LEADERSHIP

Leadership

The ability to inspire confidence and support among the people who are needed to achieve organizational goals

Leadership RolesAn expected set of activities or behaviors stemming from one s job

Figurehead Spokesperson Negotiator Coach and motivator Team builder

Team player Technical problem solver Entrepreneur Strategic planner

Sources of Leader Satisfaction A feeling of power and prestige A chance to help others grow and develop High income Respect and status Good opportunities for advancement A feeling of being in on things An opportunity to control resources

Framework for Understanding Leadership

Esse tial Q alities f Effective F ll ers Self-ma ageme t C mmitme t C mpete ce a d f c s C rage

Traits, Motives and Characteristics of Leaders

Universal Theory of Leadership

Certain leadership traits are universally important; that is, they apply in all situations

Lea ers i aracteristics ateg ries Pers nality traits M tives gnitive fact rs

Leader Personality Traits General Personality Traits Traits observable both within and outside the context of work

Task-Related Personality Traits Traits closely associated with task accomplishment

Figure 2-1 General Personality Traits of Effective Leaders

Figure 2-2 Task-Related Personality Traits of Leaders

Emotional Intelligencerefers to the ability to do such things as understand one s feelings, have empathy for others, and regulate one s emotions to enhance one s quality of life.

Leadership Motives Leaders have an intense desire to occupy a position of responsibility for others and to control them. This desire is evident in four needs or motives, all of which can be considered task related.

Figure 2-3 Leadership Motives

Cog itive Factors Cognition refers to the mental process by which knowledge is gathered Leaders must have problem-solving and intellectual skills to effectively gather, process, and store essential information Six cognitive factors related to leadership effectiveness have been identified

Cognitive Factors and Leadership

T e WICS

odel of Leaders i i Orga izations

T is model of leaders i encompasses and synthesizes wisdom intelligence, and creativity

to explain leadership effectiveness

The

ICS Model (cont d)

According to the ICS model, a leader needs following for the successful utilization of intelligence: Creative skills to generate new ideas Analytical skills to evaluate whether the ideas are good ones Practical skills to implement the ideas and to persuade others of their value.

Nature versus Nurture Are leaders born or are they made? Both. Individuals inherit a basic capacity to develop personality traits and mental ability that sets an outer limit on how extensively these traits can be developed Environmental influences, in turn, determine how much of an individual s potential will be developed

Charismatic Leadership, Transactional Leadership, Transformational Leadership

Charisma Defined Charisma has been defined various ways Charisma is a Greek word meaning divinely inspired gift In leadership, charisma is a special quality of leaders whose purposes, powers, and extraordinary determination differentiate them from others

Charis a:

elationshi et een the Leader and roup e ers

Key to charis atic leadership is the interaction et een leader and group e ers Charis atic qualities ust e attri uted to the leader y group e ers Charis atic leaders use i pression anage ent to cultivate their relationships ith group e ers

The Effects of Charisma Group members trust the leader s beliefs have beliefs similar to those of the leader accept the leader unquestioningly have affection for the leader willingly obey the leader identify with and attempt to emulate the leader

The Effects of Charisma (cont d) Group members have emotional involvement in the mission have heightened goals feel that they will be able to accomplish, or to contribute to the accomplishment of the mission

Figure 3-1 Halpert s Dimensions of Charisma

Types of Charis atic Leaders Socialized charismatics restrain the use of power to benefit others Personalized charismatics exercise few restraints on power to serve their own interests

Types of Charis atic Leaders (cont d) Office-holder charismatics attain their charisma from the position they hold Personal charismatics gain esteem from others faith in them as people Divine charismatics are endowed with a gift of divine grace

Characteristics of Charismatic Leaders Visionary Masterful communication skills Ability to inspire trust Able to make group members feel capable Energy and action orientation Emotional expressiveness and warmth Romanticize risk Unconventional strategies Self-promoting personality Dramatic and unique

Vision in Charis atic Leadership Vision is the ability to imagine different and better conditions and ways to achieve them A vision is a lofty, long-term goal Charismatic leaders inspire others with their vision

Communication Management by Inspiration Using metaphors and analogies to appeal to the intellect, imagination, and values of group members Gearing language to different audiences

Management by Anecdote Inspiring and instructing team members by telling fascinating stories

Techni ues for eveloping Charis a Create visions for others Be enthusiastic, opti istic, and energetic Be sensibly persistent Re e ber na es of people Make an i pressive appearance Be candid isplay an in-your-face attitude

Transformational Leadership The transformational leader helps bring about major, positive changes Transformational leaders move group members beyond their self-interests for the good of the group, organization, or society

Figure 3-2 How Transformations Take Place

Attributes of Transformational Leaders Charismatic Create a vision Encourage the personal development of their staff Provide supportive leadership Practice empowerment Innovative thinking Lead by example

Concerns out Charis atic Leadership According to the concept of leadership polarity, leaders are often either revered or vastly unpopular Charis a ay not e necessary for leadership effectiveness Charis atic leadership has a dark side Some charismatic and transformational leaders neglect their social responsi ility

Leadership Behaviors, Attitude and Styles

An Effective Leader is one who helps group members attain productivity, including high quality and customer satisfaction.

Dimensions of Leadership ehavior Consideration The degree to which the leader creates an environment of emotional support, warmth, friendliness, and trust Involves being friendly and approachable, looking out for the personal welfare of the group, keeping the group abreast of new developments, and doing small favors for the group

Dimensions of Leadership ehavior Initiating Structure rganizing and defining relationships in the group by engaging in such activities as assigning specific tasks, specifying procedures to be followed, scheduling work, and clarifying expectations for team members Also referred to as production emphasis, task orientation, and task motivation

Figure 4-1 Four Combinations of Initiating Structure and Consideration

Table 4-1 Task-Related Leadership Attitudes and Behaviors

Table 4-2 Relationship- riented Attitudes and Behaviors

Servant LeaderA servant leader serves constituents by working on their behalf to help them achieve their goals, not the leader s own goals. Places service before self-interest Listens first to express confidence in others Inspires trust by being trustworthy Focuses on what is feasible to accomplish Lends a hand Provides tools

360-Degree Feedback A formal evaluation of superiors based on input from people who work for and with them ften referred to as multisource feedback or multirater feedback Most often used for leadership and management development

Figure 4-2 A 360-Degree Feedback Chart

Leadership Style The relatively consistent pattern of behavior that characterizes a leader ften based on the dimensions of initiating structure and consideration Examples: He s a real command-and-control type, she s a consensus leader.

Participative Leadership Participative leaders share decision making with group members ( trickle-up leadership ) Three subtypes: Consultative leaders confer with group members Consensus leaders strive for consensus among group members Democratic leaders confer final authority to the group

Autocratic Leadership Autocratic leaders retain most of the authority for themselves Autocratic leaders make decisions confidently, assume that group members will comply, and are not overly concerned with group members attitudes toward a decision

Leadership Grid Styles The Leadership Grid is a framework for specifying the extent of a leader s concern for production and people Benchmark Leadership Grid styles include: Authority-Compliance (9,1) Country Club Management (1,9) Impoverished Management (1,1) Middle-of-the-Road Management (5,5) Team Management (9,9)

Entrepreneurial Leadership Characteristics Strong achievement drive and sensible risk-taking High degrees of enthusiasm and creativity Tendency to act quickly when opportunity arises Constant hurry combined with impatience Visionary perspective

Entrepreneurial Leadership Characteristics (cont d) Dislike of hierarchy and bureaucracy Preference for dealing with external customers Eye on the future

Gender Differences in Leadership Stylene researcher concluded that men tended toward a command-and-control style. In contrast, women tended toward a transformational style, relying heavily on interpersonal skills. hile researchers found leadership style differences between men and women, on the dimension of overall effectiveness, the sexes were perceived the same.

Contingency and Situational leadership, Decision making model

Contingency ApproachLeaders are most effective when they make their behavior contingent on situational forces, including group member characteristics.

Fiedler s Contingency Theory The best style of leadership is determined by situational factors Leadership style may be relationshipmotivated or task-motivated Leadership style is relatively enduring and difficult to change Leaders should be matched to situations according to their style

Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) The LPC scale measures the degree to which a leader describes favorably or unfavorably an employee with whom he or she could work least well A relationship-motivated leader tends to describe their LPC in favorable terms A task-motivated leader tends to describe their LPC in an unfavorable manner

Measuring the Situation Leadership situations are classified as high, moderate, or low control More controllable situations are viewed as more favorable for the leader Control is determined by three dimensions: Leader-member relations Task structure Position power

Figure 5-1 Summary of Findings From Fiedler s Contingency Theory

Evaluation of Fiedler s Contingency Theory Fiedler s work prompted others to conduct studies about the contingency nature of leadership. The model has alerted leaders to the importance of sizing up the situation to gain control. However, contingency theory is too complicated to have much of an impact on most leaders.

Path-Goal Theory Developed y obert ouse Specifies what the leader must do to achieve high productivity and morale in a given situation Based on expectancy theory of motivation The manager should choose a leadership style that takes into account the characteristics of group members and the demands of the task

Figure 5-2 The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership

Path-Goal Theory: atching the Leadership Style to the Situation Two sets of contingency factors: Type of subordinates determined by locus of control and self-efficacy Type of work subordinates perform

Factors influencing job satisfaction and task accomplishment: Group members tasks Authority system of the organization The work group

Situational Leadership II (SLII) Developed by enneth . lanchard and others Explains how to match leadership style to the capabilities of group members on a given task SLII is designed to increase the frequency and quality of conversations about performance and professional development between managers and group members so that competence is developed, commitment takes place, and turnover among talented workers is reduced

Figure 5-3 Situational Leadership II (SLII)

Normative Decision ModelViews leadership as a decision-making process in which the leader determines which decision-making style will be the most effective by examining certain factors within the situation

The ormative odel: Five Decisionaking Styles Decide Leader makes decision alone Consult (individually) Leader makes decision after consulting group members Consult (group) Leader makes decision after meeting with the group Facilitate Leader defines the problem and decision boundaries Delegate Leader permits the group to make the decision

Contingency Leadership in the Executive Suite Five approaches successful CE s use based on assessments of their companies needs: Strategic Human assets Expertise Box Change agent

Crisis Leadership Attributes Be decisive Lead with compassion Reestablish the usual work routine Avoid a circle-the-wagons mentality Display optimism Be a transformational leader

Power, Politics and Leadership

Types and Sources of Power Position power Personal power Power stemming from ownership Power stemming from providing resources Power derived from capitalizing on opportunities Power stemming from managing critical problems Power stemming from being close to power

Four Bases of Position Power Legitimate power is the lawful right to make a decision and expect compliance Reward power stems from having the authority to give employees rewards for compliance Coercive power is the power to punish for noncompliance Information power stems from formal control over the information people need

Sources of Personal Power Expert power is the ability to influence others through specialized knowledge, skills, or abilities Referent power is the ability to influence others through desirable traits and characteristics Prestige power is power stemming from one s status and reputation

Ownership Power A leader s strength of ownership power depends on how closely the leader is linked to shareholders and board members how much money he or she has invested in the firm

Resource Dependence Perspective An organization requires a continuing flow of human resources, money, customers and clients, technological inputs, and materials to continue to function Organizational subunits or individuals who can provide these key resources accrue power

Power From Capitalizing on Opportunity Power can be derived from being in the right place at the right time and taking the appropriate action It pays to be where the action is.

Strategic Contingency Theory Units best able to cope with the firm s critical problems and uncertainties acquire relatively large amounts of power A subunit can acquire power by virtue of its centrality Centrality is the extent to which a unit s activities are linked into the system of organizational activities

Power from eing Close to Power The closer a person is to power, the greater power he or she exerts The higher a unit reports in a firm s hierarchy, the more power it possesses

Empowermentrefers to passing decision-making authority and responsibility from managers to group members. Almost any form of participative management, shared decision making, and delegation can be regarded as empowerment.

Figure 7-1 Effective Empowering Practices

Organizational PoliticsInformal approaches to gaining power through means other than merit or luck

Factors Contributing to Political ehavior Pyramid-shaped organization structure Subjective standards of performance Environmental uncertainty and turbulence Emotional insecurity Machiavellian tendencies Encouraging admiration from subordinates

Power-Gaining Strategies Develop power contacts Control vital information Stay informed Control lines of communication Bring in outside experts Make a quick showing Remember that everyone expects to be paid back Be the first to accept reasonable changes

Relationship-Building Strategies Display loyalty Manage your impression Ask satisfied customers to contact your boss Be courteous, pleasant, and positive Ask advice Send thank-you notes to large numbers of people Flatter others sensibly

Potential Political Blunders Criticizing the boss in a public forum Bypassing the boss Declining an offer from top management Putting your foot in your mouth Not conforming to the company dress code

Unethical Political Tactics Backstabbing Embrace or demolish Setting a person up for failure Divide and rule Playing territorial games Creating and then resolving a false catastrophe

Exercising Control Over Dysfunctional Politics Be aware of its causes and techniques Avoid favoritism Set good examples at the top of the organization Encourage goal congruence Threaten to discuss questionable information in a public forum Hire people with integrity

INFLUENCE TACTICS OF LEADERS

Power and Influence Influence is the ability to affect the behavior of others in a particular direction Power is the potential or capacity to influence A leader must acquire power to influence others

Figure 8-1 A Model of Power and Influence

Table 8-1 Essentially Ethical and Honest Influence Tactics

Figure 8-2 Essentially Dishonest and Unethical Influence Tactics

MachiavelliansPeople in the workplace who ruthlessly manipulate others. They tend to initiate actions with others and control the interactions. They regularly practice deception, bluffing, and other manipulative tactics.

Influence Tactic Effectiveness Most-effective tactics: Rational persuasion Inspirational appeal Consultation

Least-effective tactics: Pressure Coalition Legitimating

Influence Tactics Effectiveness (cont d) Effective tactics in a downward direction (toward a lower-ranking person) Inspirational appeal Ingratiation Pressure

Effective tactics in a lateral direction Personal appeal Exchange Legitimating

Sequencing of Influence Tactics Begin with the most positive, or least abrasive tactic If necessary, proceed to a stronger tactic Use a more abrasive tactic such as upward appeal only as a last resort

Se uencing of Influence Tactics (cont d) Begin with low-cost, low-risk tactics If necessary, proceed to higher-cost, higherrisk tactics

Influence Tactic Direction The influence agent must also consider the direction of the influence attempt as a contingency factor. The more position power an individual exerts over another, the less the need for caution in the use of influence tactics

Implicit Leadership Theoriesare personal assumptions about the traits and abilities that characterize an ideal organizational leader. These assumptions, both stated and unstated, develop through socialization and past experience with leaders. The assumptions are stored in memory and activated when group members interact with a person in a leadership position.

Implicit Leadership Theories (cont d) Prototypes are positive characterizations of a leader. Antiprototypes are traits and behaviors people do not want to see in a leader.

Table 8-2 Implicit Leadership Theory Dimensions

DEVELOPING TEAM WORK

Teams, Teamwork, and Groups A team is a work group that must rely on collaboration if each member is to experience the optimum success and achievement Teamwork is done with an understanding and commitment to group goals on the part of all team members All teams are groups, but not all groups are teams

Figure 9-1 Solo Leader vs. Team Leader Solo Leader Plays unlimited role (interferes) Strives for conformity Collects acolytes Directs subordinates Projects objectives

Team Leader Chooses to limit role (delegates) Builds on diversity Seeks talent Develops colleagues Creates mission

Roles of a Leader in the Team- ased Organization Building trust and inspiring teamwork Coaching team members and group members toward higher levels of performance Facilitating and supporting team s decisions Expanding the team s capabilities Creating a team identity

Roles of the Leader in the Team-Based Organization (cont d) Anticipating and influencing change Inspiring the team toward higher levels of performance Enabling and empowering group members to accomplish their work Encouraging team members to eliminate lowvalue work

Leader Actions That Foster Teamwork (using own resources) Defining the team s mission Establishing a climate of trust Developing a norm of teamwork, including emotional intelligence Emphasizing pride in being outstanding Serving as a model of teamwork, including power sharing Using a consensus leadership style

Leader Actions That Foster Teamwork(cont d)

Establishing urgency, demanding performance standards, and providing direction Encouraging competition with another group Encouraging the use of jargon Minimizing micromanaging Practicing e-leadership

Fostering Teamwork Through Organization Structure or Policy Designing physical structures that facilitate communication Emphasizing group recognition and rewards Initiating ritual and ceremony Practicing open-book management

Fostering Teamwork Through Organization Structure or Policy (cont d) Selecting team-oriented members Using technology that facilitates teamwork Developing a team book

Cooperation Theory a belief in cooperation and collaboration rather than competitiveness as a strategy for building teamwork.

Open-Book ManagementIn open-book management every employee is trained, empowered, and motivated to understand and pursue the companys business goals. Employees become business partners and perceive themselves to be members of the same team.

Outdoor Training and Team Development Outdoor training is a form of learning by doing Participants acquire leadership and teamwork skills by confronting physical challenges and exceeding self-imposed limitations

The Leader- ember Exchange odel (L X) Proposes that leaders develop unique work relationships with group members Two subsets of employees result: The in-group is given additional rewards, responsibility, and trust in exchange for their loyalty and performance The out-group members are treated in accordance with a more formal understanding of leadermember relations

Figure 9-2 The Leader-Member Exchange Model

MOTIVATION AND COACHING SKILLS

Expectancy Theory The amount of effort people expend depends on how much reward they expect to get in return It is cognitive because it emphasizes the thoughts, judgments, and desires of the person being motivated It is a process theory because it attempts to explain how motivation takes place

Figure 10-1 The Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Implications Determine what levels and kinds of performance are needed to achieve organizational goals Make the performance level attainable by the individuals being motivated Train and encourage people Make explicit the link between rewards and performance

Implications (cont d) Make sure the rewards are large enough Analyze what factors work in opposition to the effectiveness of the reward Explain the meaning and implications of second-level outcomes Understand individual differences in valences Recognize that when workers are in a positive mood, high valences, instrumentalities, and expectancies are more likely to lead to good performance

Goal Theory Behavior is regulated by values and goals A goal is what a person is trying to accomplish People desire to behave in ways consistent with their values

Figure 10-2 Goal Theory

Successful Recognition Has symbolic meaning Inspires pride of ownership Helps to reinforce the philosophy or identity of the giver

Figure 10-3 Coaching Versus the Traditional ay of Thinking about Management

Fallacies About Coaching Coaching applies only in one-to-one work Coaching is mostly about providing new knowledge and skills If coaches go beyond giving instruction in knowledge and skills, they are in danger of getting into psychotherapy Coaches need to be expert in something in order to coach Coaching has to be done face-to-face

Coaching Skills and Techniques1. Communicate clear expectations to group members 2. Build relationships 3. Give feedback on areas that require specific improvement 4. Listen actively 5. Help remove obstacles

Coaching Skills and Techni ues (cont d)6. 7. 8. 9. Give emotional support Reflect content or meaning Give some gentle advice and guidance Allow for modeling of desired performance and behavior 10. Gain a commitment to change 11. Applaud good results

Executive CoachingAn executive coach (or business coach) is an outside or inside specialist who advises a person about personal improvement and behavioral change

Communication and Conflict Resolution Skills

Communication and Leadership Effective leaders are also effective communicators To be effective, the leader must synchronize verbal and nonverbal behavior Technology has had a meaningful impact on leaders communication and coordination

Inspirational Speaking and Writing Be credible Gear your message to the listener Sell group members on the benefits of your suggestions Use heavy-impact and emotion-provoking words

Inspirational Speaking and Writing (cont d) Use anecdotes and metaphors to communicate meaning Back up conclusions with data (to a point) Minimize language errors, junk words, and vocalized pauses Write crisp, clear memos, letters, and reports, including a front-loaded message Use a power-oriented linguistic style

Principles of Persuasion Liking: People like those who like them Reciprocity: People repay in kind Social proof: People follow the lead of similar others

Principles of Persuasion (cont d) Consistency: People align with their clear commitments Authority: People defer to experts Scarcity: People want more of what they can have less of

Principles of Supportive Communication Problem oriented, not person oriented Descriptive, not evaluative Based on congruence, not incongruence Focused on validating, rather than invalidating, people Specific, not global

Principles of Supportive Communication (cont d) Conjunctive, not disjunctive Owned, not disowned Requires listening as well as sending messages

Overcoming and Preventing Communication Barriers Be sensitive to the fact that cross-cultural communication barriers exist Challenge your cultural assumptions Show respect for all workers Use straightforward language, and speak slowly and clearly

Overcoming and Preventing Communication Barriers (cont d) Look for signs of misunderstanding when your language is not the listener s native language hen the situation is appropriate, speak the language of the people from another culture Observe cross-cultural differences in etiquette

Overcoming and Preventing Communication Barriers (cont d) Do not be diverted by style, accent, grammar, or personal appearance Avoid racial or ethnic identification except when it is essential to communication Be sensitive to differences in nonverbal communication Be attentive to individual differences in appearance

Figure 12-1 Conflict-Handling Styles According to the Degree of Cooperation and Assertiveness

Conflict Management Styles The competitive style is a desire to win one s own concerns at the expense of the other party, or to dominate The accommodative style favors appeasement, or satisfying the other s concerns without taking care of one s own The sharing style is halfway between domination and appeasement

Conflict Management Styles (cont d) The collaborative style reflects a desire to fully satisfy the desires of both parties The avoidant style combines unassertiveness and a lack of cooperation

Negotiating and Bargaining Conflicts can be considered situations calling for negotiating and bargaining, or conferring with another person in order to resolve a problem Two approaches to negotiation: Distributive bargaining (zero sum) Integrative bargaining (win-win)

Negotiation Techniques Begin with a plausible demand or offer Focus on interests, not position Search for the value in differences between the two sides Be sensitive to international differences in negotiating style

International and Culturally Diverse aspects of leadership

Multicultural LeaderA leader with skills and attitudes to relate effectively to and motivate people across race, gender, age, social attitudes, and lifestyles

Figure 14-2 Dimensions of Individual Values

European Styles of Management French managers (who are typically part of an elite class) behave in a superior, authoritarian manner. German middle managers tend to avoid uncertainty, are assertive, and are not terribly considerate of others

Malaysian Managers Emphasize collective well-being (collectivism) and display a strong humane orientation The culture discourages aggressive, confrontational behavior, preferring harmonious relationships

Culturally Sensitive Leader illing to acquire knowledge about local customs illing to learn to speak the language Patient Adaptable Flexible illing to listen and learn

Cultural Intelligence (C ) an outsiders ability to interpret someones unfamiliar and ambiguous gestures the way that persons compatriots would.

Facets of Cultural Intelligence (CQ) Cognitive CQ (head) Physical CQ (body) Emotional/motivational CQ (heart)

Global Leadership Skills Behavioral complexity that allows the leader to attain corporate profitability and productivity, continuity and efficiency, commitment and morale, and adaptability and innovation Stewardship Ability to satisfy three metavalues including: community, pleasure, and meaning

Global Leadership Skills Cultural sensitivity Culturally adventurous Good command of a second language

Cultural Diversity Initiatives Hold managers accountable for achieving diversity Establish minority recruitment, retention, and mentoring programs Conduct diversity training

Cultural Diversity Initiatives (cont d) Conduct intercultural training Encourage the development of employee networks Avoid group characteristics when hiring for person-organization fit

Inter-Cultural Training

A set of learning experiences designed to help employees understand the customs, traditions, and beliefs of another language

Figure 14-4 The Multicultural Organization