Latin AmericaLatin AmericaThe Shark and the SardinesThe Shark and the Sardines

III. Dependency TheoryIII. Dependency Theory

A. Economic and Cultural DependenceA. Economic and Cultural Dependence

1. Role of junior, dependent economic partner to1. Role of junior, dependent economic partner to

a. Spain and Portugal (to ca. 1825)a. Spain and Portugal (to ca. 1825)

b. Great Britain (ca. 1825 to ca. 1900)b. Great Britain (ca. 1825 to ca. 1900)

c. United States (since ca. 1900)c. United States (since ca. 1900)

2. Colonial framework, in effect, never abolished2. Colonial framework, in effect, never abolished

III. Dependency TheoryIII. Dependency Theory

B. Creole elite sold raw materials and foodstuffs to foreign B. Creole elite sold raw materials and foodstuffs to foreign investors for finished goodsinvestors for finished goods

1. Central America: bananas and coffee1. Central America: bananas and coffee

2. Cuba: tobacco and sugar2. Cuba: tobacco and sugar

3. Brazil: rubber and coffee3. Brazil: rubber and coffee

4. Mexico: henequen, copper, and silver4. Mexico: henequen, copper, and silver

5. Argentina: wool, wheat, and beef5. Argentina: wool, wheat, and beef

6. Chile: copper and nitrate6. Chile: copper and nitrate

Latin AmericaLatin AmericaThe Shark and the SardinesThe Shark and the Sardines

Question: Did U.S. government or military involvement for Cold Question: Did U.S. government or military involvement for Cold War reasons in the internal affairs of Latin American countries War reasons in the internal affairs of Latin American countries have a beneficial impact?have a beneficial impact?

Hypothesis: U.S. government and military involvement for Cold Hypothesis: U.S. government and military involvement for Cold War reasons in the internal affairs of Latin American countries War reasons in the internal affairs of Latin American countries tended to aggravate already existing problems in those tended to aggravate already existing problems in those countries.countries.

I. Countries Where No Substantial U.S. or Soviet Government or Military Involvement Either Overt or Covert Occurred: Three Case Studies

A. Brazil

1. Getúlio Vargas (1883–1954), President 1930–1945, 1950–1954

2. Juscelino Kubitschek, President 1955–1961

a. “Fifty years’ progress in five”

b. Brasília

3. João Goulart, President 1961–1964

4. Military rule (1965–1985)

Getúlio Vargas (1883–1954), President 1930–1945, 1950–1954

Juscelino Kubitschek, President 1955–1961

Brasilia under construction 1959Brasilia under construction 1959

Brasilia: National Congress BuildingBrasilia: National Congress Building

João Goulart, President 1961–1964

I. Countries Where No Substantial U.S. or Soviet Government or Military Involvement Either Overt or Covert Occurred: Three Case Studies (continued)B. Argentina

1. Juan Perón (1895–1974), President 1946–1955,

1973–1974

2. Eva Duarte de Perón (1919–1952)

3. Military rule (1976–1983)

a. “Dirty” War

b. Malvinas/Falkland War (1982)

c. Triple- and quadruple-digit inflation

4. Carlos Menem (1930– ), President 1989–1999

Argentina Argentina TopographyTopography

Juan Peron in Juan Peron in 19471947

Eva Duarte de Perón (1919–1952)

Spiritual Leader of the NationSpiritual Leader of the Nation

ArgentinaArgentina

Falkland Islands uplandFalkland Islands upland

Falkland slands – Camp SettlementFalkland slands – Camp Settlement

Falkland Islands - StanleyFalkland Islands - Stanley

Carlos Menem (1930– ), President 1989–1999

I. Countries Where No Substantial U.S. or Soviet Government or Military Involvement Either Overt or Covert Occurred: Three Case Studies (continued)

C. Mexico

1. One-Party rule (1929–2000)

a. Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR) est. 1929

b. renamed Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI) in 1946

2. José López Portillo (1920–2004), President 1976–1982

3. Drop in oil prices (1986)

4. U.S. acted to prevent collapse of private banks (1995)

Mexico (composite satellite image)Mexico (composite satellite image)

MexicoMexico

José López Portillo (1920–2004), President 1976–1982

II. Countries Where Substantial U.S. Government or Military Involvement Either Overt or Covert Did Occur between 1951 and 1991: Case StudiesA. Guatemala

1952: top 2% of pop. owned 72% of farm land

bottom 50% owned under 4% of farm land

− coffee plantations took over food land

− Washington officials concluded salvation lay with army and the Church

− Wrigley Gum Co. announced it would not buy Guatemalan chicle

II. Countries Where Substantial U.S. Government or Military Involvement Either Overt or Covert Did Occur between 1951 and 1991: Case Studies

A. Guatemala

1953: Arbenz announced he was expropriating 234,000 acres 1953: Arbenz announced he was expropriating 234,000 acres that United Fruit Co. was not cultivatingthat United Fruit Co. was not cultivating

− − United Fruit demanded $16 millionUnited Fruit demanded $16 million

− − United Fruit planted only 139,000 acres out of 3 millionUnited Fruit planted only 139,000 acres out of 3 million

acres that it owned in Guatemalaacres that it owned in Guatemala

−−claimed uncultivated land was temporarily fallow claimed uncultivated land was temporarily fallow to protect it against diseaseto protect it against disease

− − Arbenz had blueprints drawn up for new roads and Arbenz had blueprints drawn up for new roads and railways, railways, which threatened United Fruit’s monopoly of which threatened United Fruit’s monopoly of transportationtransportation

II. Countries Where Substantial U.S. Government or Military Involvement Either Overt or Covert Did Occur between 1951 and 1991: Case Studies

1954: John Foster Dulles, U.S. Secretary of State, admitted to 1954: John Foster Dulles, U.S. Secretary of State, admitted to Latin American ambassadors that it was “impossible to produce Latin American ambassadors that it was “impossible to produce evidence clearly tying the Guatemalan government to Moscow”evidence clearly tying the Guatemalan government to Moscow”

− − only 4 of 56 members of Guatemala’s congress were communistonly 4 of 56 members of Guatemala’s congress were communist

− − government had never advocated a program of extensive government had never advocated a program of extensive nationalizationnationalization

− − Ed Whitman produced a film Ed Whitman produced a film Why the Kremlin Hates BananasWhy the Kremlin Hates Bananas

− − June 18, 1954: Castillo Armas crossed from Honduras into June 18, 1954: Castillo Armas crossed from Honduras into Guatemala with 150 men (and CIA support)Guatemala with 150 men (and CIA support)

II. Countries Where Substantial U.S. Government or Military Involvement Either Overt or Covert Did Occur between 1951 and 1991: Case StudiesB. Dominican Republic

1. Military rule (1930–1961)

2. U.S. military intervention against Leftist rebellion (1965)

C. Chile

United States Intervention in Latin United States Intervention in Latin America 1954America 1954–1990 1990

1954: The CIA orchestrated the overthrow of the democratically elected government of Jacobo Arbenz, in Guatemala. A Guatemalan poet described the Arbenz government as “years of spring in a country of eternal tyranny.” Almost 40 years of violence and repression followed, culminating in the “scorched earth” government terror of the 1980s. Over 150,000 people lost their lives.

1961: US-backed forces invaded Cuba but suffered defeat at the Bay of Pigs.

1965: 23,000 troops sent to the Dominican Republic to “restore order”, following a popular uprising against the country’s military regime.

United States Intervention in Latin United States Intervention in Latin America 1954America 1954–1990 (continued)1990 (continued)

1964–1970: The CIA supported candidates who oppose Salvador Allende.

1981: The Reagan Administration initiated the “Contra War” against the Sandinista government in Nicaragua.

1983: US invasion of Grenada.

United States Intervention in Latin United States Intervention in Latin America 1954America 1954–1990 (continued)1990 (continued)

1989: US invasion of Panama to arrest one-time protégé, Manual Noriega. The operation leaves thousands of civilian casualties.

1990: Massive US intervention in the Nicaraguan election process through covert and overt means. Washington openly funded the opposition coalition, yet such foreign funding of US parties would have been illegal under US law of the time.

II. Countries Where Substantial U.S. Government or Military Involvement Either Overt or Covert Did Occur between 1951 and 1991: Case Studies

C. ChileC. Chile

1. Salvador Allende (1908–1973), President (1970–1973)1. Salvador Allende (1908–1973), President (1970–1973)

a. Church Committee Report on Covert Actions in a. Church Committee Report on Covert Actions in Chile, 1963–1973 (1976)Chile, 1963–1973 (1976)

b. Henry Kissinger, b. Henry Kissinger, The White House Years The White House Years (1979)(1979)

c. Juan Bosch, “Salvador Allende en las memorias c. Juan Bosch, “Salvador Allende en las memorias de de Kissinger,” Kissinger,” Casa de las Americas Casa de las Americas (Havana) (Havana) 22 22 (1981): 100–103.(1981): 100–103.

d. fall in copper pricesd. fall in copper prices

e. help for Gueveristase. help for Gueveristas

2. Augusto Pinochet (1915–2006), President (1973–1990)2. Augusto Pinochet (1915–2006), President (1973–1990)

Events in Chile 1970−1973Events in Chile 1970−1973

− − September 4, 1970: Election resulted in plurality (36.63%) for September 4, 1970: Election resulted in plurality (36.63%) for Popular Unity (UP) coalitionPopular Unity (UP) coalition

− − CIA spent $425,000 in anti-Allende propagandaCIA spent $425,000 in anti-Allende propaganda

− − KGB gave $400,000 to Allende campaign + $50,000 KGB gave $400,000 to Allende campaign + $50,000 directly directly to Allendeto Allende

− − October 25, 1970: General René Schneider assassinatedOctober 25, 1970: General René Schneider assassinated

− − Commander in chief of Chilean militaryCommander in chief of Chilean military

− − supporter of Allende’s constitutional right to rulesupporter of Allende’s constitutional right to rule

− − CIA had set aside funds for his assassinationCIA had set aside funds for his assassination

Events in Chile 1970−1973Events in Chile 1970−1973

Presidency of AllendePresidency of Allende

−−nationalization of large-scale industries (copper mining and nationalization of large-scale industries (copper mining and banking)banking)

−−government administration of health care systemgovernment administration of health care system

−−government provided free milk for children in schools and government provided free milk for children in schools and shanty townsshanty towns

−−expansion of land seizure and redistribution already begun expansion of land seizure and redistribution already begun under his predecessorunder his predecessor

−−wage hikes in 1971 and 1972wage hikes in 1971 and 1972

Events in Chile 1970−1973Events in Chile 1970−1973

Chilean economy:Chilean economy:

1970−1971: 12% industrial growth 1970−1971: 12% industrial growth − − 8.6% increase in GDP 8.6% increase in GDP − − unemployment at 3.8% unemployment at 3.8% − − inflation down from 34.9% to 22.1% inflation down from 34.9% to 22.1% − − copper at $66/toncopper at $66/ton

1971−1973: − negative 5.6% GDP 1971−1973: − negative 5.6% GDP − − inflation up to 140% inflation up to 140%

− − copper down $48/ton copper down $48/ton

Events in Chile 1970−1973Events in Chile 1970−1973

−−1971: Chile reestablishes diplomatic relations with Cuba1971: Chile reestablishes diplomatic relations with Cuba

− − October 1972: waves of strikes beginOctober 1972: waves of strikes begin

− − June 29, 1973: military coup fails (tank putsch)June 29, 1973: military coup fails (tank putsch)

− − August 1973: crisis between Allende administration and August 1973: crisis between Allende administration and Chilean Supreme Court and Congress of DeputiesChilean Supreme Court and Congress of Deputies

− − September 11, 1973: military coup; La Monada bombed;September 11, 1973: military coup; La Monada bombed;

death of Allende (assassination or suicide?)death of Allende (assassination or suicide?)

Henry Kissinger, Henry Kissinger, The White House The White House Years Years (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), 654.654.

““In any circumstances, Allende’s election was a challenge to our In any circumstances, Allende’s election was a challenge to our national interest. We did not find it easy to reconcile ourselves national interest. We did not find it easy to reconcile ourselves to a second Communist state in the Western Hemisphere. We to a second Communist state in the Western Hemisphere. We were persuaded that he would soon be inciting anti-American were persuaded that he would soon be inciting anti-American policies, attacking hemispheric solidarity, making common policies, attacking hemispheric solidarity, making common cause with Cuba, and sooner or later establishing close cause with Cuba, and sooner or later establishing close relations with the Soviet Union.” relations with the Soviet Union.”

Henry Kissinger, Henry Kissinger, The White House The White House Years Years (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), 654 (continued).654 (continued).

““And this was all the more painful because Allende And this was all the more painful because Allende represented a break with Chile’s long democratic history and represented a break with Chile’s long democratic history and would become president not through an authentic expression would become president not through an authentic expression of majority will but through a fluke of the Chilean political of majority will but through a fluke of the Chilean political system. Thirty-six percent of the popular vote was hardly a system. Thirty-six percent of the popular vote was hardly a mandate for the irreversible transformation of Chile’s political mandate for the irreversible transformation of Chile’s political and economic institutions that Allende was determined to and economic institutions that Allende was determined to effect.”effect.”

Commentary on Kissinger’s rationaleCommentary on Kissinger’s rationale

““In any circumstances, Allende’s election was a challenge to our In any circumstances, Allende’s election was a challenge to our national interest. We did not find it easy to reconcile ourselves national interest. We did not find it easy to reconcile ourselves to a second Communist state in the Western Hemisphere.”to a second Communist state in the Western Hemisphere.”

Comment:Comment: In other words, they panicked. In other words, they panicked.

Commentary on Kissinger’s rationaleCommentary on Kissinger’s rationale

““We were persuaded that he would soon be inciting anti-American We were persuaded that he would soon be inciting anti-American policies, attacking hemispheric solidarity, making common policies, attacking hemispheric solidarity, making common cause with Cuba, and sooner or later establishing close relations cause with Cuba, and sooner or later establishing close relations with the Soviet Union.”with the Soviet Union.”

Comment:Comment: “anti-American policies” such as nationalizing ITT “anti-American policies” such as nationalizing ITT assets?assets?

““attacking hemispheric solidarity” such as presenting a attacking hemispheric solidarity” such as presenting a point of view different from America’s “good guy” dictators?point of view different from America’s “good guy” dictators?

““making common cause with Cuba” to provide social making common cause with Cuba” to provide social justice and improve the economic lot of the majority of the justice and improve the economic lot of the majority of the population?population?

““establishing close relations with the Soviet Union” such establishing close relations with the Soviet Union” such as Nixon did in 1972 and Reagan did in 1986?as Nixon did in 1972 and Reagan did in 1986?

Commentary on Kissinger’s rationaleCommentary on Kissinger’s rationale

““And this was all the more painful because Allende And this was all the more painful because Allende represented a break with Chile’s long democratic history and represented a break with Chile’s long democratic history and would become president not through an authentic expression would become president not through an authentic expression of majority will but through a fluke of the Chilean political of majority will but through a fluke of the Chilean political system.”system.”

Comment: “Chile’s long democratic history”, which the U.S. Comment: “Chile’s long democratic history”, which the U.S. tried to subvert with covert funds in 1964 and 1970.tried to subvert with covert funds in 1964 and 1970.

““not through an authentic expression of majority will not through an authentic expression of majority will but through a fluke of the Chilean political system,” (see next but through a fluke of the Chilean political system,” (see next slide)slide)

Commentary on Kissinger’s rationaleCommentary on Kissinger’s rationale

““Thirty-six percent of the popular vote was hardly a mandate Thirty-six percent of the popular vote was hardly a mandate for the irreversible transformation of Chile’s political and for the irreversible transformation of Chile’s political and economic institutions that Allende was determined to effect.”economic institutions that Allende was determined to effect.”

Comment: What was “irreversible” about it”? Was a military Comment: What was “irreversible” about it”? Was a military coup followed by a brutal military dictatorship more coup followed by a brutal military dictatorship more democratic?democratic?

U.S. presidential elections in which U.S. presidential elections in which winner did not have majority of winner did not have majority of popular votepopular vote

YearYear WinnerWinner CircumstancesCircumstances

18241824 John Quincy AdamsJohn Quincy Adams (Andrew Jackson had more popular votes)(Andrew Jackson had more popular votes)

18761876 Rutherford B. HayesRutherford B. Hayes (Samuel J. Tilden had more popular votes)(Samuel J. Tilden had more popular votes)

18881888 Benjamin HarrisonBenjamin Harrison (Grover Cleveland had more popular votes(Grover Cleveland had more popular votes

19121912 Woodrow WilsonWoodrow Wilson (T. Roosevelt and Taft had more pop votes(T. Roosevelt and Taft had more pop votes

19601960 John F. KennedyJohn F. Kennedy (JFK received 49.7% of popular vote)(JFK received 49.7% of popular vote)

1968 1968 Richard NixonRichard Nixon (Humphrey and Wallace had more votes)(Humphrey and Wallace had more votes)

19921992 Bill ClintonBill Clinton (Clinton received 43% of popular votes (Clinton received 43% of popular votes

20002000 George W. BushGeorge W. Bush (Al Gore had more popular votes)(Al Gore had more popular votes)

II. Countries Where Substantial U.S. Government or Military Involvement Either Overt or Covert Did Occur between 1951 and 1991: Case Studies (continued)D. El Salvador

1. Military rule (1931–1979)

a. “football war” with Honduras 1969

2. Civil war 1980–1992

a. José Napoleón Duarte, President 1984–1989

b. Alfredo Cristiani (1947– ), President 1989–1994

3. Death Squads

GuatemalaGuatemala

El Salvador Relief MapEl Salvador Relief Map

II. Countries Where Substantial U.S. Government or Military Involvement Either Overt or Covert Did Occur between 1951 and 1991: Case Studies (continued)E. Nicaragua

1. Somoza Era (1936–1979)

2. Daniel Ortega (1945– ), President 1985–1990

a. in 1963, joined the Frente Sandinista Liberacion Nacional (FSLN)

b. fought against the Contras

3. Violeta Chamorro (1929– ), President 1990–1996

a. wife of Pedro Chamorro, newspaper publisher, who was assassinated in 1978

Central America and CaribbeanCentral America and Caribbean

Nicaragua Demographic Trajectory, Nicaragua Demographic Trajectory, 1961–20031961–2003

Daniel Ortega (1945– ), President 1985–1990

Literacy PosterLiteracy Poster

Oliver North Oliver North

President Reagan receiving the Tower President Reagan receiving the Tower Commission Report, February 26, Commission Report, February 26, 19871987

Violeta Chamorro, President 1990–1996

II. Countries Where Substantial U.S. Government or Military Involvement Either Overt or Covert Did Occur between 1951 and 1991: Case Studies (continued)F. British Guiana/Guyana (independence gained 1966)

1. Cheddi Jagan (1918–1997)

a. member of the People’s Progressive Party (PPP)

b. Chief Minister for 133 days in 1953

c. Premier 1961–1964

d. President 1992–1997

2. Janet Jagan (1920– ), President 1997–2001

II. Countries Where Substantial U.S. Government or Military Involvement Either Overt or Covert Did Occur between 1951 and 1991: Case Studies (continued)G. Grenada

1. Maurice Bishop (1944–1983), Prime Minister 1979–1983

2. U.S. Military Invasion (October 25, 1983)

H. Panama

1. Canal Treaty 1977

2. Manual Noriega “maximum leader” 1989

3. U.S. Invasion, December 1989

Manual Noriega “maximum leader” 1989

Formulation of so-called “Powell Formulation of so-called “Powell Doctrine”Doctrine”

Named after Colin Powell (Chairman − Joint Chiefs of Staff 1989−93)Named after Colin Powell (Chairman − Joint Chiefs of Staff 1989−93)

− − developed between invasion of Panama (1989) and First developed between invasion of Panama (1989) and First Persian Gulf War (1990−91)Persian Gulf War (1990−91)

1. Is a vital national security interest threatened?1. Is a vital national security interest threatened?

2. Does the U.S. have a clear attainable objective?2. Does the U.S. have a clear attainable objective?

3. Have the risks and costs been fully and frankly analyzed?3. Have the risks and costs been fully and frankly analyzed?

4. Have all other non-violent policy means been fully exhausted?4. Have all other non-violent policy means been fully exhausted?

Formulation of so-called “Powell Formulation of so-called “Powell Doctrine” (continued)Doctrine” (continued)

5. Is there a plausible exit strategy to avoid endless entanglement?5. Is there a plausible exit strategy to avoid endless entanglement?

6. Have the consequences of U.S. action been fully considered?6. Have the consequences of U.S. action been fully considered?

7. Is the action supported by the American people?7. Is the action supported by the American people?

8. Does the U.S. have genuine broad international support?8. Does the U.S. have genuine broad international support?

If the answer is yes to all these questions, then use decisive force to If the answer is yes to all these questions, then use decisive force to

minimize casualties.minimize casualties.

Latin AmericaLatin AmericaThe Shark and the SardinesThe Shark and the Sardines

Conclusion: Mixed results

The EndThe End