomputed using Sorensonrsquos coefficient (CC)
(CC) 2C
S1 + S2 (1)
where C is the number of species the two habitats have incommon S1 is the total number of species found in habitat 1and S2 is the total number of species found in habitat 2
Species diversity among habitat types was calculatedusing the Shannon-Weiner index of diversity
(Hprime) 1113944 Pi ln Pisi 1 (2)
where Pi is the proportion of the ith species in the habitatSimpsonrsquos diversity index among habitat types was
calculated as follows
(D) 1
ΣPi2si 1 (3)
where Pi is the proportion of the ith species which will beused to analyze the data
-e evenness of mammalian species among habitat typeswas also calculated as
J Hprime
Hprimemax (4)
where Hprime max ln(s) and s is the number of species in theparticular habitat type Evenness ranges between 1 (com-plete evenness) and 0 (complete unevenness)
-e relative abundance of particular large mammals wasdetermined using the following expression
6deg45prime0Prime
N
38deg39prime0PrimeE
T1
T6
T7
T2T3
T4T5
T8
T10
T9
38deg39prime18PrimeE
38deg39prime0PrimeE 38deg39prime18PrimeE
6deg44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
6deg45prime0Prime
N6deg
44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
(a)
38deg39prime0PrimeE
p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
p6 p7 p8 p9 p10
p11 p12 p13 p14
p16 p17 p18
p20 p21 p22
p19
p15
38deg39prime18PrimeE
38deg39prime0PrimeE 38deg39prime18PrimeE
6deg45prime0Prime
N6deg
44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
6deg45prime0Prime
N6deg
44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
(b)
Figure 5 Transects (a) and plots (b) layout at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
International Journal of Ecology 5
percent relative abundance () n
Ntimes 100 (5)
where n is the number of individuals of a particular recordedspecies and N is the total number of individuals of allrecorded species in the study site
-e results and findings of the research were presentedby simple descriptive statistical tools Following [45] and thecomputation of relative abundance the identified mammalswere grouped as common (if probability of observing theindividuals of the species is 100 in every session of the fieldwork) uncommon (if probability of observing is more than50) and rare (if probability of observing is less than 50)according to [37] Records of the number of individuals ofmammals in the line transect that fall in the same habitatswere summed together and treated as a record in one habitatand mean records of the survey were considered Eachspecies was classified into different group size-class age-sexcategories and ratios ie percentages of adults and youngones male per female and young ones per female AKruskal-Wallis test was used to compare differences inmammal species abundance among habitats -e effect ofthe season on species abundance between dry and wet seasonwas analyzed and compared using Chi-square test and theseasonal difference in sex ratio was evaluated by t-test For allstatistical tests p value of 005 was considered significantMinitab version 17 was used for all statistical test analyses
3 Results
31 Species Diversity A total of 10 species of large wildmammals distributed in 5 orders and 7 families wereidentified and recorded after a total effort of 30 km walkeddistance at Geremba Mountain fragment (Table 1) Twoendemic species (Bale monkey Chlorocebus djamdjamensisand Menelikrsquos bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus meneliki) andtwo vulnerable species (Bale monkey and leopard Pantherapardus) were recorded from the mountain (Table 1) Sevenspecies C djamdjamensis Canis aureus Crocuta crocutaFelis serval Papio anubis Sylvicapra grimmia and T smeneliki were recorded through direct observation whereasthree nocturnal and elusive species Hystrix cristata Oryc-teropus afer and P pardus were revealed using indirectevidence (scat survey) (Figure 6)
Seasonal variation in species richness of large wildmammals was observed among different habitat types -ehighest species richness (n 9) was recorded in the alpinebamboo forest habitat during the wet season (Table 2)-ere was a significant difference in species abundanceamong the three habitat types (H 20 df 2 plt 005) -eoverall Sorensen species similarity index (CC) of large wildmammal species among three habitat types of GerembaMountain was 0714 (Table 3) -e highest (0875) simi-larity index was recorded between modified dry evergreenAfromontane forest and alpine bamboo forest (Table 3)-e highest large mammals Simpsonrsquos index (1-D) of di-versity was obtained from the alpine bamboo forest habitat(D 7142) and the Erica scrubland habitat had the lowestdiversity (D 3802)
32 Relative Abundance Papio anubis was the mostabundant species comprising (21 n 48) the recordedindividuals followed by S grimmia (17 n 39) and T smeneliki (14 n 32) (Table 4) On the other hand F servalwas the least abundant species (08 n 2) (Table 4) Bothof the endemics C djamdjamensis and T s menelikiwere themost abundant in the alpine bamboo habitat type duringboth seasons and C djamdjamensis was closely associatedwith the alpine bamboo stands Seasonal variation in speciesabundance was observed and P anubis was the mostabundant during both dry and wet seasons (Figure 7) A totalof 227plusmn 9 individuals were recorded out of which 114plusmn 5(502) individuals were observed during the wet seasonand 113plusmn 6 (497) individuals during the dry season butthe seasonal species abundance of large wild mammals wasnot significantly different (χ2 0004 df 1 pgt 005)
33 Population Structure Out of the total recorded 10species of large wild mammals during the present studyperiod the populations of four species C djamdjamensis Sgrimmia P anubis and T s meneliki were characterized bymore adult andmore female individuals during both wet anddry seasons Generally the number of adult females wasrelatively higher than that of any other agesex group duringboth seasons the pooled sex ratio of adult animals of allspecies was biased towards females and the difference wassignificant (t 29259 df 41 plt 005 t 31440 df 41plt 005) during wet and dry seasons respectively For thecount of both seasons the number of young individuals of allspecies was disproportionately low relative to the number ofadult females However promising young individuals of theendemic mammals (C djamdjamensis and T s meneliki)and P anubis were recorded (Table 5)
4 Discussion
41 Species Diversity -e recorded relatively large numberof mammals indicated the potential of the mountain frag-ment as a home for diverse large mammal species despite itssmall size Furthermore despite the fact that the area issurrounded by human dominated landscape that oftenchallenged the survival of the mammals the mountainfragment harbored diverse large mammals including someendemic species Scholars have revealed the importance ofmountain fragments as last refuges for large mammalsespecially in areas where there is intense human en-croachment and expansion of agriculture [20 46] More-over the fact that the mountain is home for the endemic T smeneliki and C djamdjamensis makes it critical for wildlifeconservation T s meneliki has been reported to inhabit thenorthern central and southeastern highlands of Ethiopiaranging from 1800m to 3200m asl [11 24 47] Typicallythe species is reported to inhabit dry evergreen Afromontaneforest and alpine bamboo habitats [11 47] Furthermore itwas reported to be among the most abundant large mammalspecies in Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) [22 47]once known to be connected with the Geremba Mountainbefore habitat fragmentation caused by anthropogenic
6 International Journal of Ecology
factors disconnected the continuous forest Bale monkey is atypical species found in alpine bamboo forest that uses thehabitat as source of food cover and other habitat re-quirements [48] Studies have pointed out that C djamd-jamensis is fairly common in the Bale west Arsi and Sidamahighlands including mountain fragments in close associa-tion with alpine bamboo forest [48 49]
-e insignificant seasonal variation in the species rich-ness of mammals could be explained by the isolated natureof the mountain where movements to and from the patchfragment do not occur -is could imply a poor geneticmakeup that could lead to inbreeding effects on the meta-populations of large mammals over long period of time [50]unless the fragment is connected by wildlife corridors withother similar fragments in the surrounding area or extensiveforest in the adjacent BMNP
-e highest record of the species in the alpine bamboodominated forest could be due to the relatively dense andvast nature of the habitat type as compared to other habitattypes providing a better space cover and food satisfyingdiverse niche requirements of mammals -e possible rea-sons for the distribution and diversity of large-sizedmammal species might be due to the habitat types andquality (presence of food and water) and stability of the areafrom disturbances Disturbance is also a key factor thatdetermines the habitat use of large mammals [19 22 51 52]
42 Relative Abundance -e relatively higher abundance ofolive baboon in the area could be attributed to the feedingbehavior as the species is adapted to feed on variety of fooditems and survive different climatic and topographic
Table 1 Checklist of large wild mammals registered in Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Taxon scientific name Common name IUCN status CITES status CurrentLocal statusArtiodactylaBovidaeTragelaphus scriptus meneliki Menelikrsquos bushbuckE LC mdash Un-coSylvicapra grimmia Common duiker LC mdash Un-co
CarnivoraCanidaeCanis aureus
Hyaenidae Common jackal LC mdash Un-coCrocuta crocuta Spotted hyena LC mdash Co
Felidae Leopard VU App I RaPanthera pardus Serval cat LC App II RaFelis serval
PrimatesCercopithecidaeChlorocebus djamdjamensis Bale monkeyE VU App II RaPapio anubis Olive baboon LC App II Un-co
IUCN status EN endangered VU vulnerable NT near threatened LC least concern CITES status App III appendix III currentlocal status Cocommon Un-co uncommon Ra rare E endemic
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 6 Scats of large mammals recorded at Arbegona southern Ethiopia (a) Panthera pardus (b)Crocuta crocuta (c)Hystrix cristata (d)Papio anubis (photo Zerubabel Worku 2018)
International Journal of Ecology 7
Table 2 Diversity indices of large wild mammalrsquos indifferent habitat types of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Study site habitat types Specieshabitat Individualshabitat Hprime D Hmax EArbegona (30 km walked) 10 227plusmn 9
E Pielou evenness Hprime calculated Shannon-Weiner diversity Hmax ln(s) [species diversity under maximum equitability conditions] D Simpson Index
Table 3 Sorensen species similarity index for the large wild mammals among different habitat types of Geremba Mountain southernEthiopia
Study site habitat types No of species per habitat Sorensonrsquos species similarity indexArbegona (30 km walked) 10 0714Modified forest vs alpine bamboo forest (15 kmvs 12 km walked) 7 vs 9 0875Modified forest vs Erica scrubland (15 km vs 3 km walked) 7 vs 5 0833Alpine bamboo forest vs Erica scrubland (12 kmvs 3 km walked) 9 vs5 0714
Table 4 Relative abundance of large wild mammals among different habitat types of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Species
No of animals observed in different habitat types
Total animals observed Relative abundance ()Modified forestAlpinebambooforest
Figure 7 Seasonal variation in species composition and abundance of large wild mammals at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
8 International Journal of Ecology
variations Olive baboon is known to be widely distributed inAfrica in a wide variety of habitats ranging from savannagrass lands up to Afromontane forest [53] Similarly [54]noted wide distribution of olive baboon in an altitude rangeof 1700m asl to 2300m asl Different types of food itemsare targeted by olive baboon from cereals to fruits and fromvegetables to trees [55] Olive baboon is also disturbancetolerant species that can survive in areas where there aresevere human encroachments and poor cover [55] It is alsoamong the top crop raider species in Ethiopia that areattracted to inhabit fragmented mountain cliffs surroundedby agriculture [56]
-e relatively higher abundance of T s meneliki in thealpine bamboo forest could be due to its preferences fordense vegetation cover with abundant cover from predatorsand other threats and better foraging opportunities ascompared to the other two habitat types [11 19 24] Sim-ilarly the C djamdjamensis diet is predominantly alpinebamboo shoot that gives it an obligatory association withalpine bamboo forest Various studies have indicated thatalpine bamboo is the ideal habitat for Bale monkey and itsdiet mainly comprises alpine bamboo [49 57 58] -esignificant seasonal variation in the abundance of Balemonkey could be attributed to higher availability of its fa-vorite alpine bamboo shoots during the dry season com-pared to wet season [57 58] It is reported that alpinebamboo flushes fresh shoots during dry season in themonths of February and March [58] synchronized with thedry season data collection period of the study As a result thehigher availability of the bamboo shoots could concentratethe populations of the Bale monkey during dry season in thealpine bamboo forest
43 Population Structure -e relatively higher populationof females and good proportion of young individuals in-dicate a healthy population showing potential of populationgrowth in the future -is is supported by [59] which statedthat sex and age structure of a population at any given pointof time is also an indicator of the status of the population-is is supported by different studies in different areas[59ndash61] -e endemic T s meneliki and C djamdjamensishad considerable good number of young individuals that one
expects from a growing population [24 57] -erefore thestudy revealed that the endemic species populations can besustained at least for some time despite the overwhelmingthreats However the long-term viability of the speciespopulations in the area remains uncertain due to the isolatednature and small size of the fragment [58]
5 Conclusion and Recommendations
Despite the fact that Geremba Mountain fragment is a smallisolated patch of alpine bamboo dominated forest sur-rounded by human dominated landscape it supported aconsiderably large number of large mammals Furthermoreit is home for some endemic (Menelikrsquos bushbuck and Balemonkey) and vulnerable (Bale monkey and leopard) largemammals -e large mammal species richness and abun-dance varied among habitat types -e study revealed thatseasonality and habitat types were important factors indetermining the species abundance and distribution in thearea indicating specific habitat use by some of the species inresponse to ecological factors such as altitudes and vege-tation -e alpine bamboo forest was the richest in largemammal diversity with P Anubis being the most abundantspecies and the endemic and vulnerable Bale monkey isclosely associated with the alpine bamboo
However the anthropogenic activities in and around theremnant forest and the isolated nature of the fragment canshrink the available habitats to wild mammals and blockgene flow with metapopulations in nearby fragments ulti-mately affecting the abundance and survival of the largemammals As a result there is a need for full protection ofthe area from the surrounding threats through makingefforts like proclaiming the area as a protected area andcontinuous effort should be made to ecologically integratethe fragment with other fragments in the localities throughwildlife corridors Furthermore special considerationshould be made to protect the vulnerable endemic Balemonkey and its unique habitat alpine bamboo Furtherresearch should also be made to investigate the habitatassociation of Bale monkey and alpine bamboo in terms ofcover and food sources and genetic variations amongmetapopulations found in other fragments in the localities
Table 5 Populations structure and ratio of large wild mammals at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
-e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
-e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
-e authors are grateful to Hawassa University for the fi-nancial support through -ematic Research Project and forall the logistics -e authors sincerely thank ArbegonaAdministration Office for granting us the permission tocarry out this study in the area -e authors also appreciatethe help from their field assistants during the data collectionprocess
References
[1] MA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) Ecosystems and Hu-man Well-Being Synthesis httpwwwmillenniumassessmentorgdocumentsdocument356aspxpdf 2005
[2] O M Makonjio and G Katie ldquo-e role of large mammals andprotected areas to tourist satisfaction in the northern circuitTanzaniardquo Tourism Analysis vol 14 pp 691ndash697 2009
[3] A Govindasamy and H J Minna ldquoDo animals suffer casteprejudice in Hinduismrdquo Social Compass vol 53 no 4pp 244-245 2006
[4] D A Duffus and P Dearden ldquoNon-consumptive wildlife-oriented recreation a conceptual frameworkrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 53 pp 13ndash231 1990
[5] C N Jenkinsa S L Pimmb and L N Joppac ldquoGlobalpatterns of terrestrial vertebrate diversity and conservationrdquoin Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of theUnited States of America New York NY USA June 2013
[6] G Ceballos and P R Ehrlich ldquoGlobal mammal distributionsbiodiversity hotspots and conservationrdquo Proceeding of theNational Academy of Science USA vol 103 no 51pp 19374ndash19379 2006
[7] D E Wilson and D M ReederMammal Species of the WorldJohns Hopkins University Press Baltimore MD USA 2005
[8] J W Sutherland Ecological Census Techniques University ofEast Anglia Norwich UK 2nd edition 2006
[9] A Bekele andDWYalden=eMammals of Ethiopia andEritreaAddis Ababa University Press Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2013
[10] World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) Biodi-versity Data Sourcebook World Conservation MonitoringCentre Cambridge UK 2013
[11] D W Yalden M J Largen D Kock and J C HillmanldquoCatalogue of the mammals of Ethiopia and Eritrea 7 Revisedchecklist zoogeography and conservationrdquo Tropical Zoologyvol 9 no 1 pp 73ndash164 1996
[13] A Kidane ldquoWildlife management problems in EthiopiardquoWalia vol 8 pp 3ndash9 1982
[14] P Evangelista P Swartzinski and RWaltermire ldquoA profile ofthe mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni)rdquo 2007 httpswwwafricanindabacoza
[15] T Hundessa Management Problems of Protected Areas inEthiopia UNESCO World Heritage Paris France 1992
[16] T Wiegand E Revilla and K A Moloney ldquoEffects of habitatloss and fragmentation on population dynamicsrdquo Conser-vation Biology vol 19 no 1 pp 108ndash121 2005
[17] L Nigatu and M Tadesse ldquoAn ecological study of the veg-etation of the Harenna Forest Bale Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethi-opian Journal of Science vol 12 pp 63ndash93 1989
[18] K Wesche G Miehe and M Kaeppeli ldquo-e significance offire for afroalpine ericaceous vegetationrdquo Mountain Researchand Development Mountain Research and Developmentvol 20 no 4 pp 340ndash347 2000
[19] Z Girma G Chuyong and M Yosef ldquoImpact of livestockencroachments and tree removal on populations of mountainnyala and Menelikrsquos bushbuck in Arsi mountains nationalPark Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology vol 2018p 8 2018
[20] Z Girma A Bekele and H Graham ldquoLarge mammals andmountain encroachments on mount kaka and hunkolofragments southeast Ethiopiardquo Asian Journal of AppliedSciences vol 5 no 5 pp 279ndash289 2012a
[21] Z Girma Y Mamo and M Ersado ldquoSpecies compositiondistribution and relative abundance of large mammals in andaround wondo genet forest patch southern Ethiopiardquo AsianJournal of Applied Sciences vol 5 no 8 pp 538ndash551 2012b
[22] P A Stephens C A drsquoSa C Sillero-Zubiri and N Leader-Williams ldquoImpact of livestock and settlement on the largemammalian wildlife of bale mountains National ParkSouthern Ethiopiardquo Biological Conservation vol 100 no 3pp 307ndash322 2001
[23] A Fetene G Mengesha and T Bekele ldquoSpatial distributionand habitat preferences of selected large mammalian speciesin the NechSar National Park (NSNP) Ethiopiardquo Nature andScience vol 9 pp 80ndash90 2011
[24] D Yazezew Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoPopulation ecology ofMenelikrsquos bushbuck (tragelaphusscriptusmeneliki Neu-mann1902) from donkoro forest proposed national Parknorthern Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology andEnvironmental Science vol 37 pp 1ndash13 2011
[25] ArbegonaWoreda Tourism and Communication Office(AWTCO) A Magazine General Information about Arbe-gonaWoreda AWTCO Publications Arbegona Ethiopia2003
[26] K A Wilson M F McBride M Bode and H P PossinghamldquoPrioritizing global conservation effortsrdquo Nature vol 440no 7082 pp 337ndash340 2006
[27] F Assefa T Tadesse and A Dancho ldquoChallenges and Op-portunities Of Village Poultry Production In Arbegona-Woreda Sidama Zone Southern Ethiopiardquo MSc thesisWolaitaSodo University Sodo Ethiopia 2015
[28] B Shrestha and K Basnet ldquoIndirect methods of identifyingmammals a case study from Shivapuri National Park NepalrdquoEco print An International Journal of Ecology vol 12pp 43ndash57 2004
[29] Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) Arc GISSoftware 101 Environmental Systems Research InstituteRedlands CA USA 2012
[30] International Union for the Conservation of Nature AntelopeSpecialist Group (IUCNASG) Tragelaphusimberbis IUCNRed List of threatened species Version 20121 IUCNASGGland Switzerland 2008
[31] T Wondimagegnehu and B Afework ldquoCurrent populationstatus of the endangered endemic subspecies of swaynersquoshartebeest (alcelaphusbuselaphusswaynei) in maze national
10 International Journal of Ecology
Park Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethiopian Journal of Science vol 34pp 39ndash48 2011
[32] C Peres ldquoGeneral guidelines for standardizing line-transectsurveys of tropical forest primatesrdquo Neotropical Primatesvol 7 pp 11ndash16 1999
[33] C A Peres and A Cunha Line-transect censuses of large-bodied tropical forest vertebrates a handbook WildlifeConservation Society Brazilia Rio de Jenero Brazil 2011
[34] A Singh A Mukherjee S Dookia and H N Kumara ldquoAnupdated account of mammal species and population status ofungulates in Keoladeo National Park Bharatpur RajasthanrdquoCurrent Science vol 113 no 01 p 103 2017
[35] L H Emmons and F Feer Neo-tropical Rainforest MammalsField Guide -e University of Chicago Press Chicago ILUSA 1997
[36] J C Hillman ldquoConservation in bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 20 pp 89ndash94 1987
[37] G J Wilson and R J Delahay ldquoA review of methods toestimate the abundance of terrestrial carnivores using fieldsigns and observationrdquo Wildlife Research vol 28 no 2pp 151ndash164 2001
[38] J Kingdon =eKingdon Field Guide to African MammalsAcademic Press London UK 1997
[39] D Macdonald and P Barrett Mammals of Europe PrincetonUniversity Press Princeton NJ USA 2002
[40] P Bang and P Dahlstrom Animal Tracks and Signs OxfordUniversity Press Oxford UK 2001
[41] International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)=e IUCN Red List of species Version 2016 httpwwwiucnredlistorgdetails 2016
[42] S Yirga Atibiwoch Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural HistorySociety Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[43] G Ohnesorge and B Scheiba Tierspuren and Fahrten in Feldund Wald BassermannVerlag Munchen Germany 2007
[44] R Regassa and S Yirga ldquoDistribution abundance andpopulation status of burchells zebra (Equus quagga) in yabellowildlife sanctuary southern Ethiopiardquo Journal of Ecology andthe Natural Environment vol 5 no 3 pp 40ndash49 2013
[45] R I M Dunbar and P Dunbar ldquo-e reproductive cycle of thegelada baboonrdquoAnimal Behaviour vol 22 no 1 pp 203ndash2101974
[46] G A Balme R Slotow and L T B Hunter ldquoEdge effects andthe impact of non-protected areas in carnivore conservationleopards in the Phinda-Mkhuze Complex South AfricardquoAnimal Conservation vol 13 no 3 pp 315ndash323 2010
[47] Z Girma G Chuyong P Evangelista and Y Mamo ldquoHabitatcharacterization and preferences of the mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni lydekker 1910) and Menelikrsquos bushbuck (trag-elaphusscriptusmeneliki neumann 1902) in Arsi mountainsnational Park south-eastern Ethiopiardquo International Journal ofCurrent Research vol 7 no 11 pp 23074ndash23082 2015
[48] A Mekonnen ldquoDistribution of the Bale monkey (chlor-ocebusdjamdjamensis) in the Bale Mountains and its Ecologyin the odobullu forest Ethiopiandasha Study of habitat preferencepopulation size feeding behaviour Activity and rangingpatternsrdquo MSc thesis Addis Ababa University Addis AbabaEthiopia 2009
[49] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing G Hemson andA Atickem ldquoDiet activity patterns and ranging ecology ofthe bale monkey (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis) in odobulluforest Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Primatology vol 31no 3 pp 339ndash362 2010a
[50] E A Archie J A Hollister-Smith J H Poole et alldquoBehavioural inbreeding avoidance in wild African
elephantsrdquo Molecular Ecology vol 16 no 19 pp 4138ndash41482007
[51] Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoHuman and livestock encroach-ments into the habitat of mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni) in the bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Tropical Ecology vol 52 pp 265ndash273 2011
[52] J M Hall ldquoBradykinin receptorsrdquoGeneral Pharmacology=eVascular System vol 28 no 1 pp 1ndash6 1997
[53] C Sillero-Zubiri and D Switzer Crop Raiding PrimatesSearching For Alternative Humane Ways to Resolve Conflictwith Farmers In Africa Wildlife Conservation Research UnitOxford University Press Oxford UK 2001
[54] Y Mamo A Bekele and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use ofmountain nyala (tragelaphusbuxtoni lyddeker 1911) in thebale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo InternationalJournal of Biodiversity and Conservation vol 4 pp 642ndash6512012
[55] M Chane and S Yirga ldquoDiversity of medium and large-sizedmammals in BorenaSayint national Park south wolloE-thiopiardquo International Journal of Science vol 15 pp 95ndash1062009
[56] B Tufa Z Girma and G Mengesha ldquoHuman-large wildmammals conflict in dhera-dilfaqar block of Arsi mountainsnational Park south eastern Ethiopiardquo Human Dimensions ofWildlife vol 23 no 5 pp 474ndash481 2018
[57] A Mekonnen A Bekele G Hemson E Teshome andA Atickem ldquoPopulation size and habitat preference of thevulnerable bale monkey chlorocebus djamdjamensis inodobullu forest and its distribution across the bale mountainsEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 44 no 4 pp 558ndash563 2010b
[58] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing J-M LernouldA Atickem and N C Stenseth ldquoNewly discovered balemonkey populations in forest fragments in southern Ethiopiaevidence of crop raiding hybridization with grivets and otherconservation threatsrdquo American Journal of Primatologyvol 74 no 5 pp 423ndash432 2012
[59] L H Brown ldquoObservations on the status habitat and be-havior of the mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni) inEthiopiardquo Mammalia vol 33 pp 545ndash597 1969
[60] United Nations Economic Social and Cultural Organization(UNESCO) Faunal survey Final Report on Status And Dis-tribution of Faunal Diversity in Kaffa Afro-Montane ForestUNESCO Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[61] Y Mamo A Asefa and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use of un-gulates in bale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo AfricanJournal of Ecology vol 53 no 4 pp 512ndash520 2015
International Journal of Ecology 11
dimorphic characteristics (such as absencepresence ofhorn) were used to determine sex -ose individuals seenwithin a distance of lt50m from the nearby group wererecorded as members of the same group as a means to avoiddouble counting [37] Double counting of the same indi-vidual or herd was avoided using easily recognizable featuresof individuals herd size and composition [38]
241 Indirect Survey Each field plot was scanned carefullyand all fresh scats of large mammals were counted andrecorded Identification of scats obtained was attempted inthe field by using specialized field guides for the identifi-cation of scats of mammals [39ndash41] Scats were distinguishedby different size (measurement of length and diameter)shape odor color and signs associated with feces such asscrapes feeding signs and footprint
25 Data Analysis Each species of large mammals en-countered was identified in the field based on the KingdonField Guide to African Mammals [42] and ldquoAtibiwochrdquo [43]
-e taxonomic treatment was based on the Mammals ofthe World 3rd Edition [7] -e conservation status of eachspecies was also identified based on the IUCN Red List [44]and the CITES Appendices
-e species similarity among the habitat types wascomputed using Sorensonrsquos coefficient (CC)
(CC) 2C
S1 + S2 (1)
where C is the number of species the two habitats have incommon S1 is the total number of species found in habitat 1and S2 is the total number of species found in habitat 2
Species diversity among habitat types was calculatedusing the Shannon-Weiner index of diversity
(Hprime) 1113944 Pi ln Pisi 1 (2)
where Pi is the proportion of the ith species in the habitatSimpsonrsquos diversity index among habitat types was
calculated as follows
(D) 1
ΣPi2si 1 (3)
where Pi is the proportion of the ith species which will beused to analyze the data
-e evenness of mammalian species among habitat typeswas also calculated as
J Hprime
Hprimemax (4)
where Hprime max ln(s) and s is the number of species in theparticular habitat type Evenness ranges between 1 (com-plete evenness) and 0 (complete unevenness)
-e relative abundance of particular large mammals wasdetermined using the following expression
6deg45prime0Prime
N
38deg39prime0PrimeE
T1
T6
T7
T2T3
T4T5
T8
T10
T9
38deg39prime18PrimeE
38deg39prime0PrimeE 38deg39prime18PrimeE
6deg44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
6deg45prime0Prime
N6deg
44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
(a)
38deg39prime0PrimeE
p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
p6 p7 p8 p9 p10
p11 p12 p13 p14
p16 p17 p18
p20 p21 p22
p19
p15
38deg39prime18PrimeE
38deg39prime0PrimeE 38deg39prime18PrimeE
6deg45prime0Prime
N6deg
44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
6deg45prime0Prime
N6deg
44prime42Prime
N6deg
44prime24Prime
N6deg
44prime6Prime
N
(b)
Figure 5 Transects (a) and plots (b) layout at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
International Journal of Ecology 5
percent relative abundance () n
Ntimes 100 (5)
where n is the number of individuals of a particular recordedspecies and N is the total number of individuals of allrecorded species in the study site
-e results and findings of the research were presentedby simple descriptive statistical tools Following [45] and thecomputation of relative abundance the identified mammalswere grouped as common (if probability of observing theindividuals of the species is 100 in every session of the fieldwork) uncommon (if probability of observing is more than50) and rare (if probability of observing is less than 50)according to [37] Records of the number of individuals ofmammals in the line transect that fall in the same habitatswere summed together and treated as a record in one habitatand mean records of the survey were considered Eachspecies was classified into different group size-class age-sexcategories and ratios ie percentages of adults and youngones male per female and young ones per female AKruskal-Wallis test was used to compare differences inmammal species abundance among habitats -e effect ofthe season on species abundance between dry and wet seasonwas analyzed and compared using Chi-square test and theseasonal difference in sex ratio was evaluated by t-test For allstatistical tests p value of 005 was considered significantMinitab version 17 was used for all statistical test analyses
3 Results
31 Species Diversity A total of 10 species of large wildmammals distributed in 5 orders and 7 families wereidentified and recorded after a total effort of 30 km walkeddistance at Geremba Mountain fragment (Table 1) Twoendemic species (Bale monkey Chlorocebus djamdjamensisand Menelikrsquos bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus meneliki) andtwo vulnerable species (Bale monkey and leopard Pantherapardus) were recorded from the mountain (Table 1) Sevenspecies C djamdjamensis Canis aureus Crocuta crocutaFelis serval Papio anubis Sylvicapra grimmia and T smeneliki were recorded through direct observation whereasthree nocturnal and elusive species Hystrix cristata Oryc-teropus afer and P pardus were revealed using indirectevidence (scat survey) (Figure 6)
Seasonal variation in species richness of large wildmammals was observed among different habitat types -ehighest species richness (n 9) was recorded in the alpinebamboo forest habitat during the wet season (Table 2)-ere was a significant difference in species abundanceamong the three habitat types (H 20 df 2 plt 005) -eoverall Sorensen species similarity index (CC) of large wildmammal species among three habitat types of GerembaMountain was 0714 (Table 3) -e highest (0875) simi-larity index was recorded between modified dry evergreenAfromontane forest and alpine bamboo forest (Table 3)-e highest large mammals Simpsonrsquos index (1-D) of di-versity was obtained from the alpine bamboo forest habitat(D 7142) and the Erica scrubland habitat had the lowestdiversity (D 3802)
32 Relative Abundance Papio anubis was the mostabundant species comprising (21 n 48) the recordedindividuals followed by S grimmia (17 n 39) and T smeneliki (14 n 32) (Table 4) On the other hand F servalwas the least abundant species (08 n 2) (Table 4) Bothof the endemics C djamdjamensis and T s menelikiwere themost abundant in the alpine bamboo habitat type duringboth seasons and C djamdjamensis was closely associatedwith the alpine bamboo stands Seasonal variation in speciesabundance was observed and P anubis was the mostabundant during both dry and wet seasons (Figure 7) A totalof 227plusmn 9 individuals were recorded out of which 114plusmn 5(502) individuals were observed during the wet seasonand 113plusmn 6 (497) individuals during the dry season butthe seasonal species abundance of large wild mammals wasnot significantly different (χ2 0004 df 1 pgt 005)
33 Population Structure Out of the total recorded 10species of large wild mammals during the present studyperiod the populations of four species C djamdjamensis Sgrimmia P anubis and T s meneliki were characterized bymore adult andmore female individuals during both wet anddry seasons Generally the number of adult females wasrelatively higher than that of any other agesex group duringboth seasons the pooled sex ratio of adult animals of allspecies was biased towards females and the difference wassignificant (t 29259 df 41 plt 005 t 31440 df 41plt 005) during wet and dry seasons respectively For thecount of both seasons the number of young individuals of allspecies was disproportionately low relative to the number ofadult females However promising young individuals of theendemic mammals (C djamdjamensis and T s meneliki)and P anubis were recorded (Table 5)
4 Discussion
41 Species Diversity -e recorded relatively large numberof mammals indicated the potential of the mountain frag-ment as a home for diverse large mammal species despite itssmall size Furthermore despite the fact that the area issurrounded by human dominated landscape that oftenchallenged the survival of the mammals the mountainfragment harbored diverse large mammals including someendemic species Scholars have revealed the importance ofmountain fragments as last refuges for large mammalsespecially in areas where there is intense human en-croachment and expansion of agriculture [20 46] More-over the fact that the mountain is home for the endemic T smeneliki and C djamdjamensis makes it critical for wildlifeconservation T s meneliki has been reported to inhabit thenorthern central and southeastern highlands of Ethiopiaranging from 1800m to 3200m asl [11 24 47] Typicallythe species is reported to inhabit dry evergreen Afromontaneforest and alpine bamboo habitats [11 47] Furthermore itwas reported to be among the most abundant large mammalspecies in Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) [22 47]once known to be connected with the Geremba Mountainbefore habitat fragmentation caused by anthropogenic
6 International Journal of Ecology
factors disconnected the continuous forest Bale monkey is atypical species found in alpine bamboo forest that uses thehabitat as source of food cover and other habitat re-quirements [48] Studies have pointed out that C djamd-jamensis is fairly common in the Bale west Arsi and Sidamahighlands including mountain fragments in close associa-tion with alpine bamboo forest [48 49]
-e insignificant seasonal variation in the species rich-ness of mammals could be explained by the isolated natureof the mountain where movements to and from the patchfragment do not occur -is could imply a poor geneticmakeup that could lead to inbreeding effects on the meta-populations of large mammals over long period of time [50]unless the fragment is connected by wildlife corridors withother similar fragments in the surrounding area or extensiveforest in the adjacent BMNP
-e highest record of the species in the alpine bamboodominated forest could be due to the relatively dense andvast nature of the habitat type as compared to other habitattypes providing a better space cover and food satisfyingdiverse niche requirements of mammals -e possible rea-sons for the distribution and diversity of large-sizedmammal species might be due to the habitat types andquality (presence of food and water) and stability of the areafrom disturbances Disturbance is also a key factor thatdetermines the habitat use of large mammals [19 22 51 52]
42 Relative Abundance -e relatively higher abundance ofolive baboon in the area could be attributed to the feedingbehavior as the species is adapted to feed on variety of fooditems and survive different climatic and topographic
Table 1 Checklist of large wild mammals registered in Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Taxon scientific name Common name IUCN status CITES status CurrentLocal statusArtiodactylaBovidaeTragelaphus scriptus meneliki Menelikrsquos bushbuckE LC mdash Un-coSylvicapra grimmia Common duiker LC mdash Un-co
CarnivoraCanidaeCanis aureus
Hyaenidae Common jackal LC mdash Un-coCrocuta crocuta Spotted hyena LC mdash Co
Felidae Leopard VU App I RaPanthera pardus Serval cat LC App II RaFelis serval
PrimatesCercopithecidaeChlorocebus djamdjamensis Bale monkeyE VU App II RaPapio anubis Olive baboon LC App II Un-co
IUCN status EN endangered VU vulnerable NT near threatened LC least concern CITES status App III appendix III currentlocal status Cocommon Un-co uncommon Ra rare E endemic
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 6 Scats of large mammals recorded at Arbegona southern Ethiopia (a) Panthera pardus (b)Crocuta crocuta (c)Hystrix cristata (d)Papio anubis (photo Zerubabel Worku 2018)
International Journal of Ecology 7
Table 2 Diversity indices of large wild mammalrsquos indifferent habitat types of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Study site habitat types Specieshabitat Individualshabitat Hprime D Hmax EArbegona (30 km walked) 10 227plusmn 9
E Pielou evenness Hprime calculated Shannon-Weiner diversity Hmax ln(s) [species diversity under maximum equitability conditions] D Simpson Index
Table 3 Sorensen species similarity index for the large wild mammals among different habitat types of Geremba Mountain southernEthiopia
Study site habitat types No of species per habitat Sorensonrsquos species similarity indexArbegona (30 km walked) 10 0714Modified forest vs alpine bamboo forest (15 kmvs 12 km walked) 7 vs 9 0875Modified forest vs Erica scrubland (15 km vs 3 km walked) 7 vs 5 0833Alpine bamboo forest vs Erica scrubland (12 kmvs 3 km walked) 9 vs5 0714
Table 4 Relative abundance of large wild mammals among different habitat types of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Species
No of animals observed in different habitat types
Total animals observed Relative abundance ()Modified forestAlpinebambooforest
Figure 7 Seasonal variation in species composition and abundance of large wild mammals at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
8 International Journal of Ecology
variations Olive baboon is known to be widely distributed inAfrica in a wide variety of habitats ranging from savannagrass lands up to Afromontane forest [53] Similarly [54]noted wide distribution of olive baboon in an altitude rangeof 1700m asl to 2300m asl Different types of food itemsare targeted by olive baboon from cereals to fruits and fromvegetables to trees [55] Olive baboon is also disturbancetolerant species that can survive in areas where there aresevere human encroachments and poor cover [55] It is alsoamong the top crop raider species in Ethiopia that areattracted to inhabit fragmented mountain cliffs surroundedby agriculture [56]
-e relatively higher abundance of T s meneliki in thealpine bamboo forest could be due to its preferences fordense vegetation cover with abundant cover from predatorsand other threats and better foraging opportunities ascompared to the other two habitat types [11 19 24] Sim-ilarly the C djamdjamensis diet is predominantly alpinebamboo shoot that gives it an obligatory association withalpine bamboo forest Various studies have indicated thatalpine bamboo is the ideal habitat for Bale monkey and itsdiet mainly comprises alpine bamboo [49 57 58] -esignificant seasonal variation in the abundance of Balemonkey could be attributed to higher availability of its fa-vorite alpine bamboo shoots during the dry season com-pared to wet season [57 58] It is reported that alpinebamboo flushes fresh shoots during dry season in themonths of February and March [58] synchronized with thedry season data collection period of the study As a result thehigher availability of the bamboo shoots could concentratethe populations of the Bale monkey during dry season in thealpine bamboo forest
43 Population Structure -e relatively higher populationof females and good proportion of young individuals in-dicate a healthy population showing potential of populationgrowth in the future -is is supported by [59] which statedthat sex and age structure of a population at any given pointof time is also an indicator of the status of the population-is is supported by different studies in different areas[59ndash61] -e endemic T s meneliki and C djamdjamensishad considerable good number of young individuals that one
expects from a growing population [24 57] -erefore thestudy revealed that the endemic species populations can besustained at least for some time despite the overwhelmingthreats However the long-term viability of the speciespopulations in the area remains uncertain due to the isolatednature and small size of the fragment [58]
5 Conclusion and Recommendations
Despite the fact that Geremba Mountain fragment is a smallisolated patch of alpine bamboo dominated forest sur-rounded by human dominated landscape it supported aconsiderably large number of large mammals Furthermoreit is home for some endemic (Menelikrsquos bushbuck and Balemonkey) and vulnerable (Bale monkey and leopard) largemammals -e large mammal species richness and abun-dance varied among habitat types -e study revealed thatseasonality and habitat types were important factors indetermining the species abundance and distribution in thearea indicating specific habitat use by some of the species inresponse to ecological factors such as altitudes and vege-tation -e alpine bamboo forest was the richest in largemammal diversity with P Anubis being the most abundantspecies and the endemic and vulnerable Bale monkey isclosely associated with the alpine bamboo
However the anthropogenic activities in and around theremnant forest and the isolated nature of the fragment canshrink the available habitats to wild mammals and blockgene flow with metapopulations in nearby fragments ulti-mately affecting the abundance and survival of the largemammals As a result there is a need for full protection ofthe area from the surrounding threats through makingefforts like proclaiming the area as a protected area andcontinuous effort should be made to ecologically integratethe fragment with other fragments in the localities throughwildlife corridors Furthermore special considerationshould be made to protect the vulnerable endemic Balemonkey and its unique habitat alpine bamboo Furtherresearch should also be made to investigate the habitatassociation of Bale monkey and alpine bamboo in terms ofcover and food sources and genetic variations amongmetapopulations found in other fragments in the localities
Table 5 Populations structure and ratio of large wild mammals at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
-e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
-e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
-e authors are grateful to Hawassa University for the fi-nancial support through -ematic Research Project and forall the logistics -e authors sincerely thank ArbegonaAdministration Office for granting us the permission tocarry out this study in the area -e authors also appreciatethe help from their field assistants during the data collectionprocess
References
[1] MA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) Ecosystems and Hu-man Well-Being Synthesis httpwwwmillenniumassessmentorgdocumentsdocument356aspxpdf 2005
[2] O M Makonjio and G Katie ldquo-e role of large mammals andprotected areas to tourist satisfaction in the northern circuitTanzaniardquo Tourism Analysis vol 14 pp 691ndash697 2009
[3] A Govindasamy and H J Minna ldquoDo animals suffer casteprejudice in Hinduismrdquo Social Compass vol 53 no 4pp 244-245 2006
[4] D A Duffus and P Dearden ldquoNon-consumptive wildlife-oriented recreation a conceptual frameworkrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 53 pp 13ndash231 1990
[5] C N Jenkinsa S L Pimmb and L N Joppac ldquoGlobalpatterns of terrestrial vertebrate diversity and conservationrdquoin Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of theUnited States of America New York NY USA June 2013
[6] G Ceballos and P R Ehrlich ldquoGlobal mammal distributionsbiodiversity hotspots and conservationrdquo Proceeding of theNational Academy of Science USA vol 103 no 51pp 19374ndash19379 2006
[7] D E Wilson and D M ReederMammal Species of the WorldJohns Hopkins University Press Baltimore MD USA 2005
[8] J W Sutherland Ecological Census Techniques University ofEast Anglia Norwich UK 2nd edition 2006
[9] A Bekele andDWYalden=eMammals of Ethiopia andEritreaAddis Ababa University Press Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2013
[10] World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) Biodi-versity Data Sourcebook World Conservation MonitoringCentre Cambridge UK 2013
[11] D W Yalden M J Largen D Kock and J C HillmanldquoCatalogue of the mammals of Ethiopia and Eritrea 7 Revisedchecklist zoogeography and conservationrdquo Tropical Zoologyvol 9 no 1 pp 73ndash164 1996
[13] A Kidane ldquoWildlife management problems in EthiopiardquoWalia vol 8 pp 3ndash9 1982
[14] P Evangelista P Swartzinski and RWaltermire ldquoA profile ofthe mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni)rdquo 2007 httpswwwafricanindabacoza
[15] T Hundessa Management Problems of Protected Areas inEthiopia UNESCO World Heritage Paris France 1992
[16] T Wiegand E Revilla and K A Moloney ldquoEffects of habitatloss and fragmentation on population dynamicsrdquo Conser-vation Biology vol 19 no 1 pp 108ndash121 2005
[17] L Nigatu and M Tadesse ldquoAn ecological study of the veg-etation of the Harenna Forest Bale Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethi-opian Journal of Science vol 12 pp 63ndash93 1989
[18] K Wesche G Miehe and M Kaeppeli ldquo-e significance offire for afroalpine ericaceous vegetationrdquo Mountain Researchand Development Mountain Research and Developmentvol 20 no 4 pp 340ndash347 2000
[19] Z Girma G Chuyong and M Yosef ldquoImpact of livestockencroachments and tree removal on populations of mountainnyala and Menelikrsquos bushbuck in Arsi mountains nationalPark Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology vol 2018p 8 2018
[20] Z Girma A Bekele and H Graham ldquoLarge mammals andmountain encroachments on mount kaka and hunkolofragments southeast Ethiopiardquo Asian Journal of AppliedSciences vol 5 no 5 pp 279ndash289 2012a
[21] Z Girma Y Mamo and M Ersado ldquoSpecies compositiondistribution and relative abundance of large mammals in andaround wondo genet forest patch southern Ethiopiardquo AsianJournal of Applied Sciences vol 5 no 8 pp 538ndash551 2012b
[22] P A Stephens C A drsquoSa C Sillero-Zubiri and N Leader-Williams ldquoImpact of livestock and settlement on the largemammalian wildlife of bale mountains National ParkSouthern Ethiopiardquo Biological Conservation vol 100 no 3pp 307ndash322 2001
[23] A Fetene G Mengesha and T Bekele ldquoSpatial distributionand habitat preferences of selected large mammalian speciesin the NechSar National Park (NSNP) Ethiopiardquo Nature andScience vol 9 pp 80ndash90 2011
[24] D Yazezew Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoPopulation ecology ofMenelikrsquos bushbuck (tragelaphusscriptusmeneliki Neu-mann1902) from donkoro forest proposed national Parknorthern Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology andEnvironmental Science vol 37 pp 1ndash13 2011
[25] ArbegonaWoreda Tourism and Communication Office(AWTCO) A Magazine General Information about Arbe-gonaWoreda AWTCO Publications Arbegona Ethiopia2003
[26] K A Wilson M F McBride M Bode and H P PossinghamldquoPrioritizing global conservation effortsrdquo Nature vol 440no 7082 pp 337ndash340 2006
[27] F Assefa T Tadesse and A Dancho ldquoChallenges and Op-portunities Of Village Poultry Production In Arbegona-Woreda Sidama Zone Southern Ethiopiardquo MSc thesisWolaitaSodo University Sodo Ethiopia 2015
[28] B Shrestha and K Basnet ldquoIndirect methods of identifyingmammals a case study from Shivapuri National Park NepalrdquoEco print An International Journal of Ecology vol 12pp 43ndash57 2004
[29] Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) Arc GISSoftware 101 Environmental Systems Research InstituteRedlands CA USA 2012
[30] International Union for the Conservation of Nature AntelopeSpecialist Group (IUCNASG) Tragelaphusimberbis IUCNRed List of threatened species Version 20121 IUCNASGGland Switzerland 2008
[31] T Wondimagegnehu and B Afework ldquoCurrent populationstatus of the endangered endemic subspecies of swaynersquoshartebeest (alcelaphusbuselaphusswaynei) in maze national
10 International Journal of Ecology
Park Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethiopian Journal of Science vol 34pp 39ndash48 2011
[32] C Peres ldquoGeneral guidelines for standardizing line-transectsurveys of tropical forest primatesrdquo Neotropical Primatesvol 7 pp 11ndash16 1999
[33] C A Peres and A Cunha Line-transect censuses of large-bodied tropical forest vertebrates a handbook WildlifeConservation Society Brazilia Rio de Jenero Brazil 2011
[34] A Singh A Mukherjee S Dookia and H N Kumara ldquoAnupdated account of mammal species and population status ofungulates in Keoladeo National Park Bharatpur RajasthanrdquoCurrent Science vol 113 no 01 p 103 2017
[35] L H Emmons and F Feer Neo-tropical Rainforest MammalsField Guide -e University of Chicago Press Chicago ILUSA 1997
[36] J C Hillman ldquoConservation in bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 20 pp 89ndash94 1987
[37] G J Wilson and R J Delahay ldquoA review of methods toestimate the abundance of terrestrial carnivores using fieldsigns and observationrdquo Wildlife Research vol 28 no 2pp 151ndash164 2001
[38] J Kingdon =eKingdon Field Guide to African MammalsAcademic Press London UK 1997
[39] D Macdonald and P Barrett Mammals of Europe PrincetonUniversity Press Princeton NJ USA 2002
[40] P Bang and P Dahlstrom Animal Tracks and Signs OxfordUniversity Press Oxford UK 2001
[41] International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)=e IUCN Red List of species Version 2016 httpwwwiucnredlistorgdetails 2016
[42] S Yirga Atibiwoch Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural HistorySociety Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[43] G Ohnesorge and B Scheiba Tierspuren and Fahrten in Feldund Wald BassermannVerlag Munchen Germany 2007
[44] R Regassa and S Yirga ldquoDistribution abundance andpopulation status of burchells zebra (Equus quagga) in yabellowildlife sanctuary southern Ethiopiardquo Journal of Ecology andthe Natural Environment vol 5 no 3 pp 40ndash49 2013
[45] R I M Dunbar and P Dunbar ldquo-e reproductive cycle of thegelada baboonrdquoAnimal Behaviour vol 22 no 1 pp 203ndash2101974
[46] G A Balme R Slotow and L T B Hunter ldquoEdge effects andthe impact of non-protected areas in carnivore conservationleopards in the Phinda-Mkhuze Complex South AfricardquoAnimal Conservation vol 13 no 3 pp 315ndash323 2010
[47] Z Girma G Chuyong P Evangelista and Y Mamo ldquoHabitatcharacterization and preferences of the mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni lydekker 1910) and Menelikrsquos bushbuck (trag-elaphusscriptusmeneliki neumann 1902) in Arsi mountainsnational Park south-eastern Ethiopiardquo International Journal ofCurrent Research vol 7 no 11 pp 23074ndash23082 2015
[48] A Mekonnen ldquoDistribution of the Bale monkey (chlor-ocebusdjamdjamensis) in the Bale Mountains and its Ecologyin the odobullu forest Ethiopiandasha Study of habitat preferencepopulation size feeding behaviour Activity and rangingpatternsrdquo MSc thesis Addis Ababa University Addis AbabaEthiopia 2009
[49] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing G Hemson andA Atickem ldquoDiet activity patterns and ranging ecology ofthe bale monkey (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis) in odobulluforest Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Primatology vol 31no 3 pp 339ndash362 2010a
[50] E A Archie J A Hollister-Smith J H Poole et alldquoBehavioural inbreeding avoidance in wild African
elephantsrdquo Molecular Ecology vol 16 no 19 pp 4138ndash41482007
[51] Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoHuman and livestock encroach-ments into the habitat of mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni) in the bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Tropical Ecology vol 52 pp 265ndash273 2011
[52] J M Hall ldquoBradykinin receptorsrdquoGeneral Pharmacology=eVascular System vol 28 no 1 pp 1ndash6 1997
[53] C Sillero-Zubiri and D Switzer Crop Raiding PrimatesSearching For Alternative Humane Ways to Resolve Conflictwith Farmers In Africa Wildlife Conservation Research UnitOxford University Press Oxford UK 2001
[54] Y Mamo A Bekele and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use ofmountain nyala (tragelaphusbuxtoni lyddeker 1911) in thebale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo InternationalJournal of Biodiversity and Conservation vol 4 pp 642ndash6512012
[55] M Chane and S Yirga ldquoDiversity of medium and large-sizedmammals in BorenaSayint national Park south wolloE-thiopiardquo International Journal of Science vol 15 pp 95ndash1062009
[56] B Tufa Z Girma and G Mengesha ldquoHuman-large wildmammals conflict in dhera-dilfaqar block of Arsi mountainsnational Park south eastern Ethiopiardquo Human Dimensions ofWildlife vol 23 no 5 pp 474ndash481 2018
[57] A Mekonnen A Bekele G Hemson E Teshome andA Atickem ldquoPopulation size and habitat preference of thevulnerable bale monkey chlorocebus djamdjamensis inodobullu forest and its distribution across the bale mountainsEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 44 no 4 pp 558ndash563 2010b
[58] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing J-M LernouldA Atickem and N C Stenseth ldquoNewly discovered balemonkey populations in forest fragments in southern Ethiopiaevidence of crop raiding hybridization with grivets and otherconservation threatsrdquo American Journal of Primatologyvol 74 no 5 pp 423ndash432 2012
[59] L H Brown ldquoObservations on the status habitat and be-havior of the mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni) inEthiopiardquo Mammalia vol 33 pp 545ndash597 1969
[60] United Nations Economic Social and Cultural Organization(UNESCO) Faunal survey Final Report on Status And Dis-tribution of Faunal Diversity in Kaffa Afro-Montane ForestUNESCO Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[61] Y Mamo A Asefa and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use of un-gulates in bale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo AfricanJournal of Ecology vol 53 no 4 pp 512ndash520 2015
International Journal of Ecology 11
percent relative abundance () n
Ntimes 100 (5)
where n is the number of individuals of a particular recordedspecies and N is the total number of individuals of allrecorded species in the study site
-e results and findings of the research were presentedby simple descriptive statistical tools Following [45] and thecomputation of relative abundance the identified mammalswere grouped as common (if probability of observing theindividuals of the species is 100 in every session of the fieldwork) uncommon (if probability of observing is more than50) and rare (if probability of observing is less than 50)according to [37] Records of the number of individuals ofmammals in the line transect that fall in the same habitatswere summed together and treated as a record in one habitatand mean records of the survey were considered Eachspecies was classified into different group size-class age-sexcategories and ratios ie percentages of adults and youngones male per female and young ones per female AKruskal-Wallis test was used to compare differences inmammal species abundance among habitats -e effect ofthe season on species abundance between dry and wet seasonwas analyzed and compared using Chi-square test and theseasonal difference in sex ratio was evaluated by t-test For allstatistical tests p value of 005 was considered significantMinitab version 17 was used for all statistical test analyses
3 Results
31 Species Diversity A total of 10 species of large wildmammals distributed in 5 orders and 7 families wereidentified and recorded after a total effort of 30 km walkeddistance at Geremba Mountain fragment (Table 1) Twoendemic species (Bale monkey Chlorocebus djamdjamensisand Menelikrsquos bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus meneliki) andtwo vulnerable species (Bale monkey and leopard Pantherapardus) were recorded from the mountain (Table 1) Sevenspecies C djamdjamensis Canis aureus Crocuta crocutaFelis serval Papio anubis Sylvicapra grimmia and T smeneliki were recorded through direct observation whereasthree nocturnal and elusive species Hystrix cristata Oryc-teropus afer and P pardus were revealed using indirectevidence (scat survey) (Figure 6)
Seasonal variation in species richness of large wildmammals was observed among different habitat types -ehighest species richness (n 9) was recorded in the alpinebamboo forest habitat during the wet season (Table 2)-ere was a significant difference in species abundanceamong the three habitat types (H 20 df 2 plt 005) -eoverall Sorensen species similarity index (CC) of large wildmammal species among three habitat types of GerembaMountain was 0714 (Table 3) -e highest (0875) simi-larity index was recorded between modified dry evergreenAfromontane forest and alpine bamboo forest (Table 3)-e highest large mammals Simpsonrsquos index (1-D) of di-versity was obtained from the alpine bamboo forest habitat(D 7142) and the Erica scrubland habitat had the lowestdiversity (D 3802)
32 Relative Abundance Papio anubis was the mostabundant species comprising (21 n 48) the recordedindividuals followed by S grimmia (17 n 39) and T smeneliki (14 n 32) (Table 4) On the other hand F servalwas the least abundant species (08 n 2) (Table 4) Bothof the endemics C djamdjamensis and T s menelikiwere themost abundant in the alpine bamboo habitat type duringboth seasons and C djamdjamensis was closely associatedwith the alpine bamboo stands Seasonal variation in speciesabundance was observed and P anubis was the mostabundant during both dry and wet seasons (Figure 7) A totalof 227plusmn 9 individuals were recorded out of which 114plusmn 5(502) individuals were observed during the wet seasonand 113plusmn 6 (497) individuals during the dry season butthe seasonal species abundance of large wild mammals wasnot significantly different (χ2 0004 df 1 pgt 005)
33 Population Structure Out of the total recorded 10species of large wild mammals during the present studyperiod the populations of four species C djamdjamensis Sgrimmia P anubis and T s meneliki were characterized bymore adult andmore female individuals during both wet anddry seasons Generally the number of adult females wasrelatively higher than that of any other agesex group duringboth seasons the pooled sex ratio of adult animals of allspecies was biased towards females and the difference wassignificant (t 29259 df 41 plt 005 t 31440 df 41plt 005) during wet and dry seasons respectively For thecount of both seasons the number of young individuals of allspecies was disproportionately low relative to the number ofadult females However promising young individuals of theendemic mammals (C djamdjamensis and T s meneliki)and P anubis were recorded (Table 5)
4 Discussion
41 Species Diversity -e recorded relatively large numberof mammals indicated the potential of the mountain frag-ment as a home for diverse large mammal species despite itssmall size Furthermore despite the fact that the area issurrounded by human dominated landscape that oftenchallenged the survival of the mammals the mountainfragment harbored diverse large mammals including someendemic species Scholars have revealed the importance ofmountain fragments as last refuges for large mammalsespecially in areas where there is intense human en-croachment and expansion of agriculture [20 46] More-over the fact that the mountain is home for the endemic T smeneliki and C djamdjamensis makes it critical for wildlifeconservation T s meneliki has been reported to inhabit thenorthern central and southeastern highlands of Ethiopiaranging from 1800m to 3200m asl [11 24 47] Typicallythe species is reported to inhabit dry evergreen Afromontaneforest and alpine bamboo habitats [11 47] Furthermore itwas reported to be among the most abundant large mammalspecies in Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) [22 47]once known to be connected with the Geremba Mountainbefore habitat fragmentation caused by anthropogenic
6 International Journal of Ecology
factors disconnected the continuous forest Bale monkey is atypical species found in alpine bamboo forest that uses thehabitat as source of food cover and other habitat re-quirements [48] Studies have pointed out that C djamd-jamensis is fairly common in the Bale west Arsi and Sidamahighlands including mountain fragments in close associa-tion with alpine bamboo forest [48 49]
-e insignificant seasonal variation in the species rich-ness of mammals could be explained by the isolated natureof the mountain where movements to and from the patchfragment do not occur -is could imply a poor geneticmakeup that could lead to inbreeding effects on the meta-populations of large mammals over long period of time [50]unless the fragment is connected by wildlife corridors withother similar fragments in the surrounding area or extensiveforest in the adjacent BMNP
-e highest record of the species in the alpine bamboodominated forest could be due to the relatively dense andvast nature of the habitat type as compared to other habitattypes providing a better space cover and food satisfyingdiverse niche requirements of mammals -e possible rea-sons for the distribution and diversity of large-sizedmammal species might be due to the habitat types andquality (presence of food and water) and stability of the areafrom disturbances Disturbance is also a key factor thatdetermines the habitat use of large mammals [19 22 51 52]
42 Relative Abundance -e relatively higher abundance ofolive baboon in the area could be attributed to the feedingbehavior as the species is adapted to feed on variety of fooditems and survive different climatic and topographic
Table 1 Checklist of large wild mammals registered in Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Taxon scientific name Common name IUCN status CITES status CurrentLocal statusArtiodactylaBovidaeTragelaphus scriptus meneliki Menelikrsquos bushbuckE LC mdash Un-coSylvicapra grimmia Common duiker LC mdash Un-co
CarnivoraCanidaeCanis aureus
Hyaenidae Common jackal LC mdash Un-coCrocuta crocuta Spotted hyena LC mdash Co
Felidae Leopard VU App I RaPanthera pardus Serval cat LC App II RaFelis serval
PrimatesCercopithecidaeChlorocebus djamdjamensis Bale monkeyE VU App II RaPapio anubis Olive baboon LC App II Un-co
IUCN status EN endangered VU vulnerable NT near threatened LC least concern CITES status App III appendix III currentlocal status Cocommon Un-co uncommon Ra rare E endemic
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 6 Scats of large mammals recorded at Arbegona southern Ethiopia (a) Panthera pardus (b)Crocuta crocuta (c)Hystrix cristata (d)Papio anubis (photo Zerubabel Worku 2018)
International Journal of Ecology 7
Table 2 Diversity indices of large wild mammalrsquos indifferent habitat types of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Study site habitat types Specieshabitat Individualshabitat Hprime D Hmax EArbegona (30 km walked) 10 227plusmn 9
E Pielou evenness Hprime calculated Shannon-Weiner diversity Hmax ln(s) [species diversity under maximum equitability conditions] D Simpson Index
Table 3 Sorensen species similarity index for the large wild mammals among different habitat types of Geremba Mountain southernEthiopia
Study site habitat types No of species per habitat Sorensonrsquos species similarity indexArbegona (30 km walked) 10 0714Modified forest vs alpine bamboo forest (15 kmvs 12 km walked) 7 vs 9 0875Modified forest vs Erica scrubland (15 km vs 3 km walked) 7 vs 5 0833Alpine bamboo forest vs Erica scrubland (12 kmvs 3 km walked) 9 vs5 0714
Table 4 Relative abundance of large wild mammals among different habitat types of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Species
No of animals observed in different habitat types
Total animals observed Relative abundance ()Modified forestAlpinebambooforest
Figure 7 Seasonal variation in species composition and abundance of large wild mammals at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
8 International Journal of Ecology
variations Olive baboon is known to be widely distributed inAfrica in a wide variety of habitats ranging from savannagrass lands up to Afromontane forest [53] Similarly [54]noted wide distribution of olive baboon in an altitude rangeof 1700m asl to 2300m asl Different types of food itemsare targeted by olive baboon from cereals to fruits and fromvegetables to trees [55] Olive baboon is also disturbancetolerant species that can survive in areas where there aresevere human encroachments and poor cover [55] It is alsoamong the top crop raider species in Ethiopia that areattracted to inhabit fragmented mountain cliffs surroundedby agriculture [56]
-e relatively higher abundance of T s meneliki in thealpine bamboo forest could be due to its preferences fordense vegetation cover with abundant cover from predatorsand other threats and better foraging opportunities ascompared to the other two habitat types [11 19 24] Sim-ilarly the C djamdjamensis diet is predominantly alpinebamboo shoot that gives it an obligatory association withalpine bamboo forest Various studies have indicated thatalpine bamboo is the ideal habitat for Bale monkey and itsdiet mainly comprises alpine bamboo [49 57 58] -esignificant seasonal variation in the abundance of Balemonkey could be attributed to higher availability of its fa-vorite alpine bamboo shoots during the dry season com-pared to wet season [57 58] It is reported that alpinebamboo flushes fresh shoots during dry season in themonths of February and March [58] synchronized with thedry season data collection period of the study As a result thehigher availability of the bamboo shoots could concentratethe populations of the Bale monkey during dry season in thealpine bamboo forest
43 Population Structure -e relatively higher populationof females and good proportion of young individuals in-dicate a healthy population showing potential of populationgrowth in the future -is is supported by [59] which statedthat sex and age structure of a population at any given pointof time is also an indicator of the status of the population-is is supported by different studies in different areas[59ndash61] -e endemic T s meneliki and C djamdjamensishad considerable good number of young individuals that one
expects from a growing population [24 57] -erefore thestudy revealed that the endemic species populations can besustained at least for some time despite the overwhelmingthreats However the long-term viability of the speciespopulations in the area remains uncertain due to the isolatednature and small size of the fragment [58]
5 Conclusion and Recommendations
Despite the fact that Geremba Mountain fragment is a smallisolated patch of alpine bamboo dominated forest sur-rounded by human dominated landscape it supported aconsiderably large number of large mammals Furthermoreit is home for some endemic (Menelikrsquos bushbuck and Balemonkey) and vulnerable (Bale monkey and leopard) largemammals -e large mammal species richness and abun-dance varied among habitat types -e study revealed thatseasonality and habitat types were important factors indetermining the species abundance and distribution in thearea indicating specific habitat use by some of the species inresponse to ecological factors such as altitudes and vege-tation -e alpine bamboo forest was the richest in largemammal diversity with P Anubis being the most abundantspecies and the endemic and vulnerable Bale monkey isclosely associated with the alpine bamboo
However the anthropogenic activities in and around theremnant forest and the isolated nature of the fragment canshrink the available habitats to wild mammals and blockgene flow with metapopulations in nearby fragments ulti-mately affecting the abundance and survival of the largemammals As a result there is a need for full protection ofthe area from the surrounding threats through makingefforts like proclaiming the area as a protected area andcontinuous effort should be made to ecologically integratethe fragment with other fragments in the localities throughwildlife corridors Furthermore special considerationshould be made to protect the vulnerable endemic Balemonkey and its unique habitat alpine bamboo Furtherresearch should also be made to investigate the habitatassociation of Bale monkey and alpine bamboo in terms ofcover and food sources and genetic variations amongmetapopulations found in other fragments in the localities
Table 5 Populations structure and ratio of large wild mammals at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
-e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
-e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
-e authors are grateful to Hawassa University for the fi-nancial support through -ematic Research Project and forall the logistics -e authors sincerely thank ArbegonaAdministration Office for granting us the permission tocarry out this study in the area -e authors also appreciatethe help from their field assistants during the data collectionprocess
References
[1] MA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) Ecosystems and Hu-man Well-Being Synthesis httpwwwmillenniumassessmentorgdocumentsdocument356aspxpdf 2005
[2] O M Makonjio and G Katie ldquo-e role of large mammals andprotected areas to tourist satisfaction in the northern circuitTanzaniardquo Tourism Analysis vol 14 pp 691ndash697 2009
[3] A Govindasamy and H J Minna ldquoDo animals suffer casteprejudice in Hinduismrdquo Social Compass vol 53 no 4pp 244-245 2006
[4] D A Duffus and P Dearden ldquoNon-consumptive wildlife-oriented recreation a conceptual frameworkrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 53 pp 13ndash231 1990
[5] C N Jenkinsa S L Pimmb and L N Joppac ldquoGlobalpatterns of terrestrial vertebrate diversity and conservationrdquoin Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of theUnited States of America New York NY USA June 2013
[6] G Ceballos and P R Ehrlich ldquoGlobal mammal distributionsbiodiversity hotspots and conservationrdquo Proceeding of theNational Academy of Science USA vol 103 no 51pp 19374ndash19379 2006
[7] D E Wilson and D M ReederMammal Species of the WorldJohns Hopkins University Press Baltimore MD USA 2005
[8] J W Sutherland Ecological Census Techniques University ofEast Anglia Norwich UK 2nd edition 2006
[9] A Bekele andDWYalden=eMammals of Ethiopia andEritreaAddis Ababa University Press Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2013
[10] World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) Biodi-versity Data Sourcebook World Conservation MonitoringCentre Cambridge UK 2013
[11] D W Yalden M J Largen D Kock and J C HillmanldquoCatalogue of the mammals of Ethiopia and Eritrea 7 Revisedchecklist zoogeography and conservationrdquo Tropical Zoologyvol 9 no 1 pp 73ndash164 1996
[13] A Kidane ldquoWildlife management problems in EthiopiardquoWalia vol 8 pp 3ndash9 1982
[14] P Evangelista P Swartzinski and RWaltermire ldquoA profile ofthe mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni)rdquo 2007 httpswwwafricanindabacoza
[15] T Hundessa Management Problems of Protected Areas inEthiopia UNESCO World Heritage Paris France 1992
[16] T Wiegand E Revilla and K A Moloney ldquoEffects of habitatloss and fragmentation on population dynamicsrdquo Conser-vation Biology vol 19 no 1 pp 108ndash121 2005
[17] L Nigatu and M Tadesse ldquoAn ecological study of the veg-etation of the Harenna Forest Bale Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethi-opian Journal of Science vol 12 pp 63ndash93 1989
[18] K Wesche G Miehe and M Kaeppeli ldquo-e significance offire for afroalpine ericaceous vegetationrdquo Mountain Researchand Development Mountain Research and Developmentvol 20 no 4 pp 340ndash347 2000
[19] Z Girma G Chuyong and M Yosef ldquoImpact of livestockencroachments and tree removal on populations of mountainnyala and Menelikrsquos bushbuck in Arsi mountains nationalPark Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology vol 2018p 8 2018
[20] Z Girma A Bekele and H Graham ldquoLarge mammals andmountain encroachments on mount kaka and hunkolofragments southeast Ethiopiardquo Asian Journal of AppliedSciences vol 5 no 5 pp 279ndash289 2012a
[21] Z Girma Y Mamo and M Ersado ldquoSpecies compositiondistribution and relative abundance of large mammals in andaround wondo genet forest patch southern Ethiopiardquo AsianJournal of Applied Sciences vol 5 no 8 pp 538ndash551 2012b
[22] P A Stephens C A drsquoSa C Sillero-Zubiri and N Leader-Williams ldquoImpact of livestock and settlement on the largemammalian wildlife of bale mountains National ParkSouthern Ethiopiardquo Biological Conservation vol 100 no 3pp 307ndash322 2001
[23] A Fetene G Mengesha and T Bekele ldquoSpatial distributionand habitat preferences of selected large mammalian speciesin the NechSar National Park (NSNP) Ethiopiardquo Nature andScience vol 9 pp 80ndash90 2011
[24] D Yazezew Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoPopulation ecology ofMenelikrsquos bushbuck (tragelaphusscriptusmeneliki Neu-mann1902) from donkoro forest proposed national Parknorthern Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology andEnvironmental Science vol 37 pp 1ndash13 2011
[25] ArbegonaWoreda Tourism and Communication Office(AWTCO) A Magazine General Information about Arbe-gonaWoreda AWTCO Publications Arbegona Ethiopia2003
[26] K A Wilson M F McBride M Bode and H P PossinghamldquoPrioritizing global conservation effortsrdquo Nature vol 440no 7082 pp 337ndash340 2006
[27] F Assefa T Tadesse and A Dancho ldquoChallenges and Op-portunities Of Village Poultry Production In Arbegona-Woreda Sidama Zone Southern Ethiopiardquo MSc thesisWolaitaSodo University Sodo Ethiopia 2015
[28] B Shrestha and K Basnet ldquoIndirect methods of identifyingmammals a case study from Shivapuri National Park NepalrdquoEco print An International Journal of Ecology vol 12pp 43ndash57 2004
[29] Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) Arc GISSoftware 101 Environmental Systems Research InstituteRedlands CA USA 2012
[30] International Union for the Conservation of Nature AntelopeSpecialist Group (IUCNASG) Tragelaphusimberbis IUCNRed List of threatened species Version 20121 IUCNASGGland Switzerland 2008
[31] T Wondimagegnehu and B Afework ldquoCurrent populationstatus of the endangered endemic subspecies of swaynersquoshartebeest (alcelaphusbuselaphusswaynei) in maze national
10 International Journal of Ecology
Park Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethiopian Journal of Science vol 34pp 39ndash48 2011
[32] C Peres ldquoGeneral guidelines for standardizing line-transectsurveys of tropical forest primatesrdquo Neotropical Primatesvol 7 pp 11ndash16 1999
[33] C A Peres and A Cunha Line-transect censuses of large-bodied tropical forest vertebrates a handbook WildlifeConservation Society Brazilia Rio de Jenero Brazil 2011
[34] A Singh A Mukherjee S Dookia and H N Kumara ldquoAnupdated account of mammal species and population status ofungulates in Keoladeo National Park Bharatpur RajasthanrdquoCurrent Science vol 113 no 01 p 103 2017
[35] L H Emmons and F Feer Neo-tropical Rainforest MammalsField Guide -e University of Chicago Press Chicago ILUSA 1997
[36] J C Hillman ldquoConservation in bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 20 pp 89ndash94 1987
[37] G J Wilson and R J Delahay ldquoA review of methods toestimate the abundance of terrestrial carnivores using fieldsigns and observationrdquo Wildlife Research vol 28 no 2pp 151ndash164 2001
[38] J Kingdon =eKingdon Field Guide to African MammalsAcademic Press London UK 1997
[39] D Macdonald and P Barrett Mammals of Europe PrincetonUniversity Press Princeton NJ USA 2002
[40] P Bang and P Dahlstrom Animal Tracks and Signs OxfordUniversity Press Oxford UK 2001
[41] International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)=e IUCN Red List of species Version 2016 httpwwwiucnredlistorgdetails 2016
[42] S Yirga Atibiwoch Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural HistorySociety Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[43] G Ohnesorge and B Scheiba Tierspuren and Fahrten in Feldund Wald BassermannVerlag Munchen Germany 2007
[44] R Regassa and S Yirga ldquoDistribution abundance andpopulation status of burchells zebra (Equus quagga) in yabellowildlife sanctuary southern Ethiopiardquo Journal of Ecology andthe Natural Environment vol 5 no 3 pp 40ndash49 2013
[45] R I M Dunbar and P Dunbar ldquo-e reproductive cycle of thegelada baboonrdquoAnimal Behaviour vol 22 no 1 pp 203ndash2101974
[46] G A Balme R Slotow and L T B Hunter ldquoEdge effects andthe impact of non-protected areas in carnivore conservationleopards in the Phinda-Mkhuze Complex South AfricardquoAnimal Conservation vol 13 no 3 pp 315ndash323 2010
[47] Z Girma G Chuyong P Evangelista and Y Mamo ldquoHabitatcharacterization and preferences of the mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni lydekker 1910) and Menelikrsquos bushbuck (trag-elaphusscriptusmeneliki neumann 1902) in Arsi mountainsnational Park south-eastern Ethiopiardquo International Journal ofCurrent Research vol 7 no 11 pp 23074ndash23082 2015
[48] A Mekonnen ldquoDistribution of the Bale monkey (chlor-ocebusdjamdjamensis) in the Bale Mountains and its Ecologyin the odobullu forest Ethiopiandasha Study of habitat preferencepopulation size feeding behaviour Activity and rangingpatternsrdquo MSc thesis Addis Ababa University Addis AbabaEthiopia 2009
[49] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing G Hemson andA Atickem ldquoDiet activity patterns and ranging ecology ofthe bale monkey (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis) in odobulluforest Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Primatology vol 31no 3 pp 339ndash362 2010a
[50] E A Archie J A Hollister-Smith J H Poole et alldquoBehavioural inbreeding avoidance in wild African
elephantsrdquo Molecular Ecology vol 16 no 19 pp 4138ndash41482007
[51] Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoHuman and livestock encroach-ments into the habitat of mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni) in the bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Tropical Ecology vol 52 pp 265ndash273 2011
[52] J M Hall ldquoBradykinin receptorsrdquoGeneral Pharmacology=eVascular System vol 28 no 1 pp 1ndash6 1997
[53] C Sillero-Zubiri and D Switzer Crop Raiding PrimatesSearching For Alternative Humane Ways to Resolve Conflictwith Farmers In Africa Wildlife Conservation Research UnitOxford University Press Oxford UK 2001
[54] Y Mamo A Bekele and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use ofmountain nyala (tragelaphusbuxtoni lyddeker 1911) in thebale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo InternationalJournal of Biodiversity and Conservation vol 4 pp 642ndash6512012
[55] M Chane and S Yirga ldquoDiversity of medium and large-sizedmammals in BorenaSayint national Park south wolloE-thiopiardquo International Journal of Science vol 15 pp 95ndash1062009
[56] B Tufa Z Girma and G Mengesha ldquoHuman-large wildmammals conflict in dhera-dilfaqar block of Arsi mountainsnational Park south eastern Ethiopiardquo Human Dimensions ofWildlife vol 23 no 5 pp 474ndash481 2018
[57] A Mekonnen A Bekele G Hemson E Teshome andA Atickem ldquoPopulation size and habitat preference of thevulnerable bale monkey chlorocebus djamdjamensis inodobullu forest and its distribution across the bale mountainsEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 44 no 4 pp 558ndash563 2010b
[58] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing J-M LernouldA Atickem and N C Stenseth ldquoNewly discovered balemonkey populations in forest fragments in southern Ethiopiaevidence of crop raiding hybridization with grivets and otherconservation threatsrdquo American Journal of Primatologyvol 74 no 5 pp 423ndash432 2012
[59] L H Brown ldquoObservations on the status habitat and be-havior of the mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni) inEthiopiardquo Mammalia vol 33 pp 545ndash597 1969
[60] United Nations Economic Social and Cultural Organization(UNESCO) Faunal survey Final Report on Status And Dis-tribution of Faunal Diversity in Kaffa Afro-Montane ForestUNESCO Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[61] Y Mamo A Asefa and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use of un-gulates in bale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo AfricanJournal of Ecology vol 53 no 4 pp 512ndash520 2015
International Journal of Ecology 11
factors disconnected the continuous forest Bale monkey is atypical species found in alpine bamboo forest that uses thehabitat as source of food cover and other habitat re-quirements [48] Studies have pointed out that C djamd-jamensis is fairly common in the Bale west Arsi and Sidamahighlands including mountain fragments in close associa-tion with alpine bamboo forest [48 49]
-e insignificant seasonal variation in the species rich-ness of mammals could be explained by the isolated natureof the mountain where movements to and from the patchfragment do not occur -is could imply a poor geneticmakeup that could lead to inbreeding effects on the meta-populations of large mammals over long period of time [50]unless the fragment is connected by wildlife corridors withother similar fragments in the surrounding area or extensiveforest in the adjacent BMNP
-e highest record of the species in the alpine bamboodominated forest could be due to the relatively dense andvast nature of the habitat type as compared to other habitattypes providing a better space cover and food satisfyingdiverse niche requirements of mammals -e possible rea-sons for the distribution and diversity of large-sizedmammal species might be due to the habitat types andquality (presence of food and water) and stability of the areafrom disturbances Disturbance is also a key factor thatdetermines the habitat use of large mammals [19 22 51 52]
42 Relative Abundance -e relatively higher abundance ofolive baboon in the area could be attributed to the feedingbehavior as the species is adapted to feed on variety of fooditems and survive different climatic and topographic
Table 1 Checklist of large wild mammals registered in Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Taxon scientific name Common name IUCN status CITES status CurrentLocal statusArtiodactylaBovidaeTragelaphus scriptus meneliki Menelikrsquos bushbuckE LC mdash Un-coSylvicapra grimmia Common duiker LC mdash Un-co
CarnivoraCanidaeCanis aureus
Hyaenidae Common jackal LC mdash Un-coCrocuta crocuta Spotted hyena LC mdash Co
Felidae Leopard VU App I RaPanthera pardus Serval cat LC App II RaFelis serval
PrimatesCercopithecidaeChlorocebus djamdjamensis Bale monkeyE VU App II RaPapio anubis Olive baboon LC App II Un-co
IUCN status EN endangered VU vulnerable NT near threatened LC least concern CITES status App III appendix III currentlocal status Cocommon Un-co uncommon Ra rare E endemic
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 6 Scats of large mammals recorded at Arbegona southern Ethiopia (a) Panthera pardus (b)Crocuta crocuta (c)Hystrix cristata (d)Papio anubis (photo Zerubabel Worku 2018)
International Journal of Ecology 7
Table 2 Diversity indices of large wild mammalrsquos indifferent habitat types of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Study site habitat types Specieshabitat Individualshabitat Hprime D Hmax EArbegona (30 km walked) 10 227plusmn 9
E Pielou evenness Hprime calculated Shannon-Weiner diversity Hmax ln(s) [species diversity under maximum equitability conditions] D Simpson Index
Table 3 Sorensen species similarity index for the large wild mammals among different habitat types of Geremba Mountain southernEthiopia
Study site habitat types No of species per habitat Sorensonrsquos species similarity indexArbegona (30 km walked) 10 0714Modified forest vs alpine bamboo forest (15 kmvs 12 km walked) 7 vs 9 0875Modified forest vs Erica scrubland (15 km vs 3 km walked) 7 vs 5 0833Alpine bamboo forest vs Erica scrubland (12 kmvs 3 km walked) 9 vs5 0714
Table 4 Relative abundance of large wild mammals among different habitat types of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Species
No of animals observed in different habitat types
Total animals observed Relative abundance ()Modified forestAlpinebambooforest
Figure 7 Seasonal variation in species composition and abundance of large wild mammals at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
8 International Journal of Ecology
variations Olive baboon is known to be widely distributed inAfrica in a wide variety of habitats ranging from savannagrass lands up to Afromontane forest [53] Similarly [54]noted wide distribution of olive baboon in an altitude rangeof 1700m asl to 2300m asl Different types of food itemsare targeted by olive baboon from cereals to fruits and fromvegetables to trees [55] Olive baboon is also disturbancetolerant species that can survive in areas where there aresevere human encroachments and poor cover [55] It is alsoamong the top crop raider species in Ethiopia that areattracted to inhabit fragmented mountain cliffs surroundedby agriculture [56]
-e relatively higher abundance of T s meneliki in thealpine bamboo forest could be due to its preferences fordense vegetation cover with abundant cover from predatorsand other threats and better foraging opportunities ascompared to the other two habitat types [11 19 24] Sim-ilarly the C djamdjamensis diet is predominantly alpinebamboo shoot that gives it an obligatory association withalpine bamboo forest Various studies have indicated thatalpine bamboo is the ideal habitat for Bale monkey and itsdiet mainly comprises alpine bamboo [49 57 58] -esignificant seasonal variation in the abundance of Balemonkey could be attributed to higher availability of its fa-vorite alpine bamboo shoots during the dry season com-pared to wet season [57 58] It is reported that alpinebamboo flushes fresh shoots during dry season in themonths of February and March [58] synchronized with thedry season data collection period of the study As a result thehigher availability of the bamboo shoots could concentratethe populations of the Bale monkey during dry season in thealpine bamboo forest
43 Population Structure -e relatively higher populationof females and good proportion of young individuals in-dicate a healthy population showing potential of populationgrowth in the future -is is supported by [59] which statedthat sex and age structure of a population at any given pointof time is also an indicator of the status of the population-is is supported by different studies in different areas[59ndash61] -e endemic T s meneliki and C djamdjamensishad considerable good number of young individuals that one
expects from a growing population [24 57] -erefore thestudy revealed that the endemic species populations can besustained at least for some time despite the overwhelmingthreats However the long-term viability of the speciespopulations in the area remains uncertain due to the isolatednature and small size of the fragment [58]
5 Conclusion and Recommendations
Despite the fact that Geremba Mountain fragment is a smallisolated patch of alpine bamboo dominated forest sur-rounded by human dominated landscape it supported aconsiderably large number of large mammals Furthermoreit is home for some endemic (Menelikrsquos bushbuck and Balemonkey) and vulnerable (Bale monkey and leopard) largemammals -e large mammal species richness and abun-dance varied among habitat types -e study revealed thatseasonality and habitat types were important factors indetermining the species abundance and distribution in thearea indicating specific habitat use by some of the species inresponse to ecological factors such as altitudes and vege-tation -e alpine bamboo forest was the richest in largemammal diversity with P Anubis being the most abundantspecies and the endemic and vulnerable Bale monkey isclosely associated with the alpine bamboo
However the anthropogenic activities in and around theremnant forest and the isolated nature of the fragment canshrink the available habitats to wild mammals and blockgene flow with metapopulations in nearby fragments ulti-mately affecting the abundance and survival of the largemammals As a result there is a need for full protection ofthe area from the surrounding threats through makingefforts like proclaiming the area as a protected area andcontinuous effort should be made to ecologically integratethe fragment with other fragments in the localities throughwildlife corridors Furthermore special considerationshould be made to protect the vulnerable endemic Balemonkey and its unique habitat alpine bamboo Furtherresearch should also be made to investigate the habitatassociation of Bale monkey and alpine bamboo in terms ofcover and food sources and genetic variations amongmetapopulations found in other fragments in the localities
Table 5 Populations structure and ratio of large wild mammals at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
-e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
-e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
-e authors are grateful to Hawassa University for the fi-nancial support through -ematic Research Project and forall the logistics -e authors sincerely thank ArbegonaAdministration Office for granting us the permission tocarry out this study in the area -e authors also appreciatethe help from their field assistants during the data collectionprocess
References
[1] MA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) Ecosystems and Hu-man Well-Being Synthesis httpwwwmillenniumassessmentorgdocumentsdocument356aspxpdf 2005
[2] O M Makonjio and G Katie ldquo-e role of large mammals andprotected areas to tourist satisfaction in the northern circuitTanzaniardquo Tourism Analysis vol 14 pp 691ndash697 2009
[3] A Govindasamy and H J Minna ldquoDo animals suffer casteprejudice in Hinduismrdquo Social Compass vol 53 no 4pp 244-245 2006
[4] D A Duffus and P Dearden ldquoNon-consumptive wildlife-oriented recreation a conceptual frameworkrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 53 pp 13ndash231 1990
[5] C N Jenkinsa S L Pimmb and L N Joppac ldquoGlobalpatterns of terrestrial vertebrate diversity and conservationrdquoin Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of theUnited States of America New York NY USA June 2013
[6] G Ceballos and P R Ehrlich ldquoGlobal mammal distributionsbiodiversity hotspots and conservationrdquo Proceeding of theNational Academy of Science USA vol 103 no 51pp 19374ndash19379 2006
[7] D E Wilson and D M ReederMammal Species of the WorldJohns Hopkins University Press Baltimore MD USA 2005
[8] J W Sutherland Ecological Census Techniques University ofEast Anglia Norwich UK 2nd edition 2006
[9] A Bekele andDWYalden=eMammals of Ethiopia andEritreaAddis Ababa University Press Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2013
[10] World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) Biodi-versity Data Sourcebook World Conservation MonitoringCentre Cambridge UK 2013
[11] D W Yalden M J Largen D Kock and J C HillmanldquoCatalogue of the mammals of Ethiopia and Eritrea 7 Revisedchecklist zoogeography and conservationrdquo Tropical Zoologyvol 9 no 1 pp 73ndash164 1996
[13] A Kidane ldquoWildlife management problems in EthiopiardquoWalia vol 8 pp 3ndash9 1982
[14] P Evangelista P Swartzinski and RWaltermire ldquoA profile ofthe mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni)rdquo 2007 httpswwwafricanindabacoza
[15] T Hundessa Management Problems of Protected Areas inEthiopia UNESCO World Heritage Paris France 1992
[16] T Wiegand E Revilla and K A Moloney ldquoEffects of habitatloss and fragmentation on population dynamicsrdquo Conser-vation Biology vol 19 no 1 pp 108ndash121 2005
[17] L Nigatu and M Tadesse ldquoAn ecological study of the veg-etation of the Harenna Forest Bale Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethi-opian Journal of Science vol 12 pp 63ndash93 1989
[18] K Wesche G Miehe and M Kaeppeli ldquo-e significance offire for afroalpine ericaceous vegetationrdquo Mountain Researchand Development Mountain Research and Developmentvol 20 no 4 pp 340ndash347 2000
[19] Z Girma G Chuyong and M Yosef ldquoImpact of livestockencroachments and tree removal on populations of mountainnyala and Menelikrsquos bushbuck in Arsi mountains nationalPark Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology vol 2018p 8 2018
[20] Z Girma A Bekele and H Graham ldquoLarge mammals andmountain encroachments on mount kaka and hunkolofragments southeast Ethiopiardquo Asian Journal of AppliedSciences vol 5 no 5 pp 279ndash289 2012a
[21] Z Girma Y Mamo and M Ersado ldquoSpecies compositiondistribution and relative abundance of large mammals in andaround wondo genet forest patch southern Ethiopiardquo AsianJournal of Applied Sciences vol 5 no 8 pp 538ndash551 2012b
[22] P A Stephens C A drsquoSa C Sillero-Zubiri and N Leader-Williams ldquoImpact of livestock and settlement on the largemammalian wildlife of bale mountains National ParkSouthern Ethiopiardquo Biological Conservation vol 100 no 3pp 307ndash322 2001
[23] A Fetene G Mengesha and T Bekele ldquoSpatial distributionand habitat preferences of selected large mammalian speciesin the NechSar National Park (NSNP) Ethiopiardquo Nature andScience vol 9 pp 80ndash90 2011
[24] D Yazezew Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoPopulation ecology ofMenelikrsquos bushbuck (tragelaphusscriptusmeneliki Neu-mann1902) from donkoro forest proposed national Parknorthern Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology andEnvironmental Science vol 37 pp 1ndash13 2011
[25] ArbegonaWoreda Tourism and Communication Office(AWTCO) A Magazine General Information about Arbe-gonaWoreda AWTCO Publications Arbegona Ethiopia2003
[26] K A Wilson M F McBride M Bode and H P PossinghamldquoPrioritizing global conservation effortsrdquo Nature vol 440no 7082 pp 337ndash340 2006
[27] F Assefa T Tadesse and A Dancho ldquoChallenges and Op-portunities Of Village Poultry Production In Arbegona-Woreda Sidama Zone Southern Ethiopiardquo MSc thesisWolaitaSodo University Sodo Ethiopia 2015
[28] B Shrestha and K Basnet ldquoIndirect methods of identifyingmammals a case study from Shivapuri National Park NepalrdquoEco print An International Journal of Ecology vol 12pp 43ndash57 2004
[29] Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) Arc GISSoftware 101 Environmental Systems Research InstituteRedlands CA USA 2012
[30] International Union for the Conservation of Nature AntelopeSpecialist Group (IUCNASG) Tragelaphusimberbis IUCNRed List of threatened species Version 20121 IUCNASGGland Switzerland 2008
[31] T Wondimagegnehu and B Afework ldquoCurrent populationstatus of the endangered endemic subspecies of swaynersquoshartebeest (alcelaphusbuselaphusswaynei) in maze national
10 International Journal of Ecology
Park Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethiopian Journal of Science vol 34pp 39ndash48 2011
[32] C Peres ldquoGeneral guidelines for standardizing line-transectsurveys of tropical forest primatesrdquo Neotropical Primatesvol 7 pp 11ndash16 1999
[33] C A Peres and A Cunha Line-transect censuses of large-bodied tropical forest vertebrates a handbook WildlifeConservation Society Brazilia Rio de Jenero Brazil 2011
[34] A Singh A Mukherjee S Dookia and H N Kumara ldquoAnupdated account of mammal species and population status ofungulates in Keoladeo National Park Bharatpur RajasthanrdquoCurrent Science vol 113 no 01 p 103 2017
[35] L H Emmons and F Feer Neo-tropical Rainforest MammalsField Guide -e University of Chicago Press Chicago ILUSA 1997
[36] J C Hillman ldquoConservation in bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 20 pp 89ndash94 1987
[37] G J Wilson and R J Delahay ldquoA review of methods toestimate the abundance of terrestrial carnivores using fieldsigns and observationrdquo Wildlife Research vol 28 no 2pp 151ndash164 2001
[38] J Kingdon =eKingdon Field Guide to African MammalsAcademic Press London UK 1997
[39] D Macdonald and P Barrett Mammals of Europe PrincetonUniversity Press Princeton NJ USA 2002
[40] P Bang and P Dahlstrom Animal Tracks and Signs OxfordUniversity Press Oxford UK 2001
[41] International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)=e IUCN Red List of species Version 2016 httpwwwiucnredlistorgdetails 2016
[42] S Yirga Atibiwoch Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural HistorySociety Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[43] G Ohnesorge and B Scheiba Tierspuren and Fahrten in Feldund Wald BassermannVerlag Munchen Germany 2007
[44] R Regassa and S Yirga ldquoDistribution abundance andpopulation status of burchells zebra (Equus quagga) in yabellowildlife sanctuary southern Ethiopiardquo Journal of Ecology andthe Natural Environment vol 5 no 3 pp 40ndash49 2013
[45] R I M Dunbar and P Dunbar ldquo-e reproductive cycle of thegelada baboonrdquoAnimal Behaviour vol 22 no 1 pp 203ndash2101974
[46] G A Balme R Slotow and L T B Hunter ldquoEdge effects andthe impact of non-protected areas in carnivore conservationleopards in the Phinda-Mkhuze Complex South AfricardquoAnimal Conservation vol 13 no 3 pp 315ndash323 2010
[47] Z Girma G Chuyong P Evangelista and Y Mamo ldquoHabitatcharacterization and preferences of the mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni lydekker 1910) and Menelikrsquos bushbuck (trag-elaphusscriptusmeneliki neumann 1902) in Arsi mountainsnational Park south-eastern Ethiopiardquo International Journal ofCurrent Research vol 7 no 11 pp 23074ndash23082 2015
[48] A Mekonnen ldquoDistribution of the Bale monkey (chlor-ocebusdjamdjamensis) in the Bale Mountains and its Ecologyin the odobullu forest Ethiopiandasha Study of habitat preferencepopulation size feeding behaviour Activity and rangingpatternsrdquo MSc thesis Addis Ababa University Addis AbabaEthiopia 2009
[49] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing G Hemson andA Atickem ldquoDiet activity patterns and ranging ecology ofthe bale monkey (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis) in odobulluforest Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Primatology vol 31no 3 pp 339ndash362 2010a
[50] E A Archie J A Hollister-Smith J H Poole et alldquoBehavioural inbreeding avoidance in wild African
elephantsrdquo Molecular Ecology vol 16 no 19 pp 4138ndash41482007
[51] Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoHuman and livestock encroach-ments into the habitat of mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni) in the bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Tropical Ecology vol 52 pp 265ndash273 2011
[52] J M Hall ldquoBradykinin receptorsrdquoGeneral Pharmacology=eVascular System vol 28 no 1 pp 1ndash6 1997
[53] C Sillero-Zubiri and D Switzer Crop Raiding PrimatesSearching For Alternative Humane Ways to Resolve Conflictwith Farmers In Africa Wildlife Conservation Research UnitOxford University Press Oxford UK 2001
[54] Y Mamo A Bekele and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use ofmountain nyala (tragelaphusbuxtoni lyddeker 1911) in thebale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo InternationalJournal of Biodiversity and Conservation vol 4 pp 642ndash6512012
[55] M Chane and S Yirga ldquoDiversity of medium and large-sizedmammals in BorenaSayint national Park south wolloE-thiopiardquo International Journal of Science vol 15 pp 95ndash1062009
[56] B Tufa Z Girma and G Mengesha ldquoHuman-large wildmammals conflict in dhera-dilfaqar block of Arsi mountainsnational Park south eastern Ethiopiardquo Human Dimensions ofWildlife vol 23 no 5 pp 474ndash481 2018
[57] A Mekonnen A Bekele G Hemson E Teshome andA Atickem ldquoPopulation size and habitat preference of thevulnerable bale monkey chlorocebus djamdjamensis inodobullu forest and its distribution across the bale mountainsEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 44 no 4 pp 558ndash563 2010b
[58] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing J-M LernouldA Atickem and N C Stenseth ldquoNewly discovered balemonkey populations in forest fragments in southern Ethiopiaevidence of crop raiding hybridization with grivets and otherconservation threatsrdquo American Journal of Primatologyvol 74 no 5 pp 423ndash432 2012
[59] L H Brown ldquoObservations on the status habitat and be-havior of the mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni) inEthiopiardquo Mammalia vol 33 pp 545ndash597 1969
[60] United Nations Economic Social and Cultural Organization(UNESCO) Faunal survey Final Report on Status And Dis-tribution of Faunal Diversity in Kaffa Afro-Montane ForestUNESCO Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[61] Y Mamo A Asefa and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use of un-gulates in bale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo AfricanJournal of Ecology vol 53 no 4 pp 512ndash520 2015
International Journal of Ecology 11
Table 2 Diversity indices of large wild mammalrsquos indifferent habitat types of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Study site habitat types Specieshabitat Individualshabitat Hprime D Hmax EArbegona (30 km walked) 10 227plusmn 9
E Pielou evenness Hprime calculated Shannon-Weiner diversity Hmax ln(s) [species diversity under maximum equitability conditions] D Simpson Index
Table 3 Sorensen species similarity index for the large wild mammals among different habitat types of Geremba Mountain southernEthiopia
Study site habitat types No of species per habitat Sorensonrsquos species similarity indexArbegona (30 km walked) 10 0714Modified forest vs alpine bamboo forest (15 kmvs 12 km walked) 7 vs 9 0875Modified forest vs Erica scrubland (15 km vs 3 km walked) 7 vs 5 0833Alpine bamboo forest vs Erica scrubland (12 kmvs 3 km walked) 9 vs5 0714
Table 4 Relative abundance of large wild mammals among different habitat types of Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
Species
No of animals observed in different habitat types
Total animals observed Relative abundance ()Modified forestAlpinebambooforest
Figure 7 Seasonal variation in species composition and abundance of large wild mammals at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
8 International Journal of Ecology
variations Olive baboon is known to be widely distributed inAfrica in a wide variety of habitats ranging from savannagrass lands up to Afromontane forest [53] Similarly [54]noted wide distribution of olive baboon in an altitude rangeof 1700m asl to 2300m asl Different types of food itemsare targeted by olive baboon from cereals to fruits and fromvegetables to trees [55] Olive baboon is also disturbancetolerant species that can survive in areas where there aresevere human encroachments and poor cover [55] It is alsoamong the top crop raider species in Ethiopia that areattracted to inhabit fragmented mountain cliffs surroundedby agriculture [56]
-e relatively higher abundance of T s meneliki in thealpine bamboo forest could be due to its preferences fordense vegetation cover with abundant cover from predatorsand other threats and better foraging opportunities ascompared to the other two habitat types [11 19 24] Sim-ilarly the C djamdjamensis diet is predominantly alpinebamboo shoot that gives it an obligatory association withalpine bamboo forest Various studies have indicated thatalpine bamboo is the ideal habitat for Bale monkey and itsdiet mainly comprises alpine bamboo [49 57 58] -esignificant seasonal variation in the abundance of Balemonkey could be attributed to higher availability of its fa-vorite alpine bamboo shoots during the dry season com-pared to wet season [57 58] It is reported that alpinebamboo flushes fresh shoots during dry season in themonths of February and March [58] synchronized with thedry season data collection period of the study As a result thehigher availability of the bamboo shoots could concentratethe populations of the Bale monkey during dry season in thealpine bamboo forest
43 Population Structure -e relatively higher populationof females and good proportion of young individuals in-dicate a healthy population showing potential of populationgrowth in the future -is is supported by [59] which statedthat sex and age structure of a population at any given pointof time is also an indicator of the status of the population-is is supported by different studies in different areas[59ndash61] -e endemic T s meneliki and C djamdjamensishad considerable good number of young individuals that one
expects from a growing population [24 57] -erefore thestudy revealed that the endemic species populations can besustained at least for some time despite the overwhelmingthreats However the long-term viability of the speciespopulations in the area remains uncertain due to the isolatednature and small size of the fragment [58]
5 Conclusion and Recommendations
Despite the fact that Geremba Mountain fragment is a smallisolated patch of alpine bamboo dominated forest sur-rounded by human dominated landscape it supported aconsiderably large number of large mammals Furthermoreit is home for some endemic (Menelikrsquos bushbuck and Balemonkey) and vulnerable (Bale monkey and leopard) largemammals -e large mammal species richness and abun-dance varied among habitat types -e study revealed thatseasonality and habitat types were important factors indetermining the species abundance and distribution in thearea indicating specific habitat use by some of the species inresponse to ecological factors such as altitudes and vege-tation -e alpine bamboo forest was the richest in largemammal diversity with P Anubis being the most abundantspecies and the endemic and vulnerable Bale monkey isclosely associated with the alpine bamboo
However the anthropogenic activities in and around theremnant forest and the isolated nature of the fragment canshrink the available habitats to wild mammals and blockgene flow with metapopulations in nearby fragments ulti-mately affecting the abundance and survival of the largemammals As a result there is a need for full protection ofthe area from the surrounding threats through makingefforts like proclaiming the area as a protected area andcontinuous effort should be made to ecologically integratethe fragment with other fragments in the localities throughwildlife corridors Furthermore special considerationshould be made to protect the vulnerable endemic Balemonkey and its unique habitat alpine bamboo Furtherresearch should also be made to investigate the habitatassociation of Bale monkey and alpine bamboo in terms ofcover and food sources and genetic variations amongmetapopulations found in other fragments in the localities
Table 5 Populations structure and ratio of large wild mammals at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
-e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
-e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
-e authors are grateful to Hawassa University for the fi-nancial support through -ematic Research Project and forall the logistics -e authors sincerely thank ArbegonaAdministration Office for granting us the permission tocarry out this study in the area -e authors also appreciatethe help from their field assistants during the data collectionprocess
References
[1] MA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) Ecosystems and Hu-man Well-Being Synthesis httpwwwmillenniumassessmentorgdocumentsdocument356aspxpdf 2005
[2] O M Makonjio and G Katie ldquo-e role of large mammals andprotected areas to tourist satisfaction in the northern circuitTanzaniardquo Tourism Analysis vol 14 pp 691ndash697 2009
[3] A Govindasamy and H J Minna ldquoDo animals suffer casteprejudice in Hinduismrdquo Social Compass vol 53 no 4pp 244-245 2006
[4] D A Duffus and P Dearden ldquoNon-consumptive wildlife-oriented recreation a conceptual frameworkrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 53 pp 13ndash231 1990
[5] C N Jenkinsa S L Pimmb and L N Joppac ldquoGlobalpatterns of terrestrial vertebrate diversity and conservationrdquoin Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of theUnited States of America New York NY USA June 2013
[6] G Ceballos and P R Ehrlich ldquoGlobal mammal distributionsbiodiversity hotspots and conservationrdquo Proceeding of theNational Academy of Science USA vol 103 no 51pp 19374ndash19379 2006
[7] D E Wilson and D M ReederMammal Species of the WorldJohns Hopkins University Press Baltimore MD USA 2005
[8] J W Sutherland Ecological Census Techniques University ofEast Anglia Norwich UK 2nd edition 2006
[9] A Bekele andDWYalden=eMammals of Ethiopia andEritreaAddis Ababa University Press Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2013
[10] World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) Biodi-versity Data Sourcebook World Conservation MonitoringCentre Cambridge UK 2013
[11] D W Yalden M J Largen D Kock and J C HillmanldquoCatalogue of the mammals of Ethiopia and Eritrea 7 Revisedchecklist zoogeography and conservationrdquo Tropical Zoologyvol 9 no 1 pp 73ndash164 1996
[13] A Kidane ldquoWildlife management problems in EthiopiardquoWalia vol 8 pp 3ndash9 1982
[14] P Evangelista P Swartzinski and RWaltermire ldquoA profile ofthe mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni)rdquo 2007 httpswwwafricanindabacoza
[15] T Hundessa Management Problems of Protected Areas inEthiopia UNESCO World Heritage Paris France 1992
[16] T Wiegand E Revilla and K A Moloney ldquoEffects of habitatloss and fragmentation on population dynamicsrdquo Conser-vation Biology vol 19 no 1 pp 108ndash121 2005
[17] L Nigatu and M Tadesse ldquoAn ecological study of the veg-etation of the Harenna Forest Bale Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethi-opian Journal of Science vol 12 pp 63ndash93 1989
[18] K Wesche G Miehe and M Kaeppeli ldquo-e significance offire for afroalpine ericaceous vegetationrdquo Mountain Researchand Development Mountain Research and Developmentvol 20 no 4 pp 340ndash347 2000
[19] Z Girma G Chuyong and M Yosef ldquoImpact of livestockencroachments and tree removal on populations of mountainnyala and Menelikrsquos bushbuck in Arsi mountains nationalPark Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology vol 2018p 8 2018
[20] Z Girma A Bekele and H Graham ldquoLarge mammals andmountain encroachments on mount kaka and hunkolofragments southeast Ethiopiardquo Asian Journal of AppliedSciences vol 5 no 5 pp 279ndash289 2012a
[21] Z Girma Y Mamo and M Ersado ldquoSpecies compositiondistribution and relative abundance of large mammals in andaround wondo genet forest patch southern Ethiopiardquo AsianJournal of Applied Sciences vol 5 no 8 pp 538ndash551 2012b
[22] P A Stephens C A drsquoSa C Sillero-Zubiri and N Leader-Williams ldquoImpact of livestock and settlement on the largemammalian wildlife of bale mountains National ParkSouthern Ethiopiardquo Biological Conservation vol 100 no 3pp 307ndash322 2001
[23] A Fetene G Mengesha and T Bekele ldquoSpatial distributionand habitat preferences of selected large mammalian speciesin the NechSar National Park (NSNP) Ethiopiardquo Nature andScience vol 9 pp 80ndash90 2011
[24] D Yazezew Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoPopulation ecology ofMenelikrsquos bushbuck (tragelaphusscriptusmeneliki Neu-mann1902) from donkoro forest proposed national Parknorthern Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology andEnvironmental Science vol 37 pp 1ndash13 2011
[25] ArbegonaWoreda Tourism and Communication Office(AWTCO) A Magazine General Information about Arbe-gonaWoreda AWTCO Publications Arbegona Ethiopia2003
[26] K A Wilson M F McBride M Bode and H P PossinghamldquoPrioritizing global conservation effortsrdquo Nature vol 440no 7082 pp 337ndash340 2006
[27] F Assefa T Tadesse and A Dancho ldquoChallenges and Op-portunities Of Village Poultry Production In Arbegona-Woreda Sidama Zone Southern Ethiopiardquo MSc thesisWolaitaSodo University Sodo Ethiopia 2015
[28] B Shrestha and K Basnet ldquoIndirect methods of identifyingmammals a case study from Shivapuri National Park NepalrdquoEco print An International Journal of Ecology vol 12pp 43ndash57 2004
[29] Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) Arc GISSoftware 101 Environmental Systems Research InstituteRedlands CA USA 2012
[30] International Union for the Conservation of Nature AntelopeSpecialist Group (IUCNASG) Tragelaphusimberbis IUCNRed List of threatened species Version 20121 IUCNASGGland Switzerland 2008
[31] T Wondimagegnehu and B Afework ldquoCurrent populationstatus of the endangered endemic subspecies of swaynersquoshartebeest (alcelaphusbuselaphusswaynei) in maze national
10 International Journal of Ecology
Park Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethiopian Journal of Science vol 34pp 39ndash48 2011
[32] C Peres ldquoGeneral guidelines for standardizing line-transectsurveys of tropical forest primatesrdquo Neotropical Primatesvol 7 pp 11ndash16 1999
[33] C A Peres and A Cunha Line-transect censuses of large-bodied tropical forest vertebrates a handbook WildlifeConservation Society Brazilia Rio de Jenero Brazil 2011
[34] A Singh A Mukherjee S Dookia and H N Kumara ldquoAnupdated account of mammal species and population status ofungulates in Keoladeo National Park Bharatpur RajasthanrdquoCurrent Science vol 113 no 01 p 103 2017
[35] L H Emmons and F Feer Neo-tropical Rainforest MammalsField Guide -e University of Chicago Press Chicago ILUSA 1997
[36] J C Hillman ldquoConservation in bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 20 pp 89ndash94 1987
[37] G J Wilson and R J Delahay ldquoA review of methods toestimate the abundance of terrestrial carnivores using fieldsigns and observationrdquo Wildlife Research vol 28 no 2pp 151ndash164 2001
[38] J Kingdon =eKingdon Field Guide to African MammalsAcademic Press London UK 1997
[39] D Macdonald and P Barrett Mammals of Europe PrincetonUniversity Press Princeton NJ USA 2002
[40] P Bang and P Dahlstrom Animal Tracks and Signs OxfordUniversity Press Oxford UK 2001
[41] International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)=e IUCN Red List of species Version 2016 httpwwwiucnredlistorgdetails 2016
[42] S Yirga Atibiwoch Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural HistorySociety Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[43] G Ohnesorge and B Scheiba Tierspuren and Fahrten in Feldund Wald BassermannVerlag Munchen Germany 2007
[44] R Regassa and S Yirga ldquoDistribution abundance andpopulation status of burchells zebra (Equus quagga) in yabellowildlife sanctuary southern Ethiopiardquo Journal of Ecology andthe Natural Environment vol 5 no 3 pp 40ndash49 2013
[45] R I M Dunbar and P Dunbar ldquo-e reproductive cycle of thegelada baboonrdquoAnimal Behaviour vol 22 no 1 pp 203ndash2101974
[46] G A Balme R Slotow and L T B Hunter ldquoEdge effects andthe impact of non-protected areas in carnivore conservationleopards in the Phinda-Mkhuze Complex South AfricardquoAnimal Conservation vol 13 no 3 pp 315ndash323 2010
[47] Z Girma G Chuyong P Evangelista and Y Mamo ldquoHabitatcharacterization and preferences of the mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni lydekker 1910) and Menelikrsquos bushbuck (trag-elaphusscriptusmeneliki neumann 1902) in Arsi mountainsnational Park south-eastern Ethiopiardquo International Journal ofCurrent Research vol 7 no 11 pp 23074ndash23082 2015
[48] A Mekonnen ldquoDistribution of the Bale monkey (chlor-ocebusdjamdjamensis) in the Bale Mountains and its Ecologyin the odobullu forest Ethiopiandasha Study of habitat preferencepopulation size feeding behaviour Activity and rangingpatternsrdquo MSc thesis Addis Ababa University Addis AbabaEthiopia 2009
[49] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing G Hemson andA Atickem ldquoDiet activity patterns and ranging ecology ofthe bale monkey (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis) in odobulluforest Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Primatology vol 31no 3 pp 339ndash362 2010a
[50] E A Archie J A Hollister-Smith J H Poole et alldquoBehavioural inbreeding avoidance in wild African
elephantsrdquo Molecular Ecology vol 16 no 19 pp 4138ndash41482007
[51] Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoHuman and livestock encroach-ments into the habitat of mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni) in the bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Tropical Ecology vol 52 pp 265ndash273 2011
[52] J M Hall ldquoBradykinin receptorsrdquoGeneral Pharmacology=eVascular System vol 28 no 1 pp 1ndash6 1997
[53] C Sillero-Zubiri and D Switzer Crop Raiding PrimatesSearching For Alternative Humane Ways to Resolve Conflictwith Farmers In Africa Wildlife Conservation Research UnitOxford University Press Oxford UK 2001
[54] Y Mamo A Bekele and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use ofmountain nyala (tragelaphusbuxtoni lyddeker 1911) in thebale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo InternationalJournal of Biodiversity and Conservation vol 4 pp 642ndash6512012
[55] M Chane and S Yirga ldquoDiversity of medium and large-sizedmammals in BorenaSayint national Park south wolloE-thiopiardquo International Journal of Science vol 15 pp 95ndash1062009
[56] B Tufa Z Girma and G Mengesha ldquoHuman-large wildmammals conflict in dhera-dilfaqar block of Arsi mountainsnational Park south eastern Ethiopiardquo Human Dimensions ofWildlife vol 23 no 5 pp 474ndash481 2018
[57] A Mekonnen A Bekele G Hemson E Teshome andA Atickem ldquoPopulation size and habitat preference of thevulnerable bale monkey chlorocebus djamdjamensis inodobullu forest and its distribution across the bale mountainsEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 44 no 4 pp 558ndash563 2010b
[58] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing J-M LernouldA Atickem and N C Stenseth ldquoNewly discovered balemonkey populations in forest fragments in southern Ethiopiaevidence of crop raiding hybridization with grivets and otherconservation threatsrdquo American Journal of Primatologyvol 74 no 5 pp 423ndash432 2012
[59] L H Brown ldquoObservations on the status habitat and be-havior of the mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni) inEthiopiardquo Mammalia vol 33 pp 545ndash597 1969
[60] United Nations Economic Social and Cultural Organization(UNESCO) Faunal survey Final Report on Status And Dis-tribution of Faunal Diversity in Kaffa Afro-Montane ForestUNESCO Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[61] Y Mamo A Asefa and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use of un-gulates in bale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo AfricanJournal of Ecology vol 53 no 4 pp 512ndash520 2015
International Journal of Ecology 11
variations Olive baboon is known to be widely distributed inAfrica in a wide variety of habitats ranging from savannagrass lands up to Afromontane forest [53] Similarly [54]noted wide distribution of olive baboon in an altitude rangeof 1700m asl to 2300m asl Different types of food itemsare targeted by olive baboon from cereals to fruits and fromvegetables to trees [55] Olive baboon is also disturbancetolerant species that can survive in areas where there aresevere human encroachments and poor cover [55] It is alsoamong the top crop raider species in Ethiopia that areattracted to inhabit fragmented mountain cliffs surroundedby agriculture [56]
-e relatively higher abundance of T s meneliki in thealpine bamboo forest could be due to its preferences fordense vegetation cover with abundant cover from predatorsand other threats and better foraging opportunities ascompared to the other two habitat types [11 19 24] Sim-ilarly the C djamdjamensis diet is predominantly alpinebamboo shoot that gives it an obligatory association withalpine bamboo forest Various studies have indicated thatalpine bamboo is the ideal habitat for Bale monkey and itsdiet mainly comprises alpine bamboo [49 57 58] -esignificant seasonal variation in the abundance of Balemonkey could be attributed to higher availability of its fa-vorite alpine bamboo shoots during the dry season com-pared to wet season [57 58] It is reported that alpinebamboo flushes fresh shoots during dry season in themonths of February and March [58] synchronized with thedry season data collection period of the study As a result thehigher availability of the bamboo shoots could concentratethe populations of the Bale monkey during dry season in thealpine bamboo forest
43 Population Structure -e relatively higher populationof females and good proportion of young individuals in-dicate a healthy population showing potential of populationgrowth in the future -is is supported by [59] which statedthat sex and age structure of a population at any given pointof time is also an indicator of the status of the population-is is supported by different studies in different areas[59ndash61] -e endemic T s meneliki and C djamdjamensishad considerable good number of young individuals that one
expects from a growing population [24 57] -erefore thestudy revealed that the endemic species populations can besustained at least for some time despite the overwhelmingthreats However the long-term viability of the speciespopulations in the area remains uncertain due to the isolatednature and small size of the fragment [58]
5 Conclusion and Recommendations
Despite the fact that Geremba Mountain fragment is a smallisolated patch of alpine bamboo dominated forest sur-rounded by human dominated landscape it supported aconsiderably large number of large mammals Furthermoreit is home for some endemic (Menelikrsquos bushbuck and Balemonkey) and vulnerable (Bale monkey and leopard) largemammals -e large mammal species richness and abun-dance varied among habitat types -e study revealed thatseasonality and habitat types were important factors indetermining the species abundance and distribution in thearea indicating specific habitat use by some of the species inresponse to ecological factors such as altitudes and vege-tation -e alpine bamboo forest was the richest in largemammal diversity with P Anubis being the most abundantspecies and the endemic and vulnerable Bale monkey isclosely associated with the alpine bamboo
However the anthropogenic activities in and around theremnant forest and the isolated nature of the fragment canshrink the available habitats to wild mammals and blockgene flow with metapopulations in nearby fragments ulti-mately affecting the abundance and survival of the largemammals As a result there is a need for full protection ofthe area from the surrounding threats through makingefforts like proclaiming the area as a protected area andcontinuous effort should be made to ecologically integratethe fragment with other fragments in the localities throughwildlife corridors Furthermore special considerationshould be made to protect the vulnerable endemic Balemonkey and its unique habitat alpine bamboo Furtherresearch should also be made to investigate the habitatassociation of Bale monkey and alpine bamboo in terms ofcover and food sources and genetic variations amongmetapopulations found in other fragments in the localities
Table 5 Populations structure and ratio of large wild mammals at Geremba Mountain southern Ethiopia
-e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
-e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
-e authors are grateful to Hawassa University for the fi-nancial support through -ematic Research Project and forall the logistics -e authors sincerely thank ArbegonaAdministration Office for granting us the permission tocarry out this study in the area -e authors also appreciatethe help from their field assistants during the data collectionprocess
References
[1] MA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) Ecosystems and Hu-man Well-Being Synthesis httpwwwmillenniumassessmentorgdocumentsdocument356aspxpdf 2005
[2] O M Makonjio and G Katie ldquo-e role of large mammals andprotected areas to tourist satisfaction in the northern circuitTanzaniardquo Tourism Analysis vol 14 pp 691ndash697 2009
[3] A Govindasamy and H J Minna ldquoDo animals suffer casteprejudice in Hinduismrdquo Social Compass vol 53 no 4pp 244-245 2006
[4] D A Duffus and P Dearden ldquoNon-consumptive wildlife-oriented recreation a conceptual frameworkrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 53 pp 13ndash231 1990
[5] C N Jenkinsa S L Pimmb and L N Joppac ldquoGlobalpatterns of terrestrial vertebrate diversity and conservationrdquoin Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of theUnited States of America New York NY USA June 2013
[6] G Ceballos and P R Ehrlich ldquoGlobal mammal distributionsbiodiversity hotspots and conservationrdquo Proceeding of theNational Academy of Science USA vol 103 no 51pp 19374ndash19379 2006
[7] D E Wilson and D M ReederMammal Species of the WorldJohns Hopkins University Press Baltimore MD USA 2005
[8] J W Sutherland Ecological Census Techniques University ofEast Anglia Norwich UK 2nd edition 2006
[9] A Bekele andDWYalden=eMammals of Ethiopia andEritreaAddis Ababa University Press Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2013
[10] World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) Biodi-versity Data Sourcebook World Conservation MonitoringCentre Cambridge UK 2013
[11] D W Yalden M J Largen D Kock and J C HillmanldquoCatalogue of the mammals of Ethiopia and Eritrea 7 Revisedchecklist zoogeography and conservationrdquo Tropical Zoologyvol 9 no 1 pp 73ndash164 1996
[13] A Kidane ldquoWildlife management problems in EthiopiardquoWalia vol 8 pp 3ndash9 1982
[14] P Evangelista P Swartzinski and RWaltermire ldquoA profile ofthe mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni)rdquo 2007 httpswwwafricanindabacoza
[15] T Hundessa Management Problems of Protected Areas inEthiopia UNESCO World Heritage Paris France 1992
[16] T Wiegand E Revilla and K A Moloney ldquoEffects of habitatloss and fragmentation on population dynamicsrdquo Conser-vation Biology vol 19 no 1 pp 108ndash121 2005
[17] L Nigatu and M Tadesse ldquoAn ecological study of the veg-etation of the Harenna Forest Bale Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethi-opian Journal of Science vol 12 pp 63ndash93 1989
[18] K Wesche G Miehe and M Kaeppeli ldquo-e significance offire for afroalpine ericaceous vegetationrdquo Mountain Researchand Development Mountain Research and Developmentvol 20 no 4 pp 340ndash347 2000
[19] Z Girma G Chuyong and M Yosef ldquoImpact of livestockencroachments and tree removal on populations of mountainnyala and Menelikrsquos bushbuck in Arsi mountains nationalPark Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology vol 2018p 8 2018
[20] Z Girma A Bekele and H Graham ldquoLarge mammals andmountain encroachments on mount kaka and hunkolofragments southeast Ethiopiardquo Asian Journal of AppliedSciences vol 5 no 5 pp 279ndash289 2012a
[21] Z Girma Y Mamo and M Ersado ldquoSpecies compositiondistribution and relative abundance of large mammals in andaround wondo genet forest patch southern Ethiopiardquo AsianJournal of Applied Sciences vol 5 no 8 pp 538ndash551 2012b
[22] P A Stephens C A drsquoSa C Sillero-Zubiri and N Leader-Williams ldquoImpact of livestock and settlement on the largemammalian wildlife of bale mountains National ParkSouthern Ethiopiardquo Biological Conservation vol 100 no 3pp 307ndash322 2001
[23] A Fetene G Mengesha and T Bekele ldquoSpatial distributionand habitat preferences of selected large mammalian speciesin the NechSar National Park (NSNP) Ethiopiardquo Nature andScience vol 9 pp 80ndash90 2011
[24] D Yazezew Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoPopulation ecology ofMenelikrsquos bushbuck (tragelaphusscriptusmeneliki Neu-mann1902) from donkoro forest proposed national Parknorthern Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology andEnvironmental Science vol 37 pp 1ndash13 2011
[25] ArbegonaWoreda Tourism and Communication Office(AWTCO) A Magazine General Information about Arbe-gonaWoreda AWTCO Publications Arbegona Ethiopia2003
[26] K A Wilson M F McBride M Bode and H P PossinghamldquoPrioritizing global conservation effortsrdquo Nature vol 440no 7082 pp 337ndash340 2006
[27] F Assefa T Tadesse and A Dancho ldquoChallenges and Op-portunities Of Village Poultry Production In Arbegona-Woreda Sidama Zone Southern Ethiopiardquo MSc thesisWolaitaSodo University Sodo Ethiopia 2015
[28] B Shrestha and K Basnet ldquoIndirect methods of identifyingmammals a case study from Shivapuri National Park NepalrdquoEco print An International Journal of Ecology vol 12pp 43ndash57 2004
[29] Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) Arc GISSoftware 101 Environmental Systems Research InstituteRedlands CA USA 2012
[30] International Union for the Conservation of Nature AntelopeSpecialist Group (IUCNASG) Tragelaphusimberbis IUCNRed List of threatened species Version 20121 IUCNASGGland Switzerland 2008
[31] T Wondimagegnehu and B Afework ldquoCurrent populationstatus of the endangered endemic subspecies of swaynersquoshartebeest (alcelaphusbuselaphusswaynei) in maze national
10 International Journal of Ecology
Park Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethiopian Journal of Science vol 34pp 39ndash48 2011
[32] C Peres ldquoGeneral guidelines for standardizing line-transectsurveys of tropical forest primatesrdquo Neotropical Primatesvol 7 pp 11ndash16 1999
[33] C A Peres and A Cunha Line-transect censuses of large-bodied tropical forest vertebrates a handbook WildlifeConservation Society Brazilia Rio de Jenero Brazil 2011
[34] A Singh A Mukherjee S Dookia and H N Kumara ldquoAnupdated account of mammal species and population status ofungulates in Keoladeo National Park Bharatpur RajasthanrdquoCurrent Science vol 113 no 01 p 103 2017
[35] L H Emmons and F Feer Neo-tropical Rainforest MammalsField Guide -e University of Chicago Press Chicago ILUSA 1997
[36] J C Hillman ldquoConservation in bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 20 pp 89ndash94 1987
[37] G J Wilson and R J Delahay ldquoA review of methods toestimate the abundance of terrestrial carnivores using fieldsigns and observationrdquo Wildlife Research vol 28 no 2pp 151ndash164 2001
[38] J Kingdon =eKingdon Field Guide to African MammalsAcademic Press London UK 1997
[39] D Macdonald and P Barrett Mammals of Europe PrincetonUniversity Press Princeton NJ USA 2002
[40] P Bang and P Dahlstrom Animal Tracks and Signs OxfordUniversity Press Oxford UK 2001
[41] International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)=e IUCN Red List of species Version 2016 httpwwwiucnredlistorgdetails 2016
[42] S Yirga Atibiwoch Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural HistorySociety Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[43] G Ohnesorge and B Scheiba Tierspuren and Fahrten in Feldund Wald BassermannVerlag Munchen Germany 2007
[44] R Regassa and S Yirga ldquoDistribution abundance andpopulation status of burchells zebra (Equus quagga) in yabellowildlife sanctuary southern Ethiopiardquo Journal of Ecology andthe Natural Environment vol 5 no 3 pp 40ndash49 2013
[45] R I M Dunbar and P Dunbar ldquo-e reproductive cycle of thegelada baboonrdquoAnimal Behaviour vol 22 no 1 pp 203ndash2101974
[46] G A Balme R Slotow and L T B Hunter ldquoEdge effects andthe impact of non-protected areas in carnivore conservationleopards in the Phinda-Mkhuze Complex South AfricardquoAnimal Conservation vol 13 no 3 pp 315ndash323 2010
[47] Z Girma G Chuyong P Evangelista and Y Mamo ldquoHabitatcharacterization and preferences of the mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni lydekker 1910) and Menelikrsquos bushbuck (trag-elaphusscriptusmeneliki neumann 1902) in Arsi mountainsnational Park south-eastern Ethiopiardquo International Journal ofCurrent Research vol 7 no 11 pp 23074ndash23082 2015
[48] A Mekonnen ldquoDistribution of the Bale monkey (chlor-ocebusdjamdjamensis) in the Bale Mountains and its Ecologyin the odobullu forest Ethiopiandasha Study of habitat preferencepopulation size feeding behaviour Activity and rangingpatternsrdquo MSc thesis Addis Ababa University Addis AbabaEthiopia 2009
[49] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing G Hemson andA Atickem ldquoDiet activity patterns and ranging ecology ofthe bale monkey (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis) in odobulluforest Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Primatology vol 31no 3 pp 339ndash362 2010a
[50] E A Archie J A Hollister-Smith J H Poole et alldquoBehavioural inbreeding avoidance in wild African
elephantsrdquo Molecular Ecology vol 16 no 19 pp 4138ndash41482007
[51] Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoHuman and livestock encroach-ments into the habitat of mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni) in the bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Tropical Ecology vol 52 pp 265ndash273 2011
[52] J M Hall ldquoBradykinin receptorsrdquoGeneral Pharmacology=eVascular System vol 28 no 1 pp 1ndash6 1997
[53] C Sillero-Zubiri and D Switzer Crop Raiding PrimatesSearching For Alternative Humane Ways to Resolve Conflictwith Farmers In Africa Wildlife Conservation Research UnitOxford University Press Oxford UK 2001
[54] Y Mamo A Bekele and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use ofmountain nyala (tragelaphusbuxtoni lyddeker 1911) in thebale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo InternationalJournal of Biodiversity and Conservation vol 4 pp 642ndash6512012
[55] M Chane and S Yirga ldquoDiversity of medium and large-sizedmammals in BorenaSayint national Park south wolloE-thiopiardquo International Journal of Science vol 15 pp 95ndash1062009
[56] B Tufa Z Girma and G Mengesha ldquoHuman-large wildmammals conflict in dhera-dilfaqar block of Arsi mountainsnational Park south eastern Ethiopiardquo Human Dimensions ofWildlife vol 23 no 5 pp 474ndash481 2018
[57] A Mekonnen A Bekele G Hemson E Teshome andA Atickem ldquoPopulation size and habitat preference of thevulnerable bale monkey chlorocebus djamdjamensis inodobullu forest and its distribution across the bale mountainsEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 44 no 4 pp 558ndash563 2010b
[58] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing J-M LernouldA Atickem and N C Stenseth ldquoNewly discovered balemonkey populations in forest fragments in southern Ethiopiaevidence of crop raiding hybridization with grivets and otherconservation threatsrdquo American Journal of Primatologyvol 74 no 5 pp 423ndash432 2012
[59] L H Brown ldquoObservations on the status habitat and be-havior of the mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni) inEthiopiardquo Mammalia vol 33 pp 545ndash597 1969
[60] United Nations Economic Social and Cultural Organization(UNESCO) Faunal survey Final Report on Status And Dis-tribution of Faunal Diversity in Kaffa Afro-Montane ForestUNESCO Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[61] Y Mamo A Asefa and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use of un-gulates in bale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo AfricanJournal of Ecology vol 53 no 4 pp 512ndash520 2015
International Journal of Ecology 11
Data Availability
-e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request
Conflicts of Interest
-e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
Acknowledgments
-e authors are grateful to Hawassa University for the fi-nancial support through -ematic Research Project and forall the logistics -e authors sincerely thank ArbegonaAdministration Office for granting us the permission tocarry out this study in the area -e authors also appreciatethe help from their field assistants during the data collectionprocess
References
[1] MA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) Ecosystems and Hu-man Well-Being Synthesis httpwwwmillenniumassessmentorgdocumentsdocument356aspxpdf 2005
[2] O M Makonjio and G Katie ldquo-e role of large mammals andprotected areas to tourist satisfaction in the northern circuitTanzaniardquo Tourism Analysis vol 14 pp 691ndash697 2009
[3] A Govindasamy and H J Minna ldquoDo animals suffer casteprejudice in Hinduismrdquo Social Compass vol 53 no 4pp 244-245 2006
[4] D A Duffus and P Dearden ldquoNon-consumptive wildlife-oriented recreation a conceptual frameworkrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 53 pp 13ndash231 1990
[5] C N Jenkinsa S L Pimmb and L N Joppac ldquoGlobalpatterns of terrestrial vertebrate diversity and conservationrdquoin Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of theUnited States of America New York NY USA June 2013
[6] G Ceballos and P R Ehrlich ldquoGlobal mammal distributionsbiodiversity hotspots and conservationrdquo Proceeding of theNational Academy of Science USA vol 103 no 51pp 19374ndash19379 2006
[7] D E Wilson and D M ReederMammal Species of the WorldJohns Hopkins University Press Baltimore MD USA 2005
[8] J W Sutherland Ecological Census Techniques University ofEast Anglia Norwich UK 2nd edition 2006
[9] A Bekele andDWYalden=eMammals of Ethiopia andEritreaAddis Ababa University Press Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2013
[10] World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) Biodi-versity Data Sourcebook World Conservation MonitoringCentre Cambridge UK 2013
[11] D W Yalden M J Largen D Kock and J C HillmanldquoCatalogue of the mammals of Ethiopia and Eritrea 7 Revisedchecklist zoogeography and conservationrdquo Tropical Zoologyvol 9 no 1 pp 73ndash164 1996
[13] A Kidane ldquoWildlife management problems in EthiopiardquoWalia vol 8 pp 3ndash9 1982
[14] P Evangelista P Swartzinski and RWaltermire ldquoA profile ofthe mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni)rdquo 2007 httpswwwafricanindabacoza
[15] T Hundessa Management Problems of Protected Areas inEthiopia UNESCO World Heritage Paris France 1992
[16] T Wiegand E Revilla and K A Moloney ldquoEffects of habitatloss and fragmentation on population dynamicsrdquo Conser-vation Biology vol 19 no 1 pp 108ndash121 2005
[17] L Nigatu and M Tadesse ldquoAn ecological study of the veg-etation of the Harenna Forest Bale Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethi-opian Journal of Science vol 12 pp 63ndash93 1989
[18] K Wesche G Miehe and M Kaeppeli ldquo-e significance offire for afroalpine ericaceous vegetationrdquo Mountain Researchand Development Mountain Research and Developmentvol 20 no 4 pp 340ndash347 2000
[19] Z Girma G Chuyong and M Yosef ldquoImpact of livestockencroachments and tree removal on populations of mountainnyala and Menelikrsquos bushbuck in Arsi mountains nationalPark Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology vol 2018p 8 2018
[20] Z Girma A Bekele and H Graham ldquoLarge mammals andmountain encroachments on mount kaka and hunkolofragments southeast Ethiopiardquo Asian Journal of AppliedSciences vol 5 no 5 pp 279ndash289 2012a
[21] Z Girma Y Mamo and M Ersado ldquoSpecies compositiondistribution and relative abundance of large mammals in andaround wondo genet forest patch southern Ethiopiardquo AsianJournal of Applied Sciences vol 5 no 8 pp 538ndash551 2012b
[22] P A Stephens C A drsquoSa C Sillero-Zubiri and N Leader-Williams ldquoImpact of livestock and settlement on the largemammalian wildlife of bale mountains National ParkSouthern Ethiopiardquo Biological Conservation vol 100 no 3pp 307ndash322 2001
[23] A Fetene G Mengesha and T Bekele ldquoSpatial distributionand habitat preferences of selected large mammalian speciesin the NechSar National Park (NSNP) Ethiopiardquo Nature andScience vol 9 pp 80ndash90 2011
[24] D Yazezew Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoPopulation ecology ofMenelikrsquos bushbuck (tragelaphusscriptusmeneliki Neu-mann1902) from donkoro forest proposed national Parknorthern Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Ecology andEnvironmental Science vol 37 pp 1ndash13 2011
[25] ArbegonaWoreda Tourism and Communication Office(AWTCO) A Magazine General Information about Arbe-gonaWoreda AWTCO Publications Arbegona Ethiopia2003
[26] K A Wilson M F McBride M Bode and H P PossinghamldquoPrioritizing global conservation effortsrdquo Nature vol 440no 7082 pp 337ndash340 2006
[27] F Assefa T Tadesse and A Dancho ldquoChallenges and Op-portunities Of Village Poultry Production In Arbegona-Woreda Sidama Zone Southern Ethiopiardquo MSc thesisWolaitaSodo University Sodo Ethiopia 2015
[28] B Shrestha and K Basnet ldquoIndirect methods of identifyingmammals a case study from Shivapuri National Park NepalrdquoEco print An International Journal of Ecology vol 12pp 43ndash57 2004
[29] Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) Arc GISSoftware 101 Environmental Systems Research InstituteRedlands CA USA 2012
[30] International Union for the Conservation of Nature AntelopeSpecialist Group (IUCNASG) Tragelaphusimberbis IUCNRed List of threatened species Version 20121 IUCNASGGland Switzerland 2008
[31] T Wondimagegnehu and B Afework ldquoCurrent populationstatus of the endangered endemic subspecies of swaynersquoshartebeest (alcelaphusbuselaphusswaynei) in maze national
10 International Journal of Ecology
Park Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethiopian Journal of Science vol 34pp 39ndash48 2011
[32] C Peres ldquoGeneral guidelines for standardizing line-transectsurveys of tropical forest primatesrdquo Neotropical Primatesvol 7 pp 11ndash16 1999
[33] C A Peres and A Cunha Line-transect censuses of large-bodied tropical forest vertebrates a handbook WildlifeConservation Society Brazilia Rio de Jenero Brazil 2011
[34] A Singh A Mukherjee S Dookia and H N Kumara ldquoAnupdated account of mammal species and population status ofungulates in Keoladeo National Park Bharatpur RajasthanrdquoCurrent Science vol 113 no 01 p 103 2017
[35] L H Emmons and F Feer Neo-tropical Rainforest MammalsField Guide -e University of Chicago Press Chicago ILUSA 1997
[36] J C Hillman ldquoConservation in bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 20 pp 89ndash94 1987
[37] G J Wilson and R J Delahay ldquoA review of methods toestimate the abundance of terrestrial carnivores using fieldsigns and observationrdquo Wildlife Research vol 28 no 2pp 151ndash164 2001
[38] J Kingdon =eKingdon Field Guide to African MammalsAcademic Press London UK 1997
[39] D Macdonald and P Barrett Mammals of Europe PrincetonUniversity Press Princeton NJ USA 2002
[40] P Bang and P Dahlstrom Animal Tracks and Signs OxfordUniversity Press Oxford UK 2001
[41] International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)=e IUCN Red List of species Version 2016 httpwwwiucnredlistorgdetails 2016
[42] S Yirga Atibiwoch Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural HistorySociety Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[43] G Ohnesorge and B Scheiba Tierspuren and Fahrten in Feldund Wald BassermannVerlag Munchen Germany 2007
[44] R Regassa and S Yirga ldquoDistribution abundance andpopulation status of burchells zebra (Equus quagga) in yabellowildlife sanctuary southern Ethiopiardquo Journal of Ecology andthe Natural Environment vol 5 no 3 pp 40ndash49 2013
[45] R I M Dunbar and P Dunbar ldquo-e reproductive cycle of thegelada baboonrdquoAnimal Behaviour vol 22 no 1 pp 203ndash2101974
[46] G A Balme R Slotow and L T B Hunter ldquoEdge effects andthe impact of non-protected areas in carnivore conservationleopards in the Phinda-Mkhuze Complex South AfricardquoAnimal Conservation vol 13 no 3 pp 315ndash323 2010
[47] Z Girma G Chuyong P Evangelista and Y Mamo ldquoHabitatcharacterization and preferences of the mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni lydekker 1910) and Menelikrsquos bushbuck (trag-elaphusscriptusmeneliki neumann 1902) in Arsi mountainsnational Park south-eastern Ethiopiardquo International Journal ofCurrent Research vol 7 no 11 pp 23074ndash23082 2015
[48] A Mekonnen ldquoDistribution of the Bale monkey (chlor-ocebusdjamdjamensis) in the Bale Mountains and its Ecologyin the odobullu forest Ethiopiandasha Study of habitat preferencepopulation size feeding behaviour Activity and rangingpatternsrdquo MSc thesis Addis Ababa University Addis AbabaEthiopia 2009
[49] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing G Hemson andA Atickem ldquoDiet activity patterns and ranging ecology ofthe bale monkey (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis) in odobulluforest Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Primatology vol 31no 3 pp 339ndash362 2010a
[50] E A Archie J A Hollister-Smith J H Poole et alldquoBehavioural inbreeding avoidance in wild African
elephantsrdquo Molecular Ecology vol 16 no 19 pp 4138ndash41482007
[51] Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoHuman and livestock encroach-ments into the habitat of mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni) in the bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Tropical Ecology vol 52 pp 265ndash273 2011
[52] J M Hall ldquoBradykinin receptorsrdquoGeneral Pharmacology=eVascular System vol 28 no 1 pp 1ndash6 1997
[53] C Sillero-Zubiri and D Switzer Crop Raiding PrimatesSearching For Alternative Humane Ways to Resolve Conflictwith Farmers In Africa Wildlife Conservation Research UnitOxford University Press Oxford UK 2001
[54] Y Mamo A Bekele and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use ofmountain nyala (tragelaphusbuxtoni lyddeker 1911) in thebale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo InternationalJournal of Biodiversity and Conservation vol 4 pp 642ndash6512012
[55] M Chane and S Yirga ldquoDiversity of medium and large-sizedmammals in BorenaSayint national Park south wolloE-thiopiardquo International Journal of Science vol 15 pp 95ndash1062009
[56] B Tufa Z Girma and G Mengesha ldquoHuman-large wildmammals conflict in dhera-dilfaqar block of Arsi mountainsnational Park south eastern Ethiopiardquo Human Dimensions ofWildlife vol 23 no 5 pp 474ndash481 2018
[57] A Mekonnen A Bekele G Hemson E Teshome andA Atickem ldquoPopulation size and habitat preference of thevulnerable bale monkey chlorocebus djamdjamensis inodobullu forest and its distribution across the bale mountainsEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 44 no 4 pp 558ndash563 2010b
[58] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing J-M LernouldA Atickem and N C Stenseth ldquoNewly discovered balemonkey populations in forest fragments in southern Ethiopiaevidence of crop raiding hybridization with grivets and otherconservation threatsrdquo American Journal of Primatologyvol 74 no 5 pp 423ndash432 2012
[59] L H Brown ldquoObservations on the status habitat and be-havior of the mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni) inEthiopiardquo Mammalia vol 33 pp 545ndash597 1969
[60] United Nations Economic Social and Cultural Organization(UNESCO) Faunal survey Final Report on Status And Dis-tribution of Faunal Diversity in Kaffa Afro-Montane ForestUNESCO Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[61] Y Mamo A Asefa and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use of un-gulates in bale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo AfricanJournal of Ecology vol 53 no 4 pp 512ndash520 2015
International Journal of Ecology 11
Park Ethiopiardquo SINET Ethiopian Journal of Science vol 34pp 39ndash48 2011
[32] C Peres ldquoGeneral guidelines for standardizing line-transectsurveys of tropical forest primatesrdquo Neotropical Primatesvol 7 pp 11ndash16 1999
[33] C A Peres and A Cunha Line-transect censuses of large-bodied tropical forest vertebrates a handbook WildlifeConservation Society Brazilia Rio de Jenero Brazil 2011
[34] A Singh A Mukherjee S Dookia and H N Kumara ldquoAnupdated account of mammal species and population status ofungulates in Keoladeo National Park Bharatpur RajasthanrdquoCurrent Science vol 113 no 01 p 103 2017
[35] L H Emmons and F Feer Neo-tropical Rainforest MammalsField Guide -e University of Chicago Press Chicago ILUSA 1997
[36] J C Hillman ldquoConservation in bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 20 pp 89ndash94 1987
[37] G J Wilson and R J Delahay ldquoA review of methods toestimate the abundance of terrestrial carnivores using fieldsigns and observationrdquo Wildlife Research vol 28 no 2pp 151ndash164 2001
[38] J Kingdon =eKingdon Field Guide to African MammalsAcademic Press London UK 1997
[39] D Macdonald and P Barrett Mammals of Europe PrincetonUniversity Press Princeton NJ USA 2002
[40] P Bang and P Dahlstrom Animal Tracks and Signs OxfordUniversity Press Oxford UK 2001
[41] International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)=e IUCN Red List of species Version 2016 httpwwwiucnredlistorgdetails 2016
[42] S Yirga Atibiwoch Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural HistorySociety Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[43] G Ohnesorge and B Scheiba Tierspuren and Fahrten in Feldund Wald BassermannVerlag Munchen Germany 2007
[44] R Regassa and S Yirga ldquoDistribution abundance andpopulation status of burchells zebra (Equus quagga) in yabellowildlife sanctuary southern Ethiopiardquo Journal of Ecology andthe Natural Environment vol 5 no 3 pp 40ndash49 2013
[45] R I M Dunbar and P Dunbar ldquo-e reproductive cycle of thegelada baboonrdquoAnimal Behaviour vol 22 no 1 pp 203ndash2101974
[46] G A Balme R Slotow and L T B Hunter ldquoEdge effects andthe impact of non-protected areas in carnivore conservationleopards in the Phinda-Mkhuze Complex South AfricardquoAnimal Conservation vol 13 no 3 pp 315ndash323 2010
[47] Z Girma G Chuyong P Evangelista and Y Mamo ldquoHabitatcharacterization and preferences of the mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni lydekker 1910) and Menelikrsquos bushbuck (trag-elaphusscriptusmeneliki neumann 1902) in Arsi mountainsnational Park south-eastern Ethiopiardquo International Journal ofCurrent Research vol 7 no 11 pp 23074ndash23082 2015
[48] A Mekonnen ldquoDistribution of the Bale monkey (chlor-ocebusdjamdjamensis) in the Bale Mountains and its Ecologyin the odobullu forest Ethiopiandasha Study of habitat preferencepopulation size feeding behaviour Activity and rangingpatternsrdquo MSc thesis Addis Ababa University Addis AbabaEthiopia 2009
[49] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing G Hemson andA Atickem ldquoDiet activity patterns and ranging ecology ofthe bale monkey (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis) in odobulluforest Ethiopiardquo International Journal of Primatology vol 31no 3 pp 339ndash362 2010a
[50] E A Archie J A Hollister-Smith J H Poole et alldquoBehavioural inbreeding avoidance in wild African
elephantsrdquo Molecular Ecology vol 16 no 19 pp 4138ndash41482007
[51] Y Mamo and A Bekele ldquoHuman and livestock encroach-ments into the habitat of mountain nyala (trag-elaphusbuxtoni) in the bale mountains national ParkEthiopiardquo Tropical Ecology vol 52 pp 265ndash273 2011
[52] J M Hall ldquoBradykinin receptorsrdquoGeneral Pharmacology=eVascular System vol 28 no 1 pp 1ndash6 1997
[53] C Sillero-Zubiri and D Switzer Crop Raiding PrimatesSearching For Alternative Humane Ways to Resolve Conflictwith Farmers In Africa Wildlife Conservation Research UnitOxford University Press Oxford UK 2001
[54] Y Mamo A Bekele and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use ofmountain nyala (tragelaphusbuxtoni lyddeker 1911) in thebale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo InternationalJournal of Biodiversity and Conservation vol 4 pp 642ndash6512012
[55] M Chane and S Yirga ldquoDiversity of medium and large-sizedmammals in BorenaSayint national Park south wolloE-thiopiardquo International Journal of Science vol 15 pp 95ndash1062009
[56] B Tufa Z Girma and G Mengesha ldquoHuman-large wildmammals conflict in dhera-dilfaqar block of Arsi mountainsnational Park south eastern Ethiopiardquo Human Dimensions ofWildlife vol 23 no 5 pp 474ndash481 2018
[57] A Mekonnen A Bekele G Hemson E Teshome andA Atickem ldquoPopulation size and habitat preference of thevulnerable bale monkey chlorocebus djamdjamensis inodobullu forest and its distribution across the bale mountainsEthiopiardquo Oryx vol 44 no 4 pp 558ndash563 2010b
[58] A Mekonnen A Bekele P J Fashing J-M LernouldA Atickem and N C Stenseth ldquoNewly discovered balemonkey populations in forest fragments in southern Ethiopiaevidence of crop raiding hybridization with grivets and otherconservation threatsrdquo American Journal of Primatologyvol 74 no 5 pp 423ndash432 2012
[59] L H Brown ldquoObservations on the status habitat and be-havior of the mountain nyala (Tragelaphusbuxtoni) inEthiopiardquo Mammalia vol 33 pp 545ndash597 1969
[60] United Nations Economic Social and Cultural Organization(UNESCO) Faunal survey Final Report on Status And Dis-tribution of Faunal Diversity in Kaffa Afro-Montane ForestUNESCO Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2008
[61] Y Mamo A Asefa and G Mengesha ldquoHabitat use of un-gulates in bale mountains national Park Ethiopiardquo AfricanJournal of Ecology vol 53 no 4 pp 512ndash520 2015
