IB History Canadian and Latin American politics in the 1st half of the 20th Century

A. Canadian Politics in the 1st ½ of the 20th centurya. French-Canadian nationalismb. Impact of the world wars: conscription, nationalism, sovereigntyc. Regionalism and minoritiesd. Relations with the US and Britaine. The Commonwealth of Nations

B. Latin American politics in the 1st half of the 20th centurya. Mexicob. Brazilc. Argentina: Vargas, Perond. Cuba

CANADA

- Building a Modern Nationo In 1812, there was no Canada, just 6 British provinces above the US. Eventually

they would unite and become modern day Canada.o Lower Canada and Upper Canada wanted a strong government that would answer

more to the interests of the people than to the British government Lower Canada, the French led a protest, feeling they were not adequately

represented in the province’s legislature. Upper Canada wanted the government to stop changing laws that were

already passed by the legislature Both protests were put down, but their voices were heard by

Britain, who did not want to lose their provinces the way they lost the colonies

o Queen Victoria sent Lord Durham to Canada, who prepared a report arguing the more self government that was given, the more loyal the citizens would be to Britain

o In 1864, provincial leaders and met to discuss the formation of a confederation, a system where government is divided between the national government and various provincial governments

o 1867 – Britain approved this idea with the passing of the British North America Act, which also served as Canada’s constitution

Canada was set up as the Dominion of Canada and broken 4 provinces with Ottawa as the capital

Ontario Quebec Nova Scotia New Brunswick

o Canada sought to expand, but there were very few living west of the Great Lakes In 1869, Manitoba was carved as a 5th province

By 1871, British Columbia became the 6th province 1873 – Prince Edward Island Early 1900s, Alberta and Saskatchewan joined as well

o By 1914, Canada stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific, in many ways free Ottawa made most of the laws Free trade with other countries

o However, when Britain went to war, the Canadians were obligated to do so, with 600K serving

The war would change the way Canada viewed its relation with Great Britain

1918, they insisted on signing the Peace Treaty, not wanting Britain acting for them

1922, Britain wanted to send Canadians to fight for them in Turkey and the Canadians refused

1923, Canada signed a treaty with the US, taking charge of their foreign relations

o In the early 1900s, the British Commonwealth was formed, with Canada being part of it, but as time passed, many wanted to be free from Britain

o 1931, Britain passed the Statute of Westminster which would allow Commonwealth nations to choose whether they wished to remain a commonwealth

Canada chose its own government, therefore would need a new constitution

April 12, 1982, Queen Elizabeth II flew to Ottawa and signed a bill that made the new constitution the law of the land

o Quebec was the only province that voted against the new constitution, because most were descendents of French settlers, and wanted their own language and rites since 1970s

The new constitution made Canada a bilingual nation, so as to appease the Quebecois, and required each province to make French available in the courts and in schools

o Today, Canada has a federal system of government, each of Canada’s 10 provinces have their own government that they share with the central government

Canadian Parliament makes laws and sees they are carried out House of Commons

o Voters in each province elect members who serve for 5 years, with the party having the most seats being the majority

o Majority party picks the Prime Minister Sees that the nation’s laws are obeyed

Senateo 104 members are appointed by the governor-general, who

represents the British Monarchyo Role is to study and publish the problems facing the nationso

Courtso Judges are appointed for life, therefore they can make

rulings without worrying about losing their jobs- The Maritime Provinces

o Newfoundland is the largest 1920s and 1930s business slowed, millions lost their jobs, the government

did not have enough money to run the nation and had to turn to Britain They once again became a British colony

When World War II broke out, Newfoundland became prosperous again Located along the main supply lines between North America and

Britaino Airstrips were built so that planes could refuel and make

repairso Harbors were built to shelter strips

After the war they had to decide whether to be a province or not, and voted to become Canada’s 10th province

Today, fishing is the main industry In the 1960s, large amounts of oil and natural gas were found,

causing the province to fight over ownership of the resourceso Today, Newfoundland shares the profits

o New Brunswick Area makes plentiful use of timber, which is its major market

Also fishing and farming, with lobsters being the most valuable product

Today, jobs are hard to find and many have left the areao Nova Scotia

Mostly fishing, the largest fish processing plant is located there Poor soil makes farming difficult, but fir trees have become a major cash

crop Halifax is the center of the shipbuilding industry

o Prince Edward Island Agriculture dominates this area, with strawberries, blueberries, apples and

raspberries- Quebec Province

o 80% today are French speaking, with a major influence of French culture, such as buildings, homes and churches

Montreal is seen as the future Founded by Roman Catholic nuns and was well established under

the French when the British took over Main financial district

o 1960s conflict broke out between the French and the English, threatening to split the area into 2

The French wanted to maintain their heritage and culture, even though the French ruled ended in 1763

1960, Jean Lesage led the ‘Quiet Revolution’ that led to the greater protection of French-Canadian rights

Separatists wanted Quebec to become their own nation, feeling they were apart from the rest of Canada

o 1980 they voted on the decision, with a turnout of 60% voting to remain unified

As a result, some still seek special recognition, such as making French the only language of the area

Drafted the ‘Meech Lake Accord’ that would make Quebec a “distinct cultural society.”

- Ontario Provinceo Ottawa is the home of the Canadian Parliamento Toronto is the hub of cultural and economic life

- The Western Provinceso In 1914, oil was discovered beneath Alberta, bringing new wealth to the province

Edmonton and Calgary quickly grew into large cities Today, the province produces 85% of Canada’s petroleum and 88% of

natural gas- British Columbia

o In 1940s, gold was discovered in the northern mountains, making mining an important industry

LATIN AMERICA

Some background about Latin America in the 1st ½ of the 20th century- 1910-1930

o The Mexican Revolution of 1910 was the 1st major effort in Latin American history to uproot the system of estates and curb foreign control of the area’s natural resources.

o The constitution of 1917 spelled out the social content of the revolution, and the period was marked by struggle between agrarian and bourgeois revolutionaries, which the latter emerged victorious and would have the peasants still be subservient

Despite the faux pas, the revolution gave way to art, literature and social sciences, making Mexico a leading place in the cultural life of Latin America

o World War I disrupted the import of goods needed, therefore diverted some labor to producing manufactured goods in order to compensate

The postwar era encouraged an export economy once again The US would be the leading source of foreign investments in the area,

with the government using armed intervention and economic pressure to expand US control over the Caribbean

By the end of the period, Latin American resentment forced policy makers to revisit their strategy when dealing with Latin America

- 1945-1959 o the postwar era would have Latin America industrialize rather quickly, but when

1950 hit, this too would slow

foreign investors would shift their money to manufacturing, since the price of raw materials was declining

foreign companies had the technology, therefore they were able to set up the manufacturing facilities in Latin America

o many small national companies were swallowed by foreign ones

o foreign investors favored “mixed companies” with the industry dominated by foreign investment and nationals being like a junior partner

o Brazil and Argentina would see the largest gains in the industrial worlds, though their governments were oligarchies, fearful of the change in government

Once these governments fell, that gave way to the conservatives Mexico too would instill a government that favored large land

owners and neglected the peasantryo Cuba grew unrestful and there was the armed overthrow by Fidel Castro in July of

1953, and the rebel army would take over 1 January 1959

MEXICO

- Order and Progresso Porfiro Diaz came into power in from 1876 to 1910 and though elections were

held, Diaz would decide who would run, who could vote, and how the votes would be counted

Silenced any political opposition, ruling as a dictatoro Sought to bring progress to the nation, making business and industry grow

Expanded business, railroads and invited American and English oil companies to come and look for oil

Helped Mexico become one of the largest oil producers in the world

All helped Mexico pay off debts from the war Other countries no longer saw Mexico as a weak nation to invade,

rather they marveled at their progress The people paid a heavy price

Foreigners became wealthy, the Mexicans became poorero Many salaries were cut in half

Campesinos, people who were employed by large land owners but had to buy their own tools from the landowner’s stores, were a common occurrence. Though they were not slaves, they could not find jobs until their debts were paid off, essentially they were serfs (Russia)

At times they would band together and demand changes, but Diaz always sided with the land owners

o 1910, Mexico was ready for revolution - Mexicans cried, “Viva la Revolucion” or “Long live the Revolution.”

On the eve of the presidential election, there were many peasant uprisings and worker strikes became more frequent

Mexican Liberal Party journalist Ricardo Flores Magon intensified conspiratorial activities and divisions in the oligarchy became more apparent

Diaz, who died in 1910 at the age of 80, contributed to all this unrest in 1908 when announcing to an American journalist in an interview, that Mexico was ready for a democracy and welcomed the emergence of an opposition party

o Francisco Madero took him at his word, fearing that the way things were, the poor being in their state, would lead to social revolution

o He proclaimed in his book The Presidential Succession in 1910 that there was a need for democracy in order to preserve social stability, that was threatened by the absolutism of Diaz

Madero made clear that by democracy, he meant control by the elite, because he felt the ignorant masses should not take part in deciding who should run for public office

o Madero was critical of Diaz Genocidal Indian wars Violent repression of strikes

o Proposed policy of modest concessions to peasants and workers that would reduce mounting tensions and the growth of radical ideas

Saw democracy as an instrument of social control that would promote the development of capitalism by granting limited political and social reforms with a large stress on education

o By 1909 Madero began touring the country and making speeches to promote his reform programs

o By 1910, and anti-re-electionist party formed and announced Madero as its candidate, with Diaz refusing to take Madero seriously

Soon his popularity alarmed him and he had Madero arrested and charged with preparing an armed insurrection

September announced that Diaz and his hand picked VP Ramon Corral had been elected by an almost unanimous vote

After the election, Madero was no longer dangerous in Diaz’s eyes and was released

Madero was convinced that Diaz could not be removed by peaceful means, as he had tried before, resorted to armed struggle

He fled to Texas and from there announced the Plan of San Luis Potosi

o Called the recent elections null and void and assumed the title of provisional president and promised to hold general free election as soon as conditions permitted and turn power over to the newly elected president

o The plan made vague reference to the land that was taken from peasants but most articles dealt with political reforms

o A revolution was allowed to form on American soil with little interference of the US government (what does this suggest about the US)

o Diaz felt that American investments in Mexico were threatening economic independence and openly supported British investment over American

o The revolution began at a shaky start when Madero crossed back into Mexico with only 25% of his supporters waiting for him, therefore he returned to Texas

o It soon gathered momentum with 2 peasant revolts responding to his call Chihuahua – peons and small farmers were suffering under the rule of the

Terrazas-Creel clan, masters of a land empire Began under the guidance of Pancho Villa who had a reputation of taking

from the rich and giving to the poor By the end of 1910 guerilla armies had seized control of most of

the state from federal troops In Morelos, Indian communities had waged a continuous struggle against

the encroaching sugar haciendas Here Amelio Zapata, attracted by the promise of land reform,

proclaimed loyalty to Madero In May of 1911 the rebels won 2 victories

o Zapatistas captured Cuatla, an important railway centero In the north, Pancho Villa captured Ciudad Juarez

Diaz decided to reach an agreement with Madero instead of having the capital captured by rebels

o Madero signed the Treaty of Ciudad Juarez on May 21st, which provided for the removal of Diaz but left in tact the all existing institutions

Completely silent on social changeo May 25th, the aged dictator left presidency and headed for Europe, Francisco Leon

de la Barra, Mexican Ambassador to the US assumed the interim presidency he was close to the old regime and little changed, he had no sympathy for

the revolution

the aristocracy was still trying to hold onto its allies and regain power

the Diaz bureaucracy remained in tact social conditions remained unchanged and the provisional

government sought a return to the status quoo efforts were made to disband the revolutionary troops and

de la Barra sent in troops to incite hostility against the Zapatistas, who began confiscating large amounts of land and giving it to the poor

Madero was unable to do much and more hostility erupted toward the anarchist who couldn’t do much for Mexico

11 October 1911, Madero and his running mate were elected anyway- Madero’s Presidency: Inadequacy and Revolt

o Though he assumed the presidency, there was no apparent solution in sight for Mexico’s problems

He sought to give the masses the illusion of power and participation in political life but vested all decisions in land on the elite

He did allow workers to organize trade unions and to strike but his answer to the agrarian problem was inadequate

Would purchase land from large land owners to distribute among landless peasants

o He was, in fact, against taking the land from the haciendas because he felt the only way for Mexican agriculture to modernize lay in large landowners

This caused a split with his most faithful supporter, Zapata

o Zapata announced his own program in November of 1911 – Plan of Ayala, saying that land owned by the elite would be returned to the poor

This soon spread to other states in Central and Southern Mexicoo Madero’s failure on agrarian reform lost him the trust and support of the

revolutionary peasantryo The elite dreamed of return of the Paradise of Don Porfirio, when the peasants

and Indians knew their place, and counterrevolutionaries took their place after Madero took office in 1911

Many small revolutions were successful and Madero faced more and more danger, and he lost the support of the US

American capitalism increased there and they regained their former dominant position

American Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson became increasingly hostile to Madero and by February 1912 there were 100K troops stationed along the border, with Wilson making threats to intervene if American life and property were not protected

o Preparations for a coup d’etat were underway with General Huerta the leader

The American Ambassador was secretly negotiating with Huerta and Wilson sent Madero a protest against the conduct of military operations in Mexico City because it threatened American life and property

America sent in troops but Madero said he would rather die than allow foreign intervention

- Huerta’s Dictatorshipo 18 February, Huerta’s troops entered the palace and arrested the president, VP and

other members of government o A dispute of who should lead the new government was settled by Wilson’s

meditation It was decided that Huerta would lead and Diaz would resume as soon as

an election could be held Congress was intimidated and recognized Huerta as a provisional

president The question remained of what to do with Madero; Huerta said to do what

is best for the country. His wife begged that he be protected but Wilson refused, and Madero was killed when being transferred from the National Palace to the Penitentiary

o Huerta’s seizure of power was an attempt to set back the clock to the old aristocracy and restore the personal dictatorship of Diaz

Huerta sent Felix Diaz to Japan on a diplomatic mission and prepared for his own election by arresting 110 congressmen and dissolved both houses

Installed a new congress packed with his own military followers Results of the election were obviously falsified that Huerta’s

congress, with his approval, nullified it and put off a new election until a future date, with Huerta as the provisional president

o Huerta hoped to quell reactionary character as long as possible and invited some seriously interested in reform to his cabinet, but any reforms were turned down

Many ministers were dismissed or quit and then were replaced by military men

The regime turned more to a terrorist nature- Opposition: Zapata and Villa

o Huerta anticipated a quick victory over the peasant revolutionaries but seriously miscalculated

Campaigns against the Zapatistas failed to achieve decisive victories Zapata himself led a struggle in Guerrero, the south, forcing Huerta

to commit a significant portion of his troops to the insurrection, therefore allowing the revolutionaries to gain strength in the north

o Between this and his strategy he was able to win several quick victories

Pancho Villa was able to assert control over Chihuahua Imposed a revolutionary new order on the state capital Employed his soldiers as a civil militia and administrative staff to

restore normal life

o Army was put to work in an electric plant, railways, telephone system, waterworks and flour mills, once owned by the wealthy Terrazas family

o Ordered a reduction in meat prices, distributed $, clothing and other goods to the poor

Established some 50 new schools in the cityo His land reforms were not as radical as Zapata’s which

called for being distributed right away, instead Villa said they should remain under state control until a complete victory was won by the revolutionaries

His thought was that revenues generated would finance the revolutionary struggle

- Intervention by the USo By the beginning of 1914 Huerta’s revolt seemed inevitable but Wilson’s

succession of Taft refused to recognize Huerta’s regime Justified this with the logic that the US would not recognize any

government that came to power illegally Also felt that Huerta’s regime could not provide the stability needed for

American interests in Mexico Wilson employed an embargo on arms shipments when it was thought that

things were not safe but after assured they were, the embargo was lifted Wilson also intervened when word got out about German arms being sent

to Mexico in 1914, they were greeted with fire from American ships 27 April 1914, an American flag was raised over Veracruz with a

wave of Yankee sentiment pumping through the city Wilson hoped to gain some control, instead the action was

denounced and his evacuation demanded A convention was called in which Argentina, Brazil and Chile would help

mediate the dispute between the US and Mexico Wilson hoped to ease tensions as well as eliminate Huerta and

establish a new provisional Mexican government that he could control

o The bait was not taken, and mediation was refused, informing the US that it would settle its own problems without interference from any source

The fall of Huerta was imminent The northern states were at the hands of Pancho Villa

o The fall of Huerta dashed any hopes of US continuing its armed intervention, but Wilson delayed the evacuation of Veracruz as long as possible

Was warned of “fatal consequences” American troops finally evacuated Veracruz on 23

November 1914

o Fighting among the Victors A complete victory looked as if it were in sight, fighting arose among the

Constitutionalist camp, between mostly Carranza and Villa as they were jealous of each other

Each saw things differently when it came to the plight of the peasants and neither trusted the other

Zapata was another problem, as he was seeing things in his own right, having waged war against Huerta independently

A meeting was held in 1914 to settle the conflict with Carranza and Villa, along with the presence of Zapata

Carranza refused the terms and would not retreat, and the armies of both Villa and Zapata would eventually force him out

o 4 December Zapata and Villa held their 1st meeting and came to an agreement

The cities were still controlled by peasant armies and Villa feared siding with the radicals because that would alienate the US

o Final defeat would mean unity and full recognition from the US

o By 1916, relation between the US and Mexico deteriorated quickly partially because the Mexican authorities wanted to regulate the operations of foreign oil companies

Villa mistakenly thought Carranza (who was now president) had bought the US recognition by agreeing to plan to convert Mexico into a US protectorate.

Villa raided Columbus New Mexico, therefore Wilson sent in General John Pershing to pursue Villa into Mexico

Carranza denounced the invasion and demanded the withdrawal of American troops, and prepared to go to war

o The US invasion, they thought it would be easy, proved a disaster, Wilson ended up liquidating his pursuit of Mexico, as he realized it would need at least 1 million men

- The Constitution of 1917o By fall of 1916, Carranza issued a call for the election deputies to frame a new

constitution and prepare the way for his election as president (technically he was only acting now)

The draft called for radical agrarian reform This was not accepted by the majority of the deputies

o the radicals called for a change in peasantry and laboro they also did not want religious organizations (churches)

controlling schools Article 123 was the most important, dealing with rights of labor

o The finished product called for an 8 hour work dayo Abolished the tienda de raya (company store and debt

servitude)o Right for workers to organize, bargain collectively and

strike

Was the most advanced labor code in the world at the time

This became the most progressive constitution at the time

31 January the work was complete and by March a presidential election was held

o 1 May, Carranza was formally installed as president, the 1st legally elected since Madero

- Carranza’s presidencyo The remaining years of his presidency made a sharp swing to the right, where he

made it clear he had no intention of enacting the reforms mentioned in the constitution

A small amount of land was distributed to the villages Haciendas were returned to their former owners and others were given to

his favorite generals Corruption existed on a massive scale

Working class suffered repression, as Carranza no longer need their help

o Wages were cut by inflationo Strikers were arrestedo Free education was ignored, there were fewer children in

school than ever before He only kept Mexico neutral in WWI Continuously battled the Zapatista movement

His term was legally over in 1920, but had no intention of relinquishing power

He could not run again because the constitution had a rule against it, but he hand picked his successor

Against him Obregon was supported by the Labor partyo It was clear that Carranza was going to fix an election,

therefore a small revolt took place, where Carranza fled and took 5 million pesos with him from the national treasury

In November of 1920, Alvaro Obregon assumed the presidency The population had declined since 1910 by 1 million

- Reconstruction: The Rule of the Millionaire Socialists – Obregon and Reformo Along with Obergon came a group of northern generals and politicians who began

reconstruction politically, economically and socially The masses had been radicalized by the revolution

o The men in power tried to mask how small the changes they were employing actually were

Exiles were allowed to return to Mexico Power was held by a ruling class of wealthy generals Elections remained farce The president was a dictator with labor and peasants obedient clienteles of

the presidency

Some land was distributed to the pueblos to keep at bay peasant discontent

o Even after the land was received, it was improbable that they could do anything with it, for the government failed to provide seeds, utensils and training

Peasants had to rely on lands from loan sharkso 320 million acres remained in private hands while 3 million

was distributed to the masses Labor was encouraged to organize as this was important to the bulwark off

his regime this was the only labor organization and was sponsored and

protected by the government- Fast forward to the rule of Cardenas

o The Mexican Revolution resumed under his rule Land distribution was on a massive scale Efforts to improve the quality of rural life Labor was encouraged to replace the old corrupt militant leadership Closed down illegal gambling houses, most owned by the wealthy Set an example by slashing his salary in ½ Made himself available to the workers and the Native Americans The labor movement was revitalized

Workers struck for higher wages and better conditions Power of the generals was weakened by a policy of raising wages

and improving the morale of the rank and file as well as distribution of weapons to the peasants

- Cardenas’s Growing Moderation and the election of 1940o Education made progress under Cardenas o He showed concern for the plight of the Indians, as he himself was a Tarascan

Indian Created the Departmiento se Asuntos Indigenas to serve and protect Indian

interestso Radical support grew during the last days of Cardenas’s presidency

He was criticized for seeming to Communist Caving under pressure he slowed the pace of land distribution and

started to show favor to the entrepreneurial classo On the eve of the presidential election, Right-Wingers campaigned in favor of

General Juan A. Almazan, a revolutionary who was now a wealthy industrialist He was defeated by General Manuel Avila Camancho, a man who was

generally conservative – he won with 99% of the vote Almazan fled to Texas

Argentina: The Failure of Democracy

For 30 years, Argentina had an explosive economy and by the 1st decade of the 20th century, they could boast that they were the largest grain exporter and had a meat export that was the rival of many. They had a railroad network that rivaled the US and Britain, as well as one of the most beautiful cultural capitals of the world. It seemed as if democracy was in reach, as the passage of the Saenz Pena in 1912 provided for universal suffrage and the secret ballot, as well as the landed oligarchy recognizing the aspirations of other classes.

All of this was an illusion; the next 70 years would be marked with runaway inflation, military coups, disorder and repression. At the heart of this was the reliance on foreign capital, which placed the country at the mercy of foreign events and decisions.

- The Export Economyo Development of Argentina was due to 3 factors

Appearance of a large market in Europe for its products Inflow of millions of immigrants that were a cheap source of labor Influx of large amounts of foreign capital which went to construct

railroads, cultivate more land and establish more food processing plants As a result, Argentina was vulnerable to fluctuations of the

international market/finance conditions Argentines generally imported more than they exported, a fact

made worse by the falling price of raw materials and the rise in manufactured goods

By 1929, foreigners controlled about 30-40% of the country’s fixed investments

o While it helped fuel the economy, there was also the problem of high interest rates and debt, with a substantial portion of government revenues going to pay debt

Every sector of Argentina relied on exports The rich were growing richer, and the poor were getting poorer

o the greatest treasure was land, but very few owned anyo less than 5% of the population garnered 70% of the income

derived from agriculture the government did not want to have to tax the elite to raise funds,

therefore they printed more $, which resulted in inflation- Argentine Society

o Divided into 3 classes Upper – gained wealth through capitalizing on the export economy

Were large landowners, the wealthiest being cattle fatteners who provided for the domestic as well as the international economy

Inner circle was composed of roughly 400 families that were allied through business and social clubs

Controlling the land meant controlling the politics as well The military and church also reflected the views of the elite

Middle Arose as the nation became more urban Heavily concentrated on bureaucracy professions that depended on

the export economy They would eventually attach themselves to the Radical party Because many were foreign born, they were eventually

disenfranchised Lower

Workerso Most lived in Buenos Aires and labored in small factorieso Many were employed by the railroads and tramways as

wello Socialist Party claimed to represent the workers but its

leaders were mostly middle class Urban marginal

- The Militaryo In the 1st decade the military went professional as well as became a national

institution Seniority and merit became requirements of promotion, with a school to

train officers in modern warfare A conscription bill was added as well, expanding the size of the armed

forces Because of this, the middle class was replacing the oligarchy in the

ranks of the military Established a level of pride and independence Demanded better weapons and pay from the government By 1916, favored power transfer from oligarchy to Radical Party

- The Radical Era: 1916-1930 – The Rise of the Radical Partyo The 1st attempt to overthrow the oligarchy in 1905 failed but the Radical Party

gained followers, many from university educated sons of immigrantso Power of the group rested on 2 pillars

Local organization in urban areas which acted to meet the needs of the middle class

Leader Hipolito Yrigoyen Played the dual role of titular head of the Radical Party

o Great mediator who managed to reconcile the conflicting interests of the middle class and large land owners

o Managed to project an austere democratic image that made him the party’s charismatic leader

o The party presented itself as a national party, spanning all classes that Argentine society had not formally done

o From 1912 to 1916, the Conservatives failed to construct the broad based national political party they had hoped would raise as a result of the passage of the Saenz Pena Law

There were regional differences that made the party difficult to uniteo The Socialist Party failed to become a party of national scope

Support came from working class, but the leaders were middle class, and authority was kept centralized

They also had a tendency to bicker, which led to its split, and could never really expand their influence past Buenos Aires

- The 1st Radical Government: Yrigoyen, 1916-1922o This period was marked between the delicate relationship between the Radicals

and the conservative landowner elite The elite controlled the military and major agricultural lobbying groups

and had close contacts with the powerful foreign business interestso Yrigoyen walked a tightrope between the middle class and the oligarchy

He could not push too hard or fast, as the oligarchy would overthrow him The operating mechanism was conservative, and in exchange the oligarchy

allowed expansion to the bureaucratic positions to the middle class Overall the radicals did not have control of the government They won the presidential election but not congress until 1922

o It was impossible to meet the conflicting demands of the middle class and the elite, and became worse when the laborers wanted reform and better pay

o Much of labor agitation was directed towards foreign companies, making things even more difficult

From 1913 to 1917, Argentina experienced a depression and the prospect of war dried up investments

By 1917 to 1921, Argentina prospered as a result of an export boom Job opportunities were expanded in government but the oligarchy

opposed this Congress proposed a modest income tax on exports, but this too

was defeated Yrigoyen tried to make some improvements to the working class but was

met with defeat because he feared antagonizing the working class- The Second Radical Government: Alevar, 1922-1928

o Radicals won a second term with Yrigoyen’s hand picked successor winning 48% of the vote, however, trouble mounted among the party, and eventually ended up with a split between the middle class and elite supporters

- Yrigoyen’s 2nd term: 1928-1930o Won with 57% of the vote but his political situation was greatly weakened

because organization had deteriorated In some cases, local bosses had become gangsters

o He moved to eliminate opposition and stepped up intervention in the provinces to assure majority in the Senate

o By 1929, the Depression hit Argentina and the Radical support suffered a blow Exports dropped by 40% Foreign investment stopped Unemployment was widespread

Any efforts to spark recovery only resulted in inflation The government incurred a huge deficit which it tried to mask by

borrowing

o Found itself in the position of competing for increasingly scarce credit resources with the landed elite who also needed money

o Government interference with the military undercut the position that it was a powerful institution

o Yrigoyen was overthrown by the military on 6 September 1930

- The “Infamous Decade,” 1930-1943: The Conservative Restorationo This coup marked the end of Argentina’s try at democracy and the entrance of the

military into the nation’s politics The period was marked by harsh repression and corruption and came to be

known as the “infamous decade”o Lieutenant General Jose F. Uriburu who led the overthrow became the head of the

coalition composed of diverse elements Traditional conservatives Right-wing nationalist-fascists Left Progressive Democrats Independent Socialists Socialists

All agreed to the end of Yrigoyen but that was about it The loose alliance soon fell apart and the military was divided

o Some wanted a model of the old Italian Stateo Others wanted a return to the pre-1916 conditions

o Uriburu conducted a campaign of brutal repression against his opponents By 1931 he felt that all threats were taken care of and called election in

1931 The Yrigoyen Radicals won a quick victory and Uriburu annulled

the elections and scrambled to find allies, finding a partner in the Anti-Personalist Wings of the Radicals

o Collaboration called for an election with running mate but Uriburu refused to permit ex-President Alvear on the ticket

He took his party with him- The Peron Era, 1943-1955: Peron’s Rise to power

o During the 1930s the officer corps of the armed forces developed an ardent nationalism that saw the solution for Argentina’s problems in industrialization and technical modernization

The underlying cause of this was the desire to create armed forces that could control the Greater South American Bloc

Industrialization was also necessary to end Argentina’s neo-colonial status and free it from dependence of foreign markets

Had a pro-German attitude because of the training received from the German military but also because of the belief that the US and UK conspired to keep Argentina a rural economic colony

They had no desire to enter the war on Germany’s side, but instead to remain neutral

Military wanted to speed up industrialization and technical modernization even though they feared the social changes that this might unleash, such as a revolution from the working class

Military launched an offensive against organized labor, with the government taking over unions, suppressing the press and jailing opposition leaders

o All threatened to destroy the industrialization program The military was saved from Colonel Juan Peron

o Peron was heavily influenced by the German and Italian dictators and quickly rose in the ranks of the Argentine Army

Eventually he became the secretary of labor and welfare His genius lay in the recognition of the organized and unorganized

working class as well as the need to broaden the social base of the nationalist revolution

Became the patron of the urban proletariato Workers were encouraged to organize and bargain in

negotiations, As a result, wages rose and national income grew This helped increase purchasing power and the

process of industrializationo Created a state system of pension and health benefits with employers contributing

to pension, insurance and other benefits, until Peron’s fall However, unions lost their independence and became part of the state

controlled apparatus in Peron’s hands Peron was strengthening his position within the military, eventually

forcing the president to resign and being replaced by General Farrell Some were discontented with the pro-labor attitude and called for

the end of a military rule, especially after the end of the war in ‘45 Peron’s foes staged a coup and he was imprisoned

o This quickly fell apart as they were not organized and Peron’s followers quickly mobilized

o Workers took over the city with no opposition from the armed forces and Peron was released

He retired from the army and government posts and campaigned for the 1946 elections

He cast himself as the role of a democrat ready to abide by the result of a free election

Created a labor party to mobilize the working class whose national elements were the national industrial bourgeoisie and the army

- Postwar Economicso The boom allowed Peron to keep his coalition together

There was a surplus that allowed for exports to pay off debts, therefore made funds available for industrialization

Between 1945 and 1948, real wages for industrial workers went up 20% and personal consumption rose

Industrialists were able to keep profits and benefited from increase domestic consumption

Won support of the middle class through government patronage Kept the military happy by committing to industrialization and national

self sufficiency, and gave them generous salaries and the latest equipment for modern warfare

o One of greatest assets was his beautiful wife, Eva Peron, “Evita” who acted as a liaison for the working class

Headed huge charitable network that dispensed tremendous $ and patronage

When she died at the age of 32, Juan moved to have her canonized, and his popularity suffered as well after her death

She had strongly advocated universal suffrage which was granted in 1947

o As a result, Juan had quite a female followingo After 1948, the economic picture changed and Argentina entered a period of

recession It was seen that Argentina would face long term difficulties

Production fell as did the per capita income and real wageso It was said that the amount of Argentina’s gains during the war were exaggerated

During the war, Argentina had to extend credit to enable Europe to buy its products, which meant in reality there was not as much capital for the government to spend

He was criticized for not putting enough $ into public works which were greatly needed

Many of Peron’s actions were meant to eliminate undue foreign influence in Argentina’s economy, such as nationalizing the Central Bank, which was formerly foreign controlled

o In reality, Peron solved none of Argentina’s long term economic problems Transportation was inadequate and obsolete Scarce electric power Not enough fuel production Industry remained limited Foreign industries, such as meatpacking and sugar refining were not

nationalized- Peron’s downfall

o After his re-election, he formulated a new plan that would reverse his old Tried to expand agricultural production by paying higher prices to farmers

for their produce and buying capital equipment for this sector Froze wages, hoping it would slow domestic consumption

Workers did not suffer but industrialists wanted deregulation so they could push down wages

He actively solicited foreign investment allowing for the US to drill for oil in Argentina

Aviation was converted to auto production More $ were printed as well

o By 1954, there was some stabilization of the economy, but he alienated his coalition of workers

o He began attacking the church and took over newspapers, as well as intimidating political opposition

He alienated the industrialists because of refusal to deregulate, therefore he was left with little support

His wife’s death meant the end of his ambassador to the workerso He was not overthrown by the military because for a decade he had been skillfully

balancing, dividing and bribing them Most senior officers owed him their rank and the army provided for

industrial means, therefore was a great way to strike it rich For the army though, the final straw was the concession to

foreigners drilling for oilo In 1955, he fled into exile

Brazil- Economic Impact of WWI

o Exports from Brazil declined and the government came to the rescue of the planters with a price maintenance program

o Soon the Allies needed sugar, beans and other staples, which led to a boomo Brazil was trading with the Allies and in turn, Germany torpedoed a number of

Brazilian merchant ships Brazil declared war on Germany Major contribution to Allied war effort continued to be the supply of

goods but they also helped England in patrolling the south Atlantico War weakened British capitalism there and led America to challenge the British

financial and commercial pre-eminence in Brazilo Brazil was able to double its production during the war as well as the number of

enterprises In turn, the working classes and the bourgeoisie was strengthened

Strikes became more frequent and gripped the nation in 1917 Demanded a wage increase of 30%, and 8 hr day, improved

working conditions and release of political prisonerso The city of San Paulo was brought to a standstill

Owners granted higher wages but overall most workers did not permanently improve

- Political Unresto Transforming society fell to the rapidly growing bourgeoisie, especially the

middle class which began to voice unrest with the corrupt rural oligarchieso By the early 1920s, there arose a many faceted movement for the renovation of

Brazilian culture and society There was no common program though and there was little actually done

o 3 unrelated events of 1922 show the diversity of the unrest at the time February – intellectuals of San Paulo want to commemorate Brazilian

independence, and wanted to stress the need to develop indigenous Brazilian culture

March – the Brazilian Communist Party was found July – the junior officers rose to prevent the president from taking office

Government forces crushed the revolt but insurgents left their mark when they refused to surrender and fought till death

o This signaled power of the bourgeoisie from the oligarchy, but since the political system was closed, there was a need for an armed struggle

o President Bernardes (1922-1926) – took office during a time of growing political turmoil

Industry was suffering from overproduction and falling prices He added to his unpopularity by armed intervention, severe repression and

punishing strikers In 1924, there was another military revolt led by junior officers

who called for a curb on executive power but made no reference to economic or social reform

o The working class supported this but it was rejected by the elite

o Rebels held the city for 22 days before evacuating under pressure of troops

The revolt spread to other states Though Bernardes had survived his 2nd military crisis, he was continually

plagued by economic problems, with coffee being paramount He turned over some of the centralization of coffee production to

the state, which took control of exporting The system seemed to work, but now they were in rival with

Columbia, another chief exporter of coffee- Vargas and the Bourgeois Revolution: 1930-1954

o The liberal revolution of 1930 represented a victory for the bourgeoisie who favored industrialization and modernization of Brazil’s political, economic and social institutions

Victory was gained with allies whose interests had to be taken into account – the entire group was led by Getulio Vargas

He feared radical social change and favored the elite The sidelines were the working class and though they were

necessary for industrialization, they threatened the existence of Brazilian capitalism

o Vargas would attempt to take control of foreign capital interests after Brazil emerged from the great Depression

- Vargas’s economic and political measureso Had to find a way out of the economic crisis

Restricted planting Burned excess coffee Diversified agriculture with production of cotton, which helped their

exports until 1940 with the outbreak of the war

Key was in import substitution through industrialization and though the Great Depression did not create Brazilian industrialization, it did create the conditions needed for it

o Because Brazil was no longer importing goods due to fall in exports, they had to find a way to produce what they normally would import

o Industry was encouraged in several ways Exchange controls Import quotas Tax incentives Lowered duties on import machinery Long term loans with low interests

As a result, industrial production doubled between 1931 and 1936o While the US was still in a depression in 1933, Brazil’s

national income was rising, showing it no longer needed to rely on external influences but internal ones

o Meanwhile, Vargas was pursuing a left wing political course Tenants encouraged Vargas to remain in power indefinitely The Paulistas were calling for reform and election

Vargas thought he was compromising by replacing an oligarchichal leader with a civilian and setting a date for a constituent assembly

This angered the Paulistas who launched a counterrevolutionary revolt

o Lack of support caused this to fall apart quicklyo Vargas did not seek to punish his opponents, instead he

made new concessions Pardoned 50% of bank debts

o February 1932, Vargas promulgated a secret ballot, and lowered the voting age to 18, as well as extended the right to vote to working women

Vote was still denied to illiterates, who were the majority of the population

President would now serve 4 years but could not run a 2nd term The Chamber of Deputies would have 50 members elected from

different classes as well as 250 members from different areas of populations

Government was now responsible for economic development Workers would be organized into unions under strict government

controlo Minimum wages were fixedo Right to strikeo 8 hour work dayso Social security that provided for pensions

In exchange, labor unions became agencies controlled by the Ministry of Labor

Workers had no voice in drafting labor legislation

Police repressed strikes that were not approved by the government

- Vargas as a dictatoro Since the left was repressed, this led the way for Vargas to become dictatoro He could not succeed himself in the 1938 elections, so he allowed candidates to

come and then carefully staged a coup to interfere with the states By December 2nd of that year, all political parties were abolished

The new regime copied both constitutional forms of fascist regimes as well as repressive tactics such censorship

o Soon prisons were filled with workers, teachers and military officers and other suspected of subversion

Brazil became friendly with Germany and Italy, and many feared it was moving into the fascist orbit

Between 1933 and 1938, Germany became the chief market for Brazilian cotton

o Vargas was not looking to shake hands with the Fascists, he was a practical man who wanted an outlet for Brazilian goods along with a stronger bargaining power with the US

o Though repressive, it continued with the struggle against neo-colonialism and economic independence

o Government rejected laissez-faire and announced a 5 year plan that included expansion of heavy industry and creating new sources of hydroelectric power

o Within 20 years Brazil had tripled its plants and workers in them, with some serving the domestic market exclusively

o World War II helped in that mass amounts of food was exported to support troops, but other countries could not pay, therefore it was Brazil who was now extending the credit

o Vargas allowed the US to lease their Air Bases, even before it entered the war Brazil entered the war in 1942 when German submarines sunk a number

of Brazilian merchantmen Ironically, Brazil, a fascist regime, would be fighting fascism! As the

defeat of the Axis drew near, the country was calling for a change in political climate

- A Military Coupo Vargas announced he would not run for reelection and moved to the left of

economic policy He organized expropriation of any organization that was harmful to

national interest This was aimed to keep the cost of living down but inspired alarm among

foreign and domestic circleso In October of 1945, General Goes Monteiro staged a coup and forced Vargas to

resign, entrusting the government to chief justice Jose Linhareso The coup insured that Brazil would return to a Parliamentary system, and the

newly elected president framed a new constitution that retained the federal and executive system created by Vargas

though Vargas had relations with the Soviet Union for practical reasons, the newly elected Dutra severed those ties

Dutra pursued the laissez faire policy, which favored the old style of elitist ownership

The reserved built during the war by Vargas were distributed on consumer goods and luxury items

Foreign capital flowed into Brazil, thereby hurting the hopes of economic independence

- Vargas’s Return to powero Vargas assured neutrality of the armed forces and ran again for president

Concentrated on the need to accelerate industrialization Vargas easily defeated his 2 opponents because the country was discontent

with the former president Eisenhower administration decided that the Vargas government had not

created proper climate for private investments and terminated the joint US-Brazilian Economic Commission

Vargas sought to appease by leaving the distribution of oil in private hands but it took 2 years before the bill was passed in order to allow that

His labor policy as well was faced with problems and therefore drew the lines even more between Vargas and his enemies

Vargas was bitterly attacked by the press and radio People moved to assassinate Vargas’s enemy, Lacerda but failed,

and the investigation led to a revelation of a large scaled corruption of the presidential staff

Many demanded Vargas’s resignation, and instead he committed suicide

CUBA Cuba had long been a hot spot and still is today, but let’s pick up right after the Spanish American War

- The Politics of Corruption: 1902-1953 – Instability and Intervention – 1902-1924o The Spanish-American War left Cuba under the protection of the US which would

ultimately stunt its growth so to speako At the end of 1901, Tomas Estrada Palma was elected the 1st president of Cuba,

an exile who began his presidency with considerable popularity However, his presidency would produce only scandals

o The 1904 elections to Congress were fraudulent and marked by some violenceo In 1905 he won reelection but only because the opposition boycotted the election

In 1906, there was a revolt against Palma, and he had to call in the US army for intervention because he was unable to quell the rebellion

Taft sent in the army and appointed Charles Magoon to reside over the provisional government

o His solution was to divide patronage among contending Cuban groups

o Cuba’s corruption now had the blessing to the US

The provisional government attempted to create a standing army to prevent the overthrow of another government

o Cuba’s resistance to American occupation virtually disappeared

o 1908 – 2 parties contested for the election Conservative – made up of former followers of Estrada Liberal Party – who had rebelled in 1906

No ideological differences, only who would enjoy the spoils Liberals won with Jose Miguel Gomez and the US withdrew on 1 April

1909 A few highlights of his presidency were reinstating the lottery and

legalizing cockfighting o 1912 and 1916 saw the election of Conservative General Mario Menocal who was

just as corrupt as the rest, and managed to accumulate a fortune of 40$ million while in office

There was another revolt in 1917 to protest his reelection but that was put down because the US did not want to disrupt sugar production

US troops occupied and did not leave until 1923o Overall, Cuba’s corrupt politics would last until 1924, with one leader after

another, exploiting the government system- Mochado – 1925-1933

o Mochado would come to office in 1925, and had similar economic interests as the US

Embarked on a program of public works Attempted to product the small and medium sugar producers against price

declines Encouraged diversified agriculture Tried to institute the merit system for public offices Established new commercial schools as well Even attempted to reform the prostitutes of Havana

There were signs of tyranny thougho Political assassinations were alarmingly higho Strikes were broken by police shootingso Routinely opposition was disposed of to the sharks in the

Havana Harboro He won re-election in 1928 (if you could call it that)

Maintained an iron grip on Cuba until the depression hit in 1930 Students at Havana University would stage a demonstration that led to

hundreds of teachers being fired almost closing the Universityo By 1933 the US government had become concerned by the spreading violence

which threatened US economic interests FDR sent Sumner Welles to meditate, but Mochado would not

compromise After a bus driver’s strike ended in massive bloodshed, Mochado fled to

exile 12 August 1933

- The Revolution of 1933o For 3 weeks an interim government struggled to end the violenceo 4 September, army sergeants, one being Fulgencio Batista, overthrew the govt.

and students quickly allied with them to form the junta Organized the government backing into 2 components

Noncommissioned officers – interested in defending their newly dominant position

Student Directory – wanted genuine reforms but had no idea how to achieve them

o Many decrees were issued 8 hr work day Labor department End to importation of cheap labor from other islands of the Caribbean More access for lower income families to universities Redistribution of land to peasants Women vote

The left was upset saying that the reforms were not enough and the right said it was too much

The government was not recognized by the US because of refusal of payment of loans

When reporting to FDR, deliberate misinterpretations were relayed and Welles aligned himself with Batista

o Eventually Welles was recalled but he had undermined the position of the provisional government

- The Era of Batista: 1933-1944o The island was ruled by puppet presidents from 1934-1940 and an elected from

1940-1944 Batista was popular among the masses and mildly redistributed lands By 1937 he openly supported Communism

- The Autentico Interlude, 1944-1952o At the end of 1939 and into 1940, Batista allowed the election of an assembly and

the drafting of a constitution Produced was a liberal document for the protection of labor and right of

propertyo He won the election in 1940 but allowed honest elections to take place in 1944

because he believed that a president should not succeed himself Garu won and the period was marked by violence and corruption

- The Return of Batista – 1952-1959o Batista ruled Cuba for the 2nd time, until he was overthrown by Castro in 1959

The 2nd time around was more difficult than the 1st, as was seen elsewhere in Latin America

Several groups opposed Batista, including those who plotted with Castro from their havens in Florida

Part of Cuba’s weakness was due to its reliance of a single crop, sugar

Cuba’s economy and often political situation would rest on its reliance on sugar, and depending on the world demand, Cuba’s economy lied in the hands of the world

During the 1920s, the sugar industry entered a period of stagnation which lasted until Castro in 1959, proving that Cuba was vulnerable to political conditions of the US

The Depression saw a sharp drop in the price of sugar, less and 1 cent per pound in 1933, with many mills closing and people out of work

1937, there was a meeting in London to decide where and how to divvy sugar production, it was decided that Cuba would get 29% of the US business

World War II would bring a boom as well as the latter 40s as part of the European Recovery Act, however, by the time of the Korean War, the price would fall again because other places, like the Philippines, were producing sugar and the market flooded

Cuba’s stagnant economy would lay the foundation for the Revolution