LEARNING A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience. 2 types: 1. Associative learning: occurs when we make a connection between two events. Classical and Operant Conditioning Conditioning: the process of learning associations. 2. Observational learning: occurs when a person observes and imitates anothers behavior. OPERANT CONDITIONING A form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of a behaviors occurrence. Also called instrumental learning Active process; behaviors occur spontaneously; the learner decides whether or not to repeat behavior based on the consequence Voluntary behavior Keywords: behavior, consequences Important people: Thorndike Skinner Seligman THE LAW OF EFFECT Studied by Edward Thorndike (1898)
Locked hungry cats in a puzzle box and placed food outside Cats used trial and error to escape box and get food Voluntary behavior changes because of its consequences: Pleasant consequences strengthen behavior Unpleasant consequences weaken behavior Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened. B.F. SKINNER Burrhus Frederic Skinner American psychologist
Mac daddy of Operant Conditioning Developed the Skinner Box to test his concepts Used rodents and pigeons Free will is an illusion! SKINNER BOX Originally known as an Operant Conditioning Chamber
Used to control experimental conditions Has a lever or key that an animal manipulates to obtain areinforcer such as food or water The lever or key is connected to devices that record theanimals response ABCS OF BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCES Reinforcement Punishment
A reinforcer is anything that INCREASES a behavior. + Positive Reinforcement Addition of something pleasant. - Negative Reinforcement Removal of something unpleasant. Two types: Escape Learning Avoidance Learning A punisher is anything that DECREASES a behavior. + Positive Punishment Addition of something unpleasant. - Negative Punishment Removal of something pleasant. CONSEQUENCES Reinforcement Punishment Positive Reinforcement Example:
Getting money for grades Getting a sticker for good behavior Negative Reinforcement Taking aspirin to get rid of a headache Skipping class vs. getting kicked out of class Positive Punishment Example: Getting a spanking Getting a speeding ticket Negative Punishment Having your phone taken away Going to jail CONTINGENCY Contingency: means that the behavior must serves asa reliable indicator that the consequence is on its way. SHAPING Rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. Reinforcing small steps on the way to the desired behavior. To train a dog to get your slippers, you might reinforce these small steps: First, to find the slippers Then, to put the slippers in his mouth Next, to walk with the slippers in his mouth Last, to bring the slippers to you PRIMARY & SECONDARY REINFORCERS
Primary Reinforcer: Innate value Things that are naturally reinforcing because they satisfy biological drives such as food, water, sleep, sex Secondary Reinforcer: Learned/Conditioned value Things that we learn are reinforcing such as money, grades TOKEN ECONOMY Good behaviors are rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for desired rewards. Tokens: poker chips, fake money/coins, stickers, tickets Based on applied behavior analysis (ABA): the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior. Also called behavior modification Emphasizes the use of positive reinforcement to change behavior ACQUISITION The association is made between the behavior and the consequence. Learning occurs when the learner becomes aware that the behavior has been reinforced or punished (consequence). GENERALIZATION & DISCRIMINATION
Performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation. Same behavior different situation Responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced. Different behavior for different situations EXTINCTION & SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
Extinction: Decreases the frequency of a behavior when the behavior is no longer reinforced. Spontaneous Recovery: The behavior suddenlyresumes after extinction. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired behavior every time it occurs. Learned quickly; easy to extinguish Examples: Using a token to ride the subway. Putting coins in a vending machine to get candy or soda. Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired behavior only part of the time. Slower acquisition; harder to extinguish RATIO SCHEDULES Fixed-ratio schedule:
Reinforcement after a set number of behaviors. Example: Workers paid per 100 envelops stuffed Getting to leave class after a multiple choice test. *Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforcement after a varying (unpredictable) number of behaviors. Examples: Playing a slot machine Fishing/hunting INTERVAL SCHEDULES Fixed-interval schedule:
Reinforcement of the first behavior after a set amount of time has passed. Examples: Getting a paycheck every two weeks Scheduled exams Variable-interval schedule: Reinforcement of the first behavior after varying (unpredictable) amounts of time has passed. Example: POP Quizzes Arrival of mail SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement Schedules Compared Schedule Response Rate Pattern of Responses Resistance to Extinction Fixed-ratio schedule Very high Steady response with low ratio. Brief pause after each reinforcement with very high ratio. The higher the ratio, the more resistance to extinction. Variable-ratio schedule Highest response rate Constant response pattern, no pauses Most resistance to extinction. Fixed-interval schedule Lowest response rate Long pause after reinforcement, followed by gradual acceleration. The longer the interval, the more resistance to extinction. Variable-interval schedule Moderate Stable, uniform response. More resistance to extinction than fixed- interval schedule with same average interval. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT IMMEDIATE & DELAYED REINFORCEMENT
Immediate Reinforcement: A reinforcer that occurs immediately after a behavior. More effective for lower animals Example: A rat gets a food pellet when it presses a lever. Delayed Reinforcement: A reinforcer that is postponed for a period of time after a behavior. Has an effect on human behavior A paycheck that comes at the end of a week. IMMEDIATE & DELAYED PUNISHMENT
Immediate Punishment: A punisher that occurs immediately after a behavior. More effective for lower animals *Punishment works best when it is immediate and harsh! Delayed Punishment: A punisher that is postponed for a period of time after a behavior. Has an effect on human behavior DELAYED GRATIFICATION
The ability to resist the temptation for a small immediate reward and wait for alarger delayed reward. Immediate & mildly valued vs. delayed & highly valued Also called deferred gratification Example: We may be more inclined to watching TV rather than get an A in AP Psychology, which requires constant studying. Studied by Walter Mischel The Marshmallow Test Results found that delayed gratification correlated to: Higher SAT scores higher levels of competence reported by parents & teachers Lower rates of substance abuse Prefrontal cortex vs. limbic system MOTIVATION Extrinsic Motivation:
The desire to perform a behavior due to external incentives such as rewards and punishments. Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake, based on internal factors such as needs and fun. OVERJUSTIFICATION Occurs when extrinsic motivation decreases a person's intrinsic motivationto perform a behavior or participate in an activity. When you pay more attention to the incentive, and less attention to the enjoyment and satisfaction that you receive from performing a behavior or activity. Examples: A painter may not paint for pleasure when she is accustomed to being paid for her work. Losing interest in playing the violin after your mother promises to pay you for each hour of practice. Rewarding kids for playing math games. After the rewards are terminated, children spent significantly less time playing the games than they had before they ever got rewards. PREMACK PRINCIPLE Preferred behaviors can be used as reinforcement for less preferred behaviors. Preferred: behaviors with a higher level of intrinsic value/occur more often Using an activity that is pleasurable to reward an activity that is less pleasurable. Examples: You have to clean your room before you watch TV You have to do your homework before you can go to the movies LEARNED HELPLESSNESS An organism's learning through experience with unavoidable negative stimuli that it has no control over negative outcomes. Studied by Martin Seligman (1967) Dogs shocked for prolonged period of time would stop attempting to escape, even when given the opportunity to do so. Has implications in depression.