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laxminarayan

Date post: 06-Mar-2016
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Page 1: laxminarayan
cembrola
CDDEP1
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Objective

Develop actionable national strategies to address the challenge of antibiotic resistance in five low‐ and middle‐income countries– China

– India

– Kenya

– South Africa

– Vietnam

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Specific Aims

• Develop the evidence base for policy action on antibiotic resistance

• Identify policy opportunities where research dissemination, advocacy, and information can have the greatest impact in slowing the development and spread of resistance.

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Steps

• Create country profiles of baseline resistance, antibiotic use and burden of resistance

• Assess the health and economic consequences of antibiotic resistance

• Develop mathematical models of specific approaches to delay emergence of antibiotic resistance

• Constitute GARP National Working Groups

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Other objectives

• Create an IT platform for a global antibiotic resistance atlas

• International conference to compare policy approaches across the five target countries and to discuss the relevance of these approaches to other countries outside the initial partnership

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Second Phase

• Dissemination of national strategies

• Policy communications

• Further research

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Objectives for this meeting

• How serious a problem is antibiotic resistance in Kenya?

• What are the primary drivers of resistance?

• What policies could both help reduce the– Suboptimal use of antibiotics

– Need for antibiotics

– Emergence and spread of resistance

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www.extendingthecure.org

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60 Years Later

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Leading Infectious Killers Millions of deaths, worldwide, all ages

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

4

Acuterespiratoryinfection

AIDS Diarrhoealdiseases

TB Malaria

Upto 55% resistance to penicillin in S. pneumonia

in some areas

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Leading Infectious Killers Millions of deaths, worldwide, all ages

Resistance to all currently marketed retrovirals

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Leading Infectious Killers Millions of deaths, worldwide, all ages

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

4

Acuterespiratoryinfection

AIDS Diarrhoealdiseases

TB Malaria

Salmonella typhii: Epidemics of

multiresistant strains in 11 countries since 1989

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Leading Infectious Killers Millions of deaths, worldwide, all ages

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

4

Acuterespiratoryinfection

AIDS Diarrhoealdiseases

TB Malaria

Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Upto 22% of new

infections are of MDR-TB

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Leading Infectious Killers Millions of deaths, worldwide, all ages,

P. Falciparum – resistance to CQ, SP in most endemic 

countries.  Emerging resistance to Artemisinin

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Global spread of chloroquine-resistant strains of P. falciparum

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Health Care Consequences

Higher Cost of Care– Higher prescription cost of newer antibiotics

– Rising insurance premiums

Lower Quality of Care– Increased risk of morbidity and mortality

– Each year 63,000 deaths attributed to drug resistance in hospital infections by CDC

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Difficulty in Measuring Burden of Resistance

• Resistance‐related hospitalizations are not recorded

• Correlation between disease severity and colonization with resistant pathogen

• Not all antibiotic use is bad

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Why is resistance increasing?

Factors internal to the health care system• Overuse and inappropriate use (for instance, to treat viral 

infections)• Sicker patients and longer hospital stays• Inadequate infection control in hospital settings• Insufficient treatment compliance• Widespread use of broad spectrum agents

Factors external to the health care system• Use in poultry and cattle feed as growth promoters• Spread of drug resistance from other countries 

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What are the incentives to protect antibiotic effectiveness?

Those who use (or manufacture) antibiotics may not have sufficient incentives to consider the impact (cost) of this usage on the rest of society– Incentives for patients

– Incentives for physicians

– Incentives for hospitals

– Incentives for pharmaceutical companies

– Government?

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Dealing with resistance

Make better use of existing drugs

Find new drugs

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Incentives for Physicians

• Satisfying patient expectations

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Dosh, J Fam Pr 1999

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Incentives for Physicians

• Satisfying patient expectations

• Financial (reimbursement) incentives– Substitute for repeat visit

• Malpractice liability

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Hospital Incentives

• Antibiotics may be a substitute for infection control

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Hospital Incentives

• Hospitals are “sources” for colonization with resistant pathogens

• Health facilities often “share” patients

• Positive external benefits of active surveillance and infection control

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Implications for policy

• Dutch experience: frequency of MRSA infections is < 0.5% after an intensive ‘‘search‐and‐destroy’’ campaign, compared with 50% in some areas

• In Siouxland (Iowa, Nebraska, S. Dakota), an epidemic of VRE was reversed

• Regionally coordinated response to epidemic

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Who pays for hospital‐acquired infections?

• Medicare/Medicaid bear greatest burden of additional cost

• 76% of 11,668 HAIs in 2004 billed to federal Medicare ($1 billion cost)

• Rest to Medicaid ($372 million cost)

• $20 billion burden on Medicare nationwide

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Incentives for Pharma

• Example of Baytril• Increasing patent scope for antibiotics– open access problem of drug effectiveness

– welfare costs of monopoly power

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The Antibiotics Pipeline

Antibiotics are not a priority for pharmaceutical companies– Less profitable than drugs for chronic diseases or lifestyle illnesses

– Focus on broad spectrum agents

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Sulfonamides

Oxazolidinones

Trimethoprim

Streptogramins

Quinolones

Lincosamides

Chloramphenicol

Tetracyclines

Macrolides

Glycopeptides

Aminoglycosides

Penicillins

1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s

Discovery of new classes of antibiotics

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Role for Government:Vaccinations

• Pnemococcalvaccinations

• Invest in R & D for a MRSA vaccine

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Role for Government:Infection Control

• Require hospital reporting of infections and resistance

• Medicare reimbursement for HAIs

• Regional cooperation in infection control

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Role for Government:Infection Control

• Invest in national surveillance

• Exercise regulatory oversight

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Challenges in developing countries

• Rising incomes – greater access to antibiotics

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Challenges in developing countries

• Rising incomes – greater access to antibiotics

• Yet many patients do not have access to effective antibiotics

• Counterfeit or expired antibiotics

• Second line drugs may be unaffordable to many low‐income families

• Burden of infectious disease including pneumococcal disease

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Objectives for this meeting

• How serious a problem is antibiotic resistance in Kenya?

• What are the primary drivers of resistance?

• What policies could both help reduce the– Suboptimal use of antibiotics

– Need for antibiotics

– Emergence and spread of resistance


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