Chapter 51 – Illness: feeling under the weather Feeling unwell Informal expressions that mean ‘not well, but not seriously ill’: - Off-colour - Out of sorts - Under the weather - Feeling poorly - Fighting off (e.g. a cold) – trying to get of - Gone down with (e.g. the flu) – you don’t use this expression with ‘I’, has caught, usually a non-serious illness - Come down with (e.g. a cold) – you can use this one with ‘I’ - Suffers from – used for more long-term problems Minor health problems To hurt To give pain caused by and injury (to refer in a non-serious way to minor problems) To ache Persistent low-level pain (to refer in a non-serious way to minor problems) Aches and pains NOT pains and aches Cuts and bruises NOT bruises and cuts To sting Sudden, burning pain To throb To beat with pain Stiff neck Pain and difficulty in moving your neck round To twist your ankle To injure your ankle by turning it suddenly Dizzy A feeling that you are spinning round and can’t balance Feverish With a high temperature/fever Shivery/hot and cold Shaking slightly, usually because of a fever Sleepless Without sleeping much (e.g. sleepless nights) Nauseous Feeling that you want to vomit To tremble To shake Bunged up blocked Getting better To get over something To get better, recover To recover from Getting better, used for more serious illnesses On the mend Getting better Over the worst Past the most difficult period To be back on your feet To be fully healthy again
Transcript
Chapter 51 – Illness: feeling under the weather
Feeling unwellInformal expressions that mean ‘not well, but not seriously ill’:
- Off-colour- Out of sorts- Under the weather- Feeling poorly- Fighting off (e.g. a cold) – trying to get of- Gone down with (e.g. the flu) – you don’t use this expression with ‘I’, has caught, usually a
non-serious illness- Come down with (e.g. a cold) – you can use this one with ‘I’- Suffers from – used for more long-term problems
Minor health problemsTo hurt To give pain caused by and injury (to refer in a non-serious way to minor
problems)To ache Persistent low-level pain (to refer in a non-serious way to minor problems)Aches and pains NOT pains and achesCuts and bruises NOT bruises and cutsTo sting Sudden, burning painTo throb To beat with painStiff neck Pain and difficulty in moving your neck roundTo twist your ankle To injure your ankle by turning it suddenlyDizzy A feeling that you are spinning round and can’t balanceFeverish With a high temperature/feverShivery/hot and cold Shaking slightly, usually because of a feverSleepless Without sleeping much (e.g. sleepless nights)Nauseous Feeling that you want to vomitTo tremble To shakeBunged up blocked
Getting betterTo get over something To get better, recoverTo recover from Getting better, used for more serious illnessesOn the mend Getting betterOver the worst Past the most difficult periodTo be back on your feet To be fully healthy again
Chapter 52
Medical information leafletsLow dose Measured amount of medicine that is relatively smallAsthma Medical condition in which breathing becomes difficult because air passages
have narrowedPast history Record of medical conditions a person has experiencedDisorder Illness of the body or mindGastrointestinal disease
Illness of the stomach or digestive passages
Bowel Tube that carries solid waste out of the bodyAdverse reactions
Unwanted results
Stroke Sudden change in blood supply to the brain causing loss of function of part of the body
Conditions Illnesses or physical problemsTo exceed To take more thanDuration LengthSide effects Unwanted effects in addition to the intended oneAllergic reactions Conditions affecting skin or breathing because of eating or coming into contact
with certain substancesParticles Small piecesStools Medical term for excrement (formal) or poo (informal, childish)
Medical metaphorsSocial and other problems are often talked about as if they were illnesses. These medical words are often used as metaphors in non-medical situations.Symptom Medical meaning = problem indicating an illnessTo diagnose Medical meaning = to identify what illness a patient hasPrognosis Medical meaning = how experts expect an illness to developAiling Medical meaning = unwell, sicklyAn ailing organisation One that has a lot of problemsRash Medical meaning = a lot of small, red spots on the skinA rash of A number of similar things happening at the same timeFever Medical meaning = high temperatureFever Great excitement (World Cup fever, election fever)Fever pitch A point of very high intensityJaundiced Medical meaning = yellow-looking skin because of a liver problemJaundiced Unenthusiastic or sceptical because of previous bad experiencesScar Medical meaning = mark left on skin after an injury such as a cutTo carry the scars of/to be scarred by
To be permanently affected by a negative experience
To infect Medical meaning = to pass on an illnessTo infect To pass on toPulse Medical meaning = regular beating of a heart, e.g. as felt on wristTo have your finger on the pulse
To understand how things are changing
Chapter 53 – Diet, sports and fitness
Cholesterol and healthImpeded Slowed down or made difficultPlaque Unwanted substance that forms on the surface of the arteriesTo clog To cause something to become blockedCholesterol Fatty substance found in the body tissue and blood of all animalsStroke Sudden change in the blood supply to the brain causing loss of function of part
of the bodyNutritious Containing substances that your body needs to stay healthy (noun: nutrition)To pose a danger To cause a problemFibre Substance in foods such as fruit, vegetables and brown bread, which travels
through the body as wasteLentils Very small dried beans that are cooked and eatenOatmeal Type of flour from oats or a grain used to make porridge (a cooked breakfast
meal)
Exercise and caloriesCardiovascular Relating to the heart and bloodDiabetics People suffering from diabetes, an illness in which the body cannot cope with
glucose (sugar) because it does not produce enough insulinInsulin Hormone that controls the level of sugar in the bodySporty Good or keen at sportsTo be intent on to be determined toBrisk Quick and energetic
Sport and fitness metaphorsTo score an own goal To make things worse rather than betterTo move the goalposts To change the rulesLevel playing field Fair situationIn the running Seriously consideredNeck and neck Level with each other and equally likely to winTo skate around To not talk directly about somethingTo sail through To pass very easily
Chapter 54 – Industries: from manufacturing to service
Industries and industrial practices
Expression Explanation Opposite expression ExplanationHeavy industry e.g. steel works,
shipbuildingLight industry e.g. manufacturing car
parts, TV setsManufacturing industry
Making things, e.g. consumer goods
Service industry Serving people, e.g. tourism, banking
High-technology (high-tech, informal) industry
Involving computers, e.g. software industry
Low technology (low-tech, informal)
Involving little or no computer technology
Cutting-edge technology
Involving new and innovative technology
Conventional technology
Using standard, proven technology
Privatisation e.g. selling off state railways to private companies
Nationalisation/state ownership
When industry is owned by the government
Industrial practices
On piecework Only paid for the amount you produceChild labour The employment of children to do adult jobsTrade union representation Union that negotiates wages and conditions for the people it
representsSweatshops Factories where people work very long hours for low wagesRetraining and reskilling Training new people for new jobs and teaching them new skillsMultinationals Big companies with operations in many different countriesCost-cutting exercise Effort to reduce their costsTo relocate To move the company’s offices (or, less commonly, production) to a
different placeTo switch production To move the centre of manufacturing to a different placeComponents PartsTo assemble To put together
Chapter 55 – Technology and its impact
Technological advances affecting daily life
Technology Examples of uses/applicationsDigital technology Digital photography, digital video and audio recording; digital
broadcastingWi-fi A system for connecting electronic devices to the internet without
using wiresSatellite communications Satellite navigation (SATNAV) systems; mobile phonesBiotechnology Genetic modification of plantsArtificial intelligence (AI) Automatic translation; identification systemsErgonomics Design of environments so people can work efficiently and
comfortablyAnalogue Non-digitalGPS Global positioning systemDisease-resistant With a high level of protection against diseasesErgonomically designed Designed to give maximum comfort and efficiency
How much of a techie are you?Examples of technological devices:
TechnologySmart buildings/homes Computer-controlled buildings and homes where things
like lighting, heating, security etc. are completely automatic; the adjective smart can be used for anything that uses computers or information stored in electronic form (e.g. a smartphone, smart TV, smart car)
Interplanetary travel and space tourism Travel to planets in outer space, either for exploration or for tourism
Nanotechnology Science of developing and producing extremely small tools and machines by controlling the arrangement of atoms and molecules
Keyhole surgery Medical operation in which a very small hole is made in a person’s body to reach the organ or tissue inside
The environment and natureDoomsday scenario The worst possible prediction, what will happen in the
futureDestiny The things that will happen to us in the futureTo foresee To think that something will occur in the futureMega-cities Cities of more than 10 million peopleGridlocked Unable to move at allPopulation explosion Rapid increase in populationGenetic modification/engineering Changing genesGenetically modified (GM) food/crops Food/crops created by changing the genes of the
ingredientsGene therapy Changing genes in order to prevent disease or disabilityThe human genome The ‘map’ or index of all the genes in a human beingTo envisage To see a possible or probable situation in the futureDesigner babies Babies whose genetic characteristics are artificially createdCloning Making a genetically identical copy
Society and peopleNuclear family Family with father, mother and one or two childrenGlobalisation Increase of trade around the world, with companies producing and
trading goods in many different countries or the spread of similar social and cultural behaviour around the world
Global village A single community covering the whole worldExtra-terrestrial beings Creatures from other planetsGulf Gap/differenceDrastic measures Severe actions that have noticeable effects
Chapter 57 – Energy: from fossil fuels to windmills
Fossil fuelsFossil fuels Sources of energy which were formed underground from plant and animal remains
millions of years agoOil well Hole made in the ground for the removal of oilOffshore Away from or at a distance from the coastCoal-fired Using coal as a fuelCoal mines Deep hole or system of holes under the ground from which coal is removedPipeline Very large tube through which liquid or gas can flow for long distances
Renewable energyOnshore On the landWind farms Group of wind turbines that are used for producing electricitySolar panels Devices that change energy from the sun into electricityHydroelectric Producing electricity by the force of fast-moving water such as rivers or waterfallsBiomass Dead plant and animal material suitable for using as fuelTidal power Using the force of the sea tide to produce energyWave power Using the waves in the sea to produce energyRenewables Can also be used as a countable nounNuclear Using the power produced when the nucleus of an atom is divided or joined to
another nucleusGeothermal Using the heat inside the earth
Using energyConsumption How much is used of somethingPower-hungry That use a great amount of energyAppliances Equipment, especially electrical equipment, used in the homeMonitoring Regularly watching and checking something over a period of timeConsuming Using, especially in large amountsGas-guzzler Something that uses a lot of fuel, e.g. a car (informal)Energy-efficient Using only a little electricity/gas etc.Food miles Distance food is transported from where it is produced to when it reaches the
consumerCarbon footprint Measurement of the amount of carbon dioxide that one’s activities createDeposits Layer formed under the ground, especially over a very long periodFinite Having an end or lasting a limited time
Chapter 58 – Space: no room to swing a cat
Things occupying a lot of spaceWord Typical contexts of useExtensive Edinburgh has extensive traffic-free routes.
The building contains extensive educational facilities.Spacious A spacious garden
The city of Washington is spacious and green.Roomy A roomy car
The house was roomy.Rambling A large, rambling building, a rambling mansion
Wide open spaces Large areas without buildings or treesScattered Randomly across a wide areaSpread out Not close to one anotherAmple room More than enough space
Insufficient space or things occupying too small a spaceWord Typical contexts of useCramped Cramped hotel rooms
Living in small, cramped apartmentsPoky (informal) Two poky little rooms
A poky little flatCongested Tanker traffic on the congested waterway
The congested streets (full of traffic, people etc.)Compact (positive connotation) A tiny, compact refrigerator
A compact, low, white villa
Other words and expressionsTo be hemmed in To be surrounded by people and not able to moveBustling Lots of people busily moving aroundThere isn’t enough room to swing a cat It’s very small (informal)To be packed in like sardines Too many people in a small placeLabyrinth Vast and complexBoundary The edge of a large spaceRear BackCrammed into To be among many people in a small spaceTo squeeze in To sit between two people in a small spaceSquash Having a lot of people in a small roomTo stuff in To put a lot of things into something, suggests doing
something quickly and without much care
Chapter 59 – Time: once in a blue moon
Colloquial expressions relating to timeOnce in a blue moon Very infrequentlyAll his born days All his lifeIn a mo/in a sec/in a tick/in less than no time/in a jiffy
Very soon (mo and sec are short for moment and second)
For donkey’s years/since the year dot
For a long time
Till the cows come home For everFor keeps/for good To keep for everIn the nick of time Only just in timeOver the hill/past it Too oldHas-been Person who is no longer famousIn a flash/at a rate of knots Very quickly
Adjectives relating to the passing of timeAdjective Meaning Common collocationsFleeting Brief or quick Glimpse, visit, smile, moment,
appearanceLengthy Continuing for a long time Process, investigation,
discussions, negotiations, delays
Transient Lasting for only a short time (formal) Effect, population, feeling, pleasure
Persistent Lasting for a long time or hard to stop or get rid of Cough, problems, rumour, smell, accusations, critic, offender, failure, gossip
Inexorable Continuing without hope of being stopped (formal)
Rise, slide, decline, pressure, advance of time
Incipient Just beginning (formal) Panic, rage, rebellion, stages, wrinkles, dementia
Protracted Lasting for a long time or made to last longer (formal)
Negotiations, discussions, argument
Lingering Taking a long time to leave or disappear Perfume, kiss, smile
Other useful time wordsSimultaneous Happening at the same timeDuration Amount of time that it lastedTo prolong To make it last longerAt short notice Just a short time before it’s due to happenRepeatedly Many times
Chapter 60 – Motion: taking steps
Verbs of movementVerb Type of movement Reasons for type of movementTo limp Uneven One leg hurtsTo hop On one foot, quickly Not using one footTo stagger Unsteady Drunk, illTo stumble Nearly falling Uneven surfaceTo lurch Sudden or irregular Drunk, ill, walking on moving ship etc.To tiptoe Quiet and on toes Not to be heardTo amble Easy, gentle Pleasure or relaxation, no special aimTo stride Long steps PurposefulTo strut Proud, chest held out To look importantTo tramp Firm, heavy steps Walking for a long timeTo trample Pressing repeatedly with feet Often wishing to destroyTo stamp Pushing foot down heavily Anger, or just heavy-footedTo trudge Heavy, slow, with difficulty TiredTo chase Quickly Wanting to catch something or someone
Metaphorical examples of motionTo limp To continue with difficultyTo hop off To quickly get offTo stagger To continue although it’s hardStaggeringly AmazinglyTo lurch To move/continue in a way that is not smoothTo take in her stride To take calmlyTo trample To behave in a cruel/unfair way towards someone or somethingTo chase To try hard to get somethingTo stumble To make a mistake while you are trying to achieve something
People and water move in similar waysCrowds and tourists flowed across the square all day long.As soon as the school doors opened, children spilled out into the playground.People streamed into the lecture hall and soon there was standing room only.People have been pouring into the exhibition all day.A trickle of people appeared outside and by midday a crowd had gathered.We meandered round the town, window shopping to our hearts’ content.Refugees have been flooding across the border since the start of the war.
Taking stepsAdjectives often used with taking (a) step(s) in a metaphorical context
MannersCourtesy Politeness and respectCourteous Polite and respectfulDiscourteous Impolite and lacking respectOffhand Showing a rude lack of interest in othersInsolent Much stronger than discourteousEtiquette Set of rules or customs for accepted behaviour in particular social groups or
social situationsTo stand on ceremony To behave in a formal wayStraitlaced Having old-fashioned and fixed moralsThe done thing What your are expected to do in a social situationNetiquette Code of behaviour when using the internet
Body language and non-verbal language
Verb/expression What it indicates CommentTo raise your eyebrows Surprise or shock (either
showing or causing)Either a person or behaviour can raise eyebrows
To twitch Nervousness Repeated small movements with part of the body
To flinch Pain or fear Sudden small movementTo squirm Embarrassment or
nervousnessMove from side to side in an awkward way
To smirk Self-satisfaction Smile (negative associations)To beam Happiness Broad smile (positive associations)To sniff at something Disapproval Breathe air in through your nose in a
way that makes noiseTo snort Disgust or great amusement Make an explosive sound by forcing air
quickly up and down the noseTo titter Nervousness or
embarrassmentSmall laugh
Chapter 62 – Sound: listen up!
Adjectives indicating lack of sound and their collocationsSilent Without noise or not talking; used for people and things that are perhaps
unexpectedly or surprisingly quietQuiet Without much noise or activity, or not talking muchNoiseless Without noise (usually used as an adverb in formal or literary style)Soundless Without sound (usually used as an adverb in formal or literary style to indicate an
unexpected lack of sound
Verbs for describing specific noisesTo slam To close with a loud bangTo squeak High, irritating noiseTo pound Dull, beating soundTo creak Noise of friction of wood and/or metalTo sizzle Sound made by fryingTo ring out Typically used for the sound of a gunshotTo crash Loud, heavy noise, typically used for wavesTo hoot/toot Sound made by a car hornTo wail To make a rising and falling soundTo hammer To knock very loudly and repeatedly
Some adjectives for noise and silenceEerie Rather scaryDeafening Extremely and painfully loudGrating Unpleasant, irritatingPiercing High noise that hurts the earsHigh-pitched Higher than most voices, like a whistleInaudible Impossible to hear
Some fixed expressions connected with noise and silenceYou could have heard a pin drop There was total silenceI can’t hear myself think Said when people are making too much noisePeace and quiet Calm and quiet period, after a noisy timeAs quiet as a mouse Very quiet indeed
Chapter 63 – Weight and density
Synonyms for ‘heavy’Weighty Abstract and physical things; usually includes the idea of ‘seriousness’Unwieldy Abstract and physical things; usually includes the idea of ‘difficult to handle’Cumbersome Often used for machines and equipment that are difficult to handle; also used for
systems, structure etc.Burdensome Usually used of abstract thingsPonderous Slow and clumsy because of weight but usually used for dull and excessively serious
abstract thingsLumbering Usually used of physical things; often suggesting ‘heavy movement’
Phrasal verbs with ‘weigh’To weigh down To carry very heavy thingsTo weigh up To consider and compareTo weigh out To weigh a quantity of loose goodsWeighing on me Troubling my mindTo weigh in To add more points to the argument
Making things more/less denseTo thicken To make thickerLumpy Having solid pieces in itTo sift To shake something in a sieve to separate the grainsTo congeal To become thick and solidTo solidify To become solidTo thin To make thinnerTo thin out To become less dense/to make less thickTo dilute/water down something To add water
Adjectives connected with densityWord Meaning Literal use Metaphorical useImpenetrable Impossible to move
throughAn impenetrable jungle/forest
Impenetrable jargon
Impervious (to) Liquid cannot pass through
An impervious material e.g. glass
A person who is impervious to criticism
Chapter 64 – All the colours of the rainbow
Words and expressions about colourPitch black Intensely black, used about darkness, night etc. (pitch is an old word for tar)Jet black Intensely black, used about hair, eyes etc. (jet is a black semi-precious gemstone)Scarlet Very bright redCrimson Strong deep redShocking pink An extremely bright pinkGinger Orangey red, used about hair and catsNavy Dark blue, used about clothes, not eyesTurquoise Greenish blue, used about fabrics, paint, sea etc. but not usually eyesLime A bright yellowish greenBeige A light creamy brownMousy A light not very interesting brown, used about only hairChestnut A deep reddish brown, used about hair and horsesAuburn A red-brown colour, usually used about hairRuby Deep red (also a gemstone)Emerald Bright green (also a gemstone)Amber Yellowy orange (also a gemstone)Coral Orangey pink (also a gemstone)Sapphire Deep blue (also a gemstone)Jade Dark green (also a gemstone)
Words for talking about colourPrimary colours Red, blue and yellowPastel colours Pale shades of colourMauve Pale purpleStrong colours Opposite of pastel coloursHarsh colours Colours that are unpleasantly strongVivid colours Strong, bright colours like scarlet and turquoiseElectric Extremely brightFluorescent Very bright colours which seem to glow in the
darkTinge A tiny bitMonochrome Using only one colour, or shades of one colourSuffixes –y and –ish show that a colour is partly present (bluey green, reddish brown)
Colour metaphorsBlue Depression (feeling blue), physical or unskilled (blue-collar workers)Red Anger (to see red), danger (red alert, red flag), special importance (red-carpet, red-letter
day), communist or very left-wing in politicsGreen Nausea (to look green, to turn/go green), envy (green with envy), care for the
environment (green tourism, the Green Party)Black Depressing or without hope (a black future), anger (to look as black as thunder), illegality
or incorrectness (black market, black sheep of the family, black mark)Grey Lack of clarity (a grey area), brains (grey matter, grey cells)White Purity (white as snow, whiter than white), being pale (white as a sheet), something
terrifying (a white-knuckle ride in a rollercoaster), office workers (white-collar workers)
Chapter 65 – Speed: fast and slow
Going fastTo race/dash/tear To go somewhere very quickly on foot or by means of transportTo nip/pop/zip/dart/whizz Fast movement, but used mainly for going short distancesTo bolt Fast movement over short distance, but also has an added association
of running away from somethingTo career To move rapidly and out of controlTo scamper/scurry/scuttle Small rapid steps, often of lots of small animals together (like mice,
spiders etc.)To speed up Increasing speed, can refer to movement on foot or by means of
transportTo accelerate Increasing speed, us only used about transport
Going up or down fastTo plunge/plummet Suggest downward movement as well as speed, mainly used metaphoricallyTo soar/rocket Suggest a fast upward movement, mainly used metaphorically
Primary association of ‘to soar’ is with birds, and when it is used about people’s feelings it provides associations of happiness and feeling carefree
To slump/tumble Suggest a rapid downward movement, opposite of to soar/rocket
Going slowlyTo crawl/creep Emphasize that the movement is slow, often used metaphoricallyTo totter Also suggests a very slow movement, but one that is particularly unsteady as wellTo sidle To walk anxiously and nervouslyTo dawdle To move more slowly than is necessary or to waste time
Chapter 66 – Cause and effect
‘Cause’ verbs and their collocationsVerb Comment Usual collocationsTo cause Usually collocates with negative
results and situationsTo cause:sadness/unhappiness(a lot of) trouble/problemsan illness (e.g. pneumonia)a disaster/an accident
To produce More neutral, deals with more concrete results, used in formal contexts
To produce:a reportstatistics/figuresgood results/evidence
To give Can be used for both positive and negative situations, less formal than ‘cause’
To give:(a lot of) pleasure/happinessa reason/motivation for something(a lot of) troublegood results
To generate Often used in contexts where people are forced to do more than usual, and in computer contexts, sometimes has a rather negative feel, used in formal contexts
To generate:revenue/income/moneycomplaints/extra work/controversygraphics/documentsinterest/enthusiasm/publicity
Other ‘cause’ wordsTo provoke To causeTo precipitate/spark off To cause quickly, suddenlyTo bring about To gradually produceTo result in To produceGrounds for Cause, reasonTo have implications for To be likely to cause certain resultsBased on Has been developed as a result of = the available data provide the basis
for an argument
Chapter 67 – Spot the difference: making comparisons
Talking about similarityCollocation MeaningAffinity between, to feel an affinity with Closeness, similarity; feeling that different things/people
have much in commonAkin to Similar in spirit/feelTo use analogy To see similarities that help us understand somethingDoes not correspond to Is not equal to/does not matchTo equate To consider as the sameTantamount to The equivalent of (normally used in negative contexts)Interchangeable So similar that they could be exchanged one for the otherIndistinguishable from So similar you cannot see the difference
Talking about difference: adjectives/verbs beginning with ‘di’Diverse Used to show a group is made up of different types of somethingDisparate Used for different types within a group, but emphasises separation and differenceDissimilar Very often used with ‘not’Divergent Often used to show contrasting opinions or ideas within a groupDistinct Used to describe differences where one might be deceived by similaritiesDistinctive Used to describe something that is easy to recognise because it is differentDiscrete Different and separate, not overlappingTo differentiate To find a difference betweenTo diversify To become or make more variedTo diverge To move away, become more different than somethingTo distinguish To notice the difference between two things
Chapter 68 – Difficulties and dilemmas
Nouns relating to difficultiesSnag, hitch Fairly small difficultiesGlitch Fairly small difficulty, usually refers to a technical problem of some kindSetback Progress has been stopped by somethingStumbling block Something that prevents action or agreementPitfall An unexpected difficulty (often used in plural)Obstacle Anything that stops progress, either literally or metaphoricallyImpediment Something that prevents free action, progress or movementDilemma A situation where a difficult choice has to be made between two, sometimes
unpleasant, alternativesOrdeal Severe experience, which is very difficult, painful or tiring
Adjectives relating to difficultyadjective Meaning CollocationsProblematic Full of problems or difficulties Relationship, situation, conceptAbstruse Difficult to understand Theory, argument, philosopherArduous Difficult, tiring, needing much effort Climb, task, journeyComplex Difficult to understand as it has many parts Issue, problem, theory, processConvoluted Unreasonably long and hard to follow Explanation, sentences, theoryGruelling Extremely tiring and difficult Journey, work, match, expeditionInsufferable Difficult to bear as it is annoying or
uncomfortableBehaviour, heat, boredom, pain, person
Obstructive Causing deliberate difficulties Person, measure, behaviourTough Difficult to deal with or do Time, job, climate, decisionTraumatic Shocking and upsetting Experience, past, childhoodWayward Changeable, selfish and/or hard to control Behaviour, child, person
Common mistake:Difficulty is used in the singular in the expression ‘to have difficulty in doing something’:I had great difficulty in finding a job at first (NOT great difficulties!).
Colloquial expressions relating to difficultiesWhat a pain! / What a drag! What a nuisance!Chore Boring job that has to be doneWhat’s eating him? / What’s got into him? / What’s bugging him? / What’s (up) with him?
What’s the matter with him?
Hassle Situation causing trouble or difficultyTo hassle To ask again and againSheer torture Used figuratively to refer to an unpleasant
experienceTo slog (your guts out)/to grind/to graft/to flog yourself to death
To work hard
In a fix/in a spot/in a hole/up against it/ up to your neck
In a difficult situation
Sticky/tricky DifficultOff the hook/in the clear/out of the wood(s) Freed from a difficult situationDownside The disadvantage of a situation
Expressions based on modal verbs- I must admit/confess/say- You must be joking!- You must have been frightened/worried/nervous/delighted/overjoyed- It may/might (well) never happen- What, may/might I ask…?- I was just strolling through the park when who should I see/meet/bump into but my boss.- Accidents will happen! (accidents are inevitable)- That car won’t start.- That’ll be Sean making that noise.- You might well be offered the job, you never know.- I should be so lucky! (that is not likely)
Ways of expressing probabilityThe odds are It is likely thatThe odds are against her It is unlikely thatAre bound to Almost certain toUnquestionably There is no doubt at allApparent ObviousFor sure I am sure (usually comes at the end)In all probability It is very likelyThe chances are It is probable thatThere’s every likelihood It is very probable
Ways of expressing obligation and lack of obligation- It is essential- Obligatory- I have no option- I have an obligation- Optional
Ways of expressing a desire to do something- I am determined/anxious/eager/keen/resolved to…- I wish/desire/year/ long to…- I have ambitions/aspirations to…
Chapter 70 – Number: statistics and quantity
Changes in numbers and quantitiesTwofold The suffix ‘-fold’ means ‘multiplied by that number’Quadrupled Increased by for timesBy a factor of three Multiplied by threeDrastic Severe and suddenThreefold Twofold, threefold etc. can be used as an adverb or adjectiveRevised upwards Changed to a higher numberRevised downwards Changed to a lower numberTo deviate from the norm
To move away from the standard or accepted pattern
To fluctuate To keep going up and downTo seesaw To go up and down at regular intervalsErratic Not regular and often changing suddenly
More expressions for describing statistics and numbersAggregate TotalTo aggregate To add up all the different amountsBlip Temporary changeCorrelation between Connection between facts or things which cause or affect each otherGPD Gross Domestic Product: the total amount that a country producesExpenditure The amount of money spent on somethingDiscrepancy between Difference between two things that should be the sameRatio The relationship between two amounts, which expresses how much bigger
one is than the otherFlawed InaccurateMultiple Very many of the same type, or of a different typeInconsistent with Not in agreement with
Assessing quantityBallpark figure A guess believed to be accurateTo tot everything up To add everything up (less formal)To run into six figures To get a figure over a 100,000Variables Different factors that may changeProjected figures Planned figuresTo err on the side of caution To be cautiousTo round things down Make, say, 2.5 into 2 rather than 3Conservative Cautious
Chapter 71 – Permission: getting to go-ahead
Permitting and agreeing that something may happen: verbsTo accede To accept, but often associated with initial unwillingnessTo acquiesce To permit something to happen, but often associated with a degree of secrecy
or conspiracyTo assent To agree to something, often associated with plans, proposals, ideas etc.To authorise To give official permissionTo condone To approve or allow something which almost most people consider to be wrongTo countenance To consider giving assent or permission, often used in negative contextsTo endorse To give official approval of something
Permitting: phrasal expressionsTo give a carte blanche To give complete freedom to do whatever they think is
necessary (formal)To give the go-ahead for/to give the green light to
To give permission for something to start
Prohibiting and disapproving: verbsTo bar To officially exclude, forbid someone access to
somethingTo clamp down To use one’s full power to prevent or limit
somethingTo outlaw To make something illegalTo veto To use one’s official power to forbid
‘Regardless’ is not an adjective but an adverb. It means ‘not paying attention’. A common mistake is that many people think it is an adjective. It can be used on its own. (Her parents said she couldn’t go to the party but she went to it regardless./They built the extension to their house regardless of the fact that they had not received formal permission.)
Chapter 72 – Complaining and protesting
Expressions connected with complainingCommon expressions in informal situations
Common expressions in formal situations
Common expressions in neutral situations
You’ve got to do something about…
I wish to complain about… I’m not at all satisfied about…
I’m fed up with/sick of… This is most unsatisfactory. Something will have to be done about…
I’ve just about had enough of…
I take great exception to… I wish you wouldn’t…
This is just on! I really must object to… It just won’t do!Enough is enough! This is (simply) unacceptable.
This is shameful.
Verbs and nouns relating to complaining and protestingVerb Meaning NounTo complain (about) To express dissatisfaction or
annoyanceComplaint
To protest (about) To strongly express complaint, disapproval or disagreement
Protest
To object (to) To be against something or someone
Objection
To remonstrate with somebody/remonstrate about something
To complain to someone/complain about something (formal)
Remonstrance (very formal and not common)
To find fault (with) To criticise or complain about even small mistakes
Fault-finding
To grumble (about) To complain in a quiet but angry way
Grumble
To gripe (about) To complain continuously (informal)
Gripe
To grouse To complain, usually often (informal)
Grouse
To whinge To complain persistently (informal)
Whinge, whingeing
Chapter 73 – Apology, regret and reconciliation
Apologies and excuses: collocationsAdjective collocations NounSincere, heartfelt ApologyGood, perfect, lame, flimsy, weak ExcuseConvincing, detailed, phoney ExplanationCast-iron, convincing, perfect, phoney AlibiFlimsy, false Pretext (pretended reason for doing something rather than
the real reason)
Regretfulness in legal contextsRemorse Feeling guilt or regretAcquitted Declared not guilty (noun = acquittal)To repent To say you’re sorry and ask for forgiveness (noun
= repentance)Posthumous pardon Official forgiveness after someone’s death for
crimes they were unjustly convicted forTo exonerate To declare someone to be free of blameReprieve Official order stopping or delaying punishmentTo forgive and forget These verbs are always in this order
Peace and reconciliationTreaty Written agreement between two or more countriesArmistice Agreement to stop war while peace discussions take placeTruce Agreement between two enemies to stop fighting for a period of timeAccord Official agreement, especially between two countriesCeasefire Agreement to stop fighting in order to allow discussions about peace
Chapter 74 – A pat on the back: complimenting and praising
Collocations with compliment and praise- To pay compliments- To fish for compliments- Take it as a compliment- A back-handed/double-edged compliment (compliment which seems both negative and
positive. Back-handed has a more malicious intent, double-edged are more innocent.)- To give praise to- Praiseworthy- Widely/highly praised, praised to the skies, to sing someone’s/something’s praises, to
shower/heap praise on something/someone- To damn someone with faint praise (to praise with such lack of enthusiasm that you give the
impression of actually having rather negative feelings)
Other expressions relating to praisingTo pay tribute to To praise (formal)To give someone a standing ovation To stand up and clap loudly for a long timeTo extol the virtues/benefits of To praise highly (formal)To be the toast of To be admired for some recent achievement
(often used about artists and celebrities)To pat someone on the back/to give someone a pat on the back
To praise, often children (used mostly metaphorically)
To earn/win plaudits To get positive comments (formal)To laud To praise highly in official situations (formal)
Adjective: laudable (of behaviour)/laudatory (of comments or remarks)
Chapter 75 – Promises and bets
PromisesTo promise someone the earth/moon To promise someone a great deal (implication that this
promise is unrealistic)The afternoon promises to be interesting Expecting/anticipating it will be interestingThe child shows great promise as a violinist.She’s a promising artist.
Indicating positive future development
An oath/to swear A formal promiseTo be put under oath You have to swear to tell the truthI could have sworn I was absolutely certainI couldn’t swear to it I am not totally sureTo swear by To use something and think it’s wonderfulSwear words/bad language Taboo expressionsTo pledge To promise something, often friendship or moneyTo vow To make a determined decision or promise to do
something (wedding: exchanging vows)To turn over a new leaf To change one’s behaviour for the betterResolutions, vows, promises, pledges Can be made, kept or brokenTo go back on your word To break a promise
Both ‘swear’ and ‘oath’ can mean either (make) a solemn promise or (use) taboo language.
BetsTo bet To risk something, usually money, on the unknown result of
something in the hope of winning more moneyTo gamble To put money on the results of a game of some kindStake The amount of money that you riskAt stake At risk (to be put at stake)Wager More formal word for bet (both bet and wager can be used
in a non-literal sense)Your best bet The best decision or choiceDon’t bet on it I think what you’ve just said is unlikely to happenTo have a flutter To have a small betTo put (good) money/to bet my life on To be sureTo hedge your bets To protect yourself from the results of making a single
wrong choiceThe odds The statistical or betting chances of something to happen
(what are the odds/the odds are against…)
Chapter 76 – Reminiscences and regrets
Looking back: sharing memoriesOut of touch Not knowing what has happened recentlyWhat became of Where he is and what happened to himIf I recall If I remember correctlyTo think back To think about the pastTo hear anything of To receive any news aboutTakes me back to Makes me rememberVague memory Not a very clear memoryIt’s all coming back to me now I’m beginning to remember it more clearlyWhat stands/sticks out in my mind What I remember more than other thingsReminiscing about Thinking about pleasant things that happened in the pastTo look through rose-tinted/rose-coloured spectacles
To see only the pleasant things about a situation and not notice the things that are unpleasant
Nostalgia A feeling of pleasure and sometimes slight sadness at the same time as you think about things that happened in the past
Expressing regretRemorse RegretShame Embarrassment and guilt about something bad that happenedPangs Sudden sharp feelings, especially of painful emotion; collocates frequently with guilt,
regret, conscience, remorse (pangs of guilt)To rue To regret very much (I rue the day we ever met) (formal); collocates with ‘the day’ and
‘the fact that’To lament To feel sad about something (formal)To mourn To feel sad about something that you did not take up (formal)
Chapter 77 – Agreement, disagreement and compromise
Agreement: sharing viewsTo tally with To match or agree withTo concur with To share/agree with an idea/opinionTo find in accord with To be in complete agreement withTo coincide with To be the same asTo conform to To fit in withTo approve of To think something is right or goodTo meet with someone’s approval To be liked by that personTo agree to differ To continue to hold different opinions but to see no point in
continuing to argue about them
Political and social disagreementDissent Opposition to the accepted way of thinkingDiscord Lack of agreement or harmony (suggests arguments and rows)Rift Disagreement (with different groups/factions forming)Split When a larger group breaks up into two or more smaller groups because they
disagree about somethingDivision Similar to split but more abstract and formal (can be countable or uncountable)Controversy A lot of disagreement about a subject usually because it affects a lot of people
CompromiseTo reach a compromise Two or more parties lower their demands to make everyone happyTo compromise on To lower your demands to satisfy your competitorTo make concessions to To accept some of the demands ofTo reach a settlement To reach a decision/agreementTo exercise discretion To be sensitive, to use your judgement
Chapter 78 – Academic writing: making sense
Presenting arguments and commenting on others’ workTo advocate something To argue in favour of somethingTo deduce something To reach a conclusion by thinking carefully about the known factsTo infer something To reach a conclusion indirectlyTo complement something To combine well with something so that each piece of work becomes
more effectiveTo overlap with something To partially cover the same materialEmpirical Based on what is observed rather than theoryAmbiguous Open to different interpretationsCoherent Logically structuredComprehensive Covering all that is relevantAuthoritative Thorough and expert
Talking about figures and processesArbitrary Based on chance or personal choice rather than a system or data that
supports themTo deviate from the norm To be different from what is typicalTo distort To give a false impressionIncidence How often something occursPredominant The largest in numberIn sequence In particular orderWidespread In many places or with many people
Words typically used in academic contextsTo append To add (at the end)To conceive To think upTo contradict To go againstTo demonstrate/indicate To showTo denote To be a sign of, stand forTo negate To make useless, wipe outTo perceive To seeTo reflect upon To think aboutTo reside To lie, liveTo trigger To causeTo utilise To useAn instance of something An example of somethingThe converse To oppositeCrucial Very importantNotwithstanding Despite thisSomewhat RatherThereby In this wayWhereby By which (method)
Chapter 79 – Academic writing: text structure
Explaining, reinforcing, exemplifyingTo reiterate To repeat, restateTo summarise To describe briefly the main facts or ideasTo epitomise To be a perfect example ofTo assert To say that something is certainly trueTo expound To develop, proposeTo underscore To emphasiseTo posit To suggest as a basic fact or principleTo account for To explain, find the cause of
Categorising and includingTo comprise/make up To consist ofTo be comprised of To be composed ofTo subsume To bring together, uniteTo embrace To cover, includeTo categorise To label as belonging to a particular type or classTo touch upon To include something only briefly
Structuring the textFunction in the text ExampleBeginning I should like to preface my argument with a story.Mapping out the text I shall return to this point later in my essay.Connecting points This brings me to my next area of discussion.Focusing I should now like to address the question…Ordering points In ascending/descending orderQuoting/referring To cite, to allude toIncluding/excluding material To touch upon, to deal with, to be beyond the scope ofDrawing conclusions We are forced to conclude…
Chapter 80 – Writing: style and format
Aspects of writingTo scribble To write quickly, without much careChatty When used about writing, informalTo jot down To write something down to remember it (informal)To make a note of To write something down to remember it (more formal)To doodle To draw and write irrelevant things on the paper in front of youTo copy out To copy in writingTo draft To make a first attempt at writing somethingTo write down To copy in writing what is spokenTo write up To make a proper final written text based on previous draftsManuscript Original version produced by the author
Type and printTo touch type To type, using all your fingers without looking at the
keyboardTypescript An author’s text that has not yet been publishedTo run off a copy To print outTo format To create the page as it will appear when printedTo cut and paste/copy and paste To move text from one place to another electronicallyCharacters The letters and numbers on a keyboardBold Like this Italicised/in italics Like this Shaded box Like this In a different font size Like thisDouble inverted commas/quotation marks ‘’ ‘’Single quotation marks/quotes ‘ ‘Bullet (point) To be indented To begin away from the normal marginRound brackets ( )Diamond/angle brackets < >Square brackets [ ]Curly brackets { }Capitals/upper case (more technical) LIKE THISSmall letters/lower case like thisBlock capitals Written apart in capital lettersIn superscript Written above the normal line
TitleSubtitleChapter 1 Chapter heading
1.1 Sub-heading (within a chapter)
Chapter 81 – Whatchamacallit: being indirect
Vague and general wordsThing Can be a subject (one of the things I want to talk about)To have got a thing about something To either like or dislike somethingTo make such a thing of it To make such a fuss about itA thing Anything (there wasn’t a thing we could do about it)For one thing, … For another thing, … Firstly, … Secondly, …The thing is, … Used to introduce a topic or a problem, or to provide an
explanation,As things are, … As the situation isTo get To understandTo get it together To take positive action or organise yourselfTo get things sorted (out) To organise things so that the problem is solvedTo get someone to myself To be alone with someone
When you can’t think of the wordThingy, thingummy, thingumijic, thingamibob, whatsit, whatchamacallit, whatnot
For objects
Whatsisname, whatsisface For menWhatsername, whatserface For womenNote that these words can be written in different ways.
QuantifiersThe following quantifiers are rare in formal writing, but common in informal spoken language. They all have the same definition: a lot of.
- Bags of- A load of- A mass of- Masses of- Dozens of- Tons of- Umpteen
Being indirect and less threateningIt’s not the most e.g. practical/sensible/intelligent/appropriate thing you’ve ever done.
It’s impractical/not very sensible/rather unintelligent/inappropriate.
I mean that in the nicest possible way No offenceNo offence intended No offenceIf you don’t mind my saying so No offenceI gather I’ve heard it from someoneIncidentally Often used to introduce a new subject into the
conversation in an indirect wayPresent company excepted Not including you or meMyself included All of you, and me too
Chapter 82 – Give or take: more vague expressions
Vague expressions for numbers and quantitiesIn excess of More than (formal)Somewhere in the region of Around/about (less formal)Give or take, e.g. half an hour It could take half an hour(informal)Approximately a month Could be a month before or after (rather formal)A week or so More than a week, but unclear how much more (informal)Smattering Small proportionDash/smidgen Very small quantityDollop Usually a small amount (you can also say a large dollop)Lashings Very large quantitiesOodles Very large quantitiesStacks of A large number or quantity of (informal)
Making things less precise in informal conversationMore or less Often used with verbs and adverbs to make things more vagueA bit (of a) Used with adjectives and nouns to soften the meaningOr whateverOr somethingThings like thatThat kind of thing
Useful expression for referring vaguely to things and actions
Or words to that effect Or similar words expressing the same meaning
Chapter 83 – The way you say it
Verbs denoting volume: from quiet to loudTo mumble/mutter Used in a negative senseWithout a murmur Without any protest, complaint or commentTo raise your voice To speak louderDon’t raise your voice at me! Do not speak in that loud, angry tone!To yell Often conveys urgency, anger, frustration, or when there is
much surrounding noiseTo shout, yell, scream, roar, shriek Speaking extremely loudly, are all followed by ‘at’To shriek Loud and very high-pitched, can be used in both positive and
negative contextsTo roar Suggests very loud volume, but deeper pitched, like a lion,
used in both positive and negative contexts
Verbs describing speech and styles of conversationTo nag (at) To criticise faults or duties not doneTo bicker over who sits by the window To argue in an irritated way usually about something
pretty. Synonym = to squabble.To slag off To criticise in an insulting way (very informal)To whine and whinge To complain in an annoying way (informal, negative)To chat away To suggest light, non-serious talk (note how away is used to
emphasise continuous/extended talk)To gossip To talk about people, rumoursTo wind someone up To tease, fool someone (noun = wind-up)To butter someone up To say nice things because you want something from
someone (negative)To exaggerate To make something seem greater that it really isTo generalise To make general statements about something
Speech and articulation problemsto lisp / a lisp Difficulty in making an ‘s’ sound and making a ‘th’ sound insteadTo stammer / a stammer Speak with abnormal pauses and repetitionsTo stutter To repeat sounds at the beginning of wordsTo slur To say words with a slow, lazy sound; difficult to understandTo get tongue-tied Not being able to say what you want to say because of nerves, i.e.
emotional rather than physical problem affecting speech
Chapter 84 – Abbreviations and acronyms
Abbreviations pronounced as individual letterse.g. For example (from exempli gratia, Latin)i.e. That is (from id est, Latin)AD The year of our Lord (from Anno Domini, Latin), used in the Christian calendar to count years
since the birth of Christ; many people prefer CE as an alternative (Common Era)BC Before Christ, used to count the years before the birth of Christ; many people prefer BCE
(before the Common Era)EU European UnionID Identity documentNB Note well (from nota bene, Latin), used as a warning or to point out something importantIQ Intelligence quotient: a way of measuring people’s intelligence using a system of numbersPTO Please turn overUSB Universal Serial Bus; a type of connection between a computer and an electronic deviceFAQ Frequently asked questionsASAP As soon as possibleVIP Very important personRSVP Please reply (used on invitations, from French: répondez, s’il vous plait)UFO Unidentified flying objects
Shortened and blended wordsBedsit One room which is a bedroom and a sitting roomSitcom Short for situational comedy: a kind of humorous TV programmeSci-fi Science fictionInfo InformationBiodata Biographical data: details about someone’s life, job and achievementsBiopic Biographical picture: a film about the life of a real personWi-Fi Wireless fidelity: wireless connection for computers and electronic communications
AcronymsAIDS Acquired immune deficiency syndromeNATO North Atlantic Treaty OrganisationPIN Personal identification numberVAT Value-added tax
Abbreviations used in academic writing and bibliographiesFig. Figure (picture or drawing, often with a number,
in a book or other document)Ed. (plural: eds) Editor/editors (often used in bibliographical
references)p. (plural: pp.) Page/pagesCf. CompareEt al. And others (used in bibliographical references to
refer to a book or article with several authors, usually three or more)
Chapter 85 – Prefixes: creating new meanings
Chapter 86 – Suffixes: forming new words
Chapter 87 – Word-building and word-blending
Common well-established words partsWord part MeaningAuto- SelfBio- Life, living thingsCyber- Relating to computers and robotsDe- Opposite actionMono- Single, one-graph- Writing-gress- Step, walk, go-ics An area of study or knowledge-phon- Sound-ology StudyPre- BeforePost- AfterRetro- Back, backwardsTechno- Relating to advanced machinesTele- Over a distance
Blends (turning two well-established words into one word)Brunch A meal that is a combination of breakfast and lunchHeliport A place where helicopters can land and take offSmog Polluted fogMotel Roadside hotel for people travelling by carWebinar Seminar delivered over the internetGuesstimate Approximate calculationDocudrama TV programme that dramatizes real historical eventsBreathalyser A device to find out how much alcohol a person has drunk
Chapter 88 – English: a global language
The origins of English vocabularyLexicon Vocabulary (specialist term)Sources Where something comes fromAnglo-Saxon Old EnglishWord stock Set of wordsViking Norse, from the north of Europe, e.g. DenmarkNorman From NormandyTo enrich To make richerTo have impact on To influence, to have an effect onConcept IdeaClassical origin From Latin or Ancient GreekLinguistic consequences Results affecting language
English words from other languagesLanguage Word MeaningArabic Amber Yellowy-orange substance originating from tree resin and used in
jewelleryDutch Roster List of people’s turns for jobsFarsi Tabby Grey and brown stripy catGerman Gimmick An amusing or unusual wat of attracting attentionGreek Tonic Medicine to make you feel stronger and betterHindi Cot Child’s bed with high vertical sidesIcelandic Mumps A childhood illnessJapanese Karaoke Type of entertainment where ordinary people sing to popular musicPortuguese Palaver Unnecessary troubleRussian Intelligentsia Social class of intellectualsSpanish Hammock Net hung and used as a bedTurkish Turban Type of men’s headwear, made from a long piece of cloth
False friendsSome English words may look like words from your language but have a different meaning. Such words are known as false friends. Example:Gift = present in EnglishGift = poison in German
Chapter 89 – False friends: words easily confused
Words similar in form and close in meaningTo intervene To step in; in natural meaningTo interfere To involve yourself; negative and criticalContinually Very frequently; often negativeContinuously Without stopping; from a recipeSeries Set of related programmesSerial Set of programmes where the story continues over different episodesIn the shade of Out of the sun; pleasant connotationIn the shadow of In a place dominated by; negative connotationTo compliment To praise, express admiration forTo complement To make something seem better, more complete or more attractive in
combination
Words of different form but from the same area of meaningMoist Slightly wet; from a recipeDamp Slightly wet in an unpleasant wayTheme The main idea that everything followedTopic What the people talk aboutSecurity concerned with the protection of property etc.Safety Concerned with the prevention of accidentsTo avoid To stay away fromTo evade To escape from; more formal
Phrasal combinationsVerb in sentence NounSix men broke out of the prison. BreakoutThe disease has broken out in several villages. OutbreakEconomists are looking out for signs of an end to the recession. OutlookHe stood at the corner looking out for police cars. LookoutThe club decided to set up a committee. setup
Differences in verbsVerb 1 Verb 2To upend (to move into vertical direction) To end up (to finish)To uphold (to confirm, support) To hold up (to delay)To outdo (to do better than) To do out (to decorate)To outrun (to run faster than) To run out (to use something so there is none
left)To upset (to make someone worried, unhappy or angry)
To set up (to organise or arrange something)
Chapter 90 – one words, many meanings
PolysemyFair Equal, exposition, cloudless, light-complexioned, attractiveFlat Apartment building, horizontal, absoluteCapital Upper case, government seated city, financial assets, death penaltyMean To signify, rude, average, ungenerous, to intendHomographs: words with the same spellings but different meanings. (what a fair fair!)
Chapter 91 – Collocation: which words go together
Adjective + noun collocationsWe say We don’t usually sayThe real thing The genuine thingThe genuine article The real articleA broad summary A wide summaryIn great detail In big detailA formidable opponent/reputation/task/challenge
Verb + object collocationsWe say We don’t sayTo raise your hand To lift your handTo raise a family To lift a familyTo visit/go to/click on/check out a website -
Chapter 92 – Metaphor: seeing the light
What are metaphors?A metaphor is a way of expressing something by comparing it indirectly with something else that has similar characteristics.Jungle A city (it is wild and full of dangers)To light up your life A person is like a light in your life in that they bring us great happiness
Idioms and metaphorsTo be on the ball To be very aware of things and ready to and ready to
act – like a good footballerTo keep someone/something on a tight rein
To have a lot of control over someone, something – like a rider having control over a horse
Heart CentreMouth The place where a river joins the seaHead Person in charge of an organisationTo have an eye for To be good at somethingTo keep a (close)eye on To watch someone carefullyIn safe hands The person in charge is capableHand in hand with To co-exist and be interconnectedRule of thumb In a way that is not exact but will allow you to be
accurate enough
Common metaphorical concepts in EnglishLight Associated with intelligence and understandingBright CleverDim Less intelligentTo see the light To understand somethingTo cast light on To make something easier to understandTemperature Associated with intensity of feeling or passionTo blow hot and cold
To be enthusiastic at one time and not at another time
Hotheaded Reacting quickly on the basis of their feelings without thinking firstCold-hearted Without feelingWater (movement) Associated with the movement of people: people flooding/trickling out of a
hall, a constant stream of traffic.Money Is often likened to money (both seen as commodities that can be spent or
wasted, or used profitably)Investing time Using time in a way that you think will bring you advantagesTo pay dividends To bring advantagesMilitary operations Likened to business: strategies, tactics and campaigns, launching.
Chapter 93 – Idioms for everyday situations and feelings
When things go rightTo work like a dream To succeed absolutely perfectlyTo go/run like clockwork To go smoothly, with no difficultiesTo be up and running To begin to work as plannedTo fall into place To be on the point of starting to work wellTo be looking up To look very positive
When things go wrong: reacting in conversationOh no! That’s all we need(ed)! In response to news that makes current problems
even worseThat’s the last thing I wanted to hear! In response to news that fulfils your worst fearsThis is like a bad dream! When one bad thing after another happens in quick
successionIt’s a real nightmare / my worst nightmare. Used very generally, e.g. about traffic jams, computers
going wrong.What a pain! Used very generally, in response to any situation that
causes you difficulty.
Confusing situations or situations you don’t understandThrew me completely I didn’t know how to respondA complete shambles A totally disorganised and chaotic eventIt’s a mystery to me It’s something I cannot understandWe must have got our wires crossed There must have been a
miscommunication/misunderstandingI’m not with you / You’ve lost me there What you said has confused me
Happiness and sadnessTo be on top of the world/on cloud nine/over the moon
To be extremely happy
To be in (your) element / to be made for To be ideally suited forTo be fed up to the back teeth To be extremely unhappy, disappointedTo be down in the dumps/down in the mouth To be depressed
Chapter 94 – Brushing up on phrasal verbs
Learning phrasal verbsTo come across To meet/to give an impression of beingTo come over To give an impression of beingTo put forward To proposeTo rush into a decision To make a hasty decision
The verbTo come off To happen successfullyTo come over To travel from one place to anotherWhat came over me Influence someone to behave in a particular wayTo come under To experience something (usually unpleasant)To come up To occur unexpectedlyTo come up against To have to deal with a problem or difficulty
The preposition/particleTo stay on To remainTo dwell on To keep thinking about, usually about something unpleasantTo catch on To become popularTo go on To talk at lengthTo urge on To encourageTo press on To continue in a determined way
Phrasal verbs in topicsTo brush up on To improve knowledge of something already learnt but partly forgottenTo lay off To stop employingTo call off To cancelTo throw yourself into To start doing something with great energyTo settle in To feel relaxed and happyTo put together To prepare by collecting information from several sources
Chapter 95 – Connotation: making associations
Different kinds of associationsTo associate To make connectionsDove A white bird, has associations with peaceHawk A bird that hunts its prey, has associations with a more violent way of doing
thingsBlack cats Britain: good luck, USA: bad luck (geographical difference in association)Personal association E.g. you were attacked by a dog in your childhood, and therefore associate
dogs with fear, whereas other people associate dogs with loyalty.A dog’s life A very unhappy and unpleasant life
Understanding associationsWord Association/meaningParis Glamour, styleCowboy builders Builders who are not careful or trustworthyShark AggressionScar A wound on something that was once unspoilt, something ugly in a beautiful
landscapeDiamond Something precious
Chapter 96 – Register: degrees of formality
Formal and informal wordsNeutral Formal InformalTV/television - The box / the tellyGlasses Spectacles SpecsClothes Clothing/garments GearUse Employ/utilise -Try Endeavour/attempt Have a go/stab/brash/crack/shot at
Speech and writingWord/phrase Speaking/writing CommentSubsequently Writing Linking adverb: in speech more likely to be ‘later’
or ‘afterwards’In sum Writing Linking expression: means ‘to sum up’Whatsisname/whatsername Speaking Vague word: used when we cannot remember
the name of a personThingy Speaking Vague word: used as a noun, of people and things
whose name one cannot rememberMind you Speaking Discourse marker: used to bring attention to an
important pointNow then Speaking Discourse marker: used to get people’s attention
when you want to ask or tell them something
Outdated wordsAsylum Hospital for the mentally illFrock DressWireless RadioConsumption Tuberculosis/TBEyeglasses glasses
Chapter 97 – Divided by a common language
Streets and roadsAmerican BritishStreet RoadKitty corner Diagonally oppositeGas station Petrol stationCrosswalk Pedestrian crossing / zebra crossingTrail PathCreek Stream, small riverTake a left Turn leftInterstate Major motorway in the US connecting different statesIntersection JunctionCart TrolleyParking lot Car parkBacking up ReversingOverpass Flyover, i.e. a bridge that carries one road over another
Educational terminologyAmerican BritishCollege University (college in Britain usually means a place for
specialised education for people over 16)Courses ModulesFreshman Fresher / first year (student)Sophomore (a)second yearJuniors Third years / third year studentsMajoring Doing honours / doing an honours degreeProfessors (used as a general term for university teachers)
Lecturers (used as a general term for university teachers – professor is a person with the highest academic rank)
Elementary school Primary schoolHigh school Secondary school
Around the homeAmerican BritishGround Earth (talking about the electricity cable)Dumpster SkipFaucet TapStove CookerSkillet Frying pan
Chapter 98 – Language and gender
Gender awareness and vocabularyMan in the street A typical personNeanderthal Man A now extinct species that were the ancestors of present-day humansTo manhandle To handle roughly, to use force
Older usage Current usageSpokesman SpokespersonFireman, policeman Firefighter, police officerMale nurse NurseMan-hours Working hoursAir hostess Flight attendantCleaning lady CleanerForeman SupervisorMan-made ArtificialMankind The human race / human beingsTo man To staff
Words relating to genderMale, female Used for gender classification in biologyMasculine, feminine Having qualities traditionally felt to be typically male or femaleManly, womanly Having positive qualities traditionally felt to be typically male or femaleEffeminate Resembling a woman (used of men, negative)A tomboy A young girl who behaves and dresses like a boyA sissy A boy who behaves like a girl, or a weak and cowardly person (informal,
negative, often used by children)Butch Used of men and women, aggressively masculine in looks and behaviour
(informal)
Chapter 99 – In the headlines
Features of headline languageTo hit the headlines To suddenly receive a lot of attention in the newsTabloid newspapers Popular papers with small pages and short simple reportsTypical tabloid headlines:
- Articles, prepositions and auxiliary verbs are often omitted- Use of present simple instead of past tense makes story sound more immediate- Ambiguous use of language- Words with dramatic associations such as danger are often used- Often feature celebrities- Alliteration- Strong and simple words, brief and vivid words, such as gunman- Strongly emotional words like crazed are often used to attract attention
Violent wordsTo crush To destroyThugs, yobs, louts People who cause troubleCrackdown Taking serious measures to deal with a problemBesieged Surrounded, as if by armyTo rip To move in a destructive way
Playing with wordsMany headlines have wordplay in them, to entertain the readers in a way. For example:‘Moon becomes shooting star’ headline about football player John Moon, shot goals, shooting star informal expression of meteor, moon = another astronomical body.
Chapter 100 – Red tape
Characteristics of bureaucratic languageTo attain To reachBestowed on Given toTo demolish To knock downAdjoining Next toUndersigned The person who wrote the letterAforementioned AboveTo commence To start (n: commencement)To cease operations To stop functioning (n: cessation)The deceased The dead personNext of kin Closest relativeIn the event of If there isMust be evacuated People must leaveTo endeavour To tryTo facilitate To make possible, easierTo be instructed To be toldTo proceed To moveTo rectify To put rightTo resume To start again
Bureaucratic correspondenceAcknowledge receipt of Inform us that you have receivedWith the compliments of Written on a slip of paper sent with an item from a companyTo notify To informAt your earliest convenience As soon as possibleFurther clarification is required You need more of an explanationIn respect of Relating to, forWith regard to about
