LearningLearning

Adaptation to the Adaptation to the EnvironmentEnvironment

Learning—a process that Learning—a process that produces a relatively enduring produces a relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge change in behavior or knowledge due to past experiencedue to past experience

Conditioning--the process of Conditioning--the process of learning associations between learning associations between environmental events and environmental events and behavioral responsesbehavioral responses

Learning ProcessesLearning Processes

Classical conditioningClassical conditioning Operant conditioningOperant conditioning Observational learningObservational learning

Pavlov’s DogsPavlov’s Dogs

Digestive Digestive reflexes and reflexes and salivationsalivation

Psychic Psychic secretionsecretion

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS REFLEX ACTIONwillelicit a

UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS

NEUTRAL STIMULUSREFLEX ACTIONwill

elicit a

CONDITIONED STIMULUSCONDITIONED STIMULUS willelicit a

CONDITIONEDRESPONSE

NEUTRAL STIMULUS willelicit NO REACTION

Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning FactorsFactors

Stimulus generalizationStimulus generalization Stimulus discriminationStimulus discrimination ExtinctionExtinction Spontaneous recoverySpontaneous recovery

BehaviorismBehaviorism

The attempt to understand The attempt to understand observable activity in terms of observable activity in terms of observable stimuli and observable observable stimuli and observable responsesresponses

John B. Watson (1913)John B. Watson (1913) B. F. Skinner (1938)B. F. Skinner (1938)

John B. Watson and John B. Watson and Little AlbertLittle Albert

Conditioned emotional Conditioned emotional responsesresponses

GeneralizationGeneralization ExtinctionExtinction

Classical Conditioning and Classical Conditioning and Drug UseDrug Use

Regular use may produce “placebo Regular use may produce “placebo response” where user associates sight, response” where user associates sight, smell, taste with drug effectsmell, taste with drug effect

Classically conditioned responses may be Classically conditioned responses may be one explanation for the characteristics of one explanation for the characteristics of withdrawal and tolerancewithdrawal and tolerance

Cognitive Aspects of Cognitive Aspects of Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Reliable and unreliable signalsReliable and unreliable signals Actively process informationActively process information

Evolutionary PerspectiveEvolutionary Perspective

Conditioned taste aversionsConditioned taste aversions Internal stimuli—associate better with Internal stimuli—associate better with

tastetaste External stimuli—associate better with External stimuli—associate better with

painpain Biological preparednessBiological preparedness

Early Operant Early Operant ConditioningConditioning

E. L. Thorndike (1898)E. L. Thorndike (1898) Puzzle boxes and catsPuzzle boxes and cats

Scratch at bars

Push at ceiling

Dig at floorSituation:stimuliinside ofpuzzle box

Howl

Etc.

Etc.

Press lever

First Trialin Box

Scratch at bars

Push at ceiling

Dig at floorSituation:stimuliinside ofpuzzle box

Howl

Etc.

Etc.

Press lever

After ManyTrials in Box

B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)

B. F. Skinner’s B. F. Skinner’s Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

Interested in emitted behaviorsInterested in emitted behaviors Operant—voluntary response Operant—voluntary response

that acts on the environment to that acts on the environment to produce consequencesproduce consequences

Reinforcement—the occurrence of a stimulus following a response that increases the likelihood of the response being repeated

Operant Conditioning

ReinforcersReinforcers

Primary—a stimulus that is inherently Primary—a stimulus that is inherently reinforcing for a species (biological reinforcing for a species (biological necessities)necessities)

Conditioned—a stimulus that has Conditioned—a stimulus that has acquired reinforcing value by being acquired reinforcing value by being associated with associated with a primary reinforcera primary reinforcer

PunishmentPunishment

Presentation of a stimulus following a Presentation of a stimulus following a behavior that acts to behavior that acts to decreasedecrease the likelihood the likelihood that the behavior will be repeatedthat the behavior will be repeated

Problems with PunishmentProblems with Punishment

Does not teach or promote alternative, Does not teach or promote alternative, acceptable behavioracceptable behavior

May produce undesirable results such as May produce undesirable results such as hostility, passivity, fearhostility, passivity, fear

Likely to be temporaryLikely to be temporary May model aggressionMay model aggression

Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning TermsTerms

ShapingShaping ExtinctionExtinction Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery Discriminative StimulusDiscriminative Stimulus Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

Discriminative StimuliDiscriminative Stimuli

Environmental cues that tell us when a Environmental cues that tell us when a particular response is likely to be reinforcedparticular response is likely to be reinforced

Reinforcement SchedulesReinforcement Schedules

Continuous—every correct response is Continuous—every correct response is reinforced; good way to get a low reinforced; good way to get a low frequency behavior to occurfrequency behavior to occur

Partial—only some correct responses are Partial—only some correct responses are reinforced; good way to make a behavior reinforced; good way to make a behavior resistant to extinctionresistant to extinction

Partial Schedules—RatioPartial Schedules—Ratio

Ratio schedules are based on number of Ratio schedules are based on number of responses emittedresponses emitted

Fixed ratio (FR)—a reinforcer is Fixed ratio (FR)—a reinforcer is delivered after a certain (fixed) number delivered after a certain (fixed) number of correct responsesof correct responses

Variable ratio (VR)—a reinforcer is Variable ratio (VR)—a reinforcer is delivered after an average number of delivered after an average number of responses, but varies from trial to trialresponses, but varies from trial to trial

Ratio Responses Ratio Responses

FR—highest level of FR—highest level of respondingresponding

VR—high rate with VR—high rate with few breaksfew breaks

Partial Schedules—Partial Schedules—IntervalInterval

Interval schedules are based on timeInterval schedules are based on time Fixed interval (FI)—reinforcer is delivered Fixed interval (FI)—reinforcer is delivered

for the first response after a fixed period for the first response after a fixed period of time has elapsedof time has elapsed

Variable interval (VI)—reinforcer is Variable interval (VI)—reinforcer is delivered for the first response after an delivered for the first response after an average time has elapsed, differs average time has elapsed, differs between trialsbetween trials

Interval ResponsesInterval Responses

FI—steady schedule FI—steady schedule with “scalloped” look, with “scalloped” look, responses drop off responses drop off right after reinforcerright after reinforcer

VI—steady, VI—steady, consistent schedule consistent schedule of responseof response

Contemporary Views of Contemporary Views of Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

Cognitive map—term for a mental Cognitive map—term for a mental representation of the layout of a familiar representation of the layout of a familiar environmentenvironment

Latent learning—learning that occurs in the Latent learning—learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement, but is not absence of reinforcement, but is not demonstrated until a reinforcer is availabledemonstrated until a reinforcer is available

Learned helplessness—phenomenon where Learned helplessness—phenomenon where exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavioraversive events produces passive behavior

Biological PredispositionsBiological Predispositions

Animal training issuesAnimal training issues

Instinctive drift—naturally occurring Instinctive drift—naturally occurring behaviors that interfere with operant behaviors that interfere with operant responsesresponses

Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning

Observation LearningObservation Learning

ObservationObservation ModelingModeling ImitationImitation Albert Bandura and the BoBo doll studyAlbert Bandura and the BoBo doll study