Learning

A. Introduction to learning

• 1. Why do psychologists care about learning?• 2. What is and isn’t learning?

IS: A relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.

ISN’T: reflex or effects of drug (temporary)

natural maturation (not experience)• 3. How do we know we’ve learned?

B. Association in Learning

• Everyday examples...

• Association: linking two events or stimuli that occur together in space or time. Early theories of learning were based on principles of association.– Classical Conditioning– Operant Conditioning

C. Classical Conditioning• 1. Example…

– Learning that results from pairing two events in the environment.

– Learn to associate a neutral event with another event or stimulus from the environment.

• 2. Ivan Pavlov– Review from video

C. Classical Conditioning• 2. Pavlov:

– Paired neutral stimulus (tone/bell) with coming of food.

– What occurred when bell alone was sounded?– What is the difference between when the dog

salivated to food versus the bell?– Food – naturally causes salivation– Tone/bell – learned to associate with food –

causes salivation.

C. Classical Conditioning• 3. Classical Conditioning Terms:

• Two parts: response (action that takes place)

stimulus (cause of action)

• Response: salivation

• Stimulus: food, bell/tone

• How do we differentiate between food/salivation and bell/salivation?

C. Classical Conditioning• 3. Classical Conditioning Terms

• Food and salivation:

• a. Unconditioned Stimuli and Response– UCS (food) & UCR (salivation)– occurs naturally, automatically, unconditionally. – NOT learned, like reflex

C. Classical Conditioning• 3. Classical Conditioning Terms

• Bell and Salivation:

• b. Conditioned Stimuli and Response

– CS (tone/bell) & CR (salivation)

– originally NEUTRAL stimulus, that, after being paired with UCS, triggers CR.

– learned, NOT automatic.– not naturally occurring.

C. Classical Conditioning• 4. Conditioning Processes and Principles

• a. Acquisition: initial stage of learning.

• b. Extinction: diminishing of a CR.– When CS is no longer paired with UCS, eventually,

the CS ALONE will not elicit the CR.

• c. Spontaneous Recovery:– The reappearance, after a rest period, of an

extinguished CR.

(What does this suggest?)

C. Classical Conditioning• Example of Little Albert (Watson).

• d. Generalization: when a CS is paired with a UCS, stimuli similar to CS can evoke similar responses (like CR).

• e. Discrimination: learned ability to distinguish between two stimuli. – How could an animal be trained to discriminate

between stimuli?

C. Classical Conditioning5. Limits and concerns with original theory.From CC – early psychologists concluded:• Any organism can be conditioned to any stimulus.a. Influence of biological predispositions (Garcia & Koelling, 1966).

• Only study observable responses/behavior.b. No mention of mental processes

(dogs were passive, mechanical, mindless)– Behaviorism: only study observable behavior, no

thoughts, cognition, etc.– Couldn’t use terms: expectation, prediction

D. Operant Conditioning

• Do we always learn by associating neutral stimuli with other stimuli in environment?– Importance of controlling learning, particularly

complex, voluntary, goal-directed behavior.

• 1. Examples...

D. Operant Conditioning

• 2. Law of Effect: Thorndike

Cats in puzzle box

D. Operant Conditioning

• 3. B.F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning:Learning that relies on associating behavior

with its results or consequences.Defined as “operant” – animal is operating on

environment – not passive like CC.Highlights importance of reinforcement &

punishment in learning.

D. Operant Conditioning• To study this type of learning – needed to design

controlled environment.– Skinner Box

• 4. Procedure• a. Shaping:

Conditioning procedure that uses reinforcers to guide behavior closer to desired behavior.– successive approximations

• b. Reinforcer:Anything that increases the frequency of the preceding response or strengthens behavior.

D. Operant Conditiong

• b. Reinforcers

i. Positive reinforcers: strengthens response by presenting stimulus after response.

ii. Negative reinforcers: strengthens response by removing an aversive stimulus after a response.

- NOT PUNISHMENT

What happens if you remove reinforcement?– Extinction of response.

D. Operant Conditioning• iii. Important characteristics of reinforcement.• aa. Immediate vs. Delayed Reinforcement:

– in animals?• “Superstitious pigeons”

– in humans?

• bb. Continuous vs. Partial Reinforcement:– Continuous more effective:

• initially learning response (during shaping).

– Partial more effective: • to resist extinction, create persistence, continue behavior.

• Too much reinforcement?

Overjustification effect:

• An already enjoyable activity becomes “overjustified” by providing reward for activity. Become extrinsically motivated.

D. Operant Conditioning• c. Punishment:

An aversive consequence that decreases the frequency of the preceding behavior.– Positive and negative punishment.– Effective?

• Maybe – if strong, immediate, consistent, inescapable

– Why not effective?• Only suppresses behavior.• Only tells you what NOT to do, not what TO do.• May cause anger, resentment, fear.• Demonstrates aggression is way to deal with conflict.

D. Operant Conditioning• 5. Concerns with original theory.

– No room for mental operations again.

But evidence for “thinking” (even in animals.)

Latent Learning

Learning that becomes apparent only when there is some incentive to demonstrate it.

**Difference between learning and performance.

F. Observational Learning

• Also called: Social Learning Theory

• Different take on learning:

We not only learn through direct experience, but also by observing and imitating others (through modeling).– Not simple, automatic, requires attention &

sometimes motivation

F. Observational Learning

• 1. Bandura - Bobo Doll Studies.– Learned how to aggress (modeled behavior).– Inhibitions were lowered (thought of new ways

to aggress).

• 2. Vicarious Learning: learning by watching others with NO reinforcement.

F. Observational Learning

3. Influence of TV and media on behavior:APA’s Conclusion: There is a causal link between

watching aggressive acts on TV and being aggressive IN SOME CHILDREN.

TV/Media – not the ONLY cause of aggressive behavior.

F. Observational Learning

• 4. How does social learning theory differ from classical conditioning and operant conditioning?