Learning for the Workplace: Competency-based versus the Experiential Perspective

Learning for the Workplace: Competency-based versus the Experiential Perspective

Kalyan Chatterjea, Lecturer, Singapore Maritime Academy, Singapore Polytechnic.Extract from Journal of Teaching Practice, Singapore Polytechnic 1999/2000

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ABSTRACT

Competency-based education is receiving a lot of attention as we focus on the requirement for competency standards to meet the workplace requirements. In the Singapore Maritime Academy of the Singapore Polytechnic, there is considerable international pressure to implement a competency-based programme (STCW ‘78 & its Amendments in ‘95) to prepare the shipboard workforce for the competitive global economy. The paper attempts to analyse this competency or outcome-based approach in adult education with some cautionary notes on its ways of implementation, particularly, when such practices are focused on a narrow range of competencies as the course content. Additionally, it is pointed out that competency- based approach has little to offer on how learning happens and so, the paper argues that learning is best conceived as a process and not in terms of outcomes and to make this process effective an experiential approach is suggested. Learning is also seen as a process of knowledge creation through transformation of experience in both subjective and objective forms. Hence, the stress of our educational practices should be on the process of adaptation and learning and not solely on content or outcome.

Kalyan Chatterjea, Singapore Maritime Academy[Published in Journal of Teaching Practice, 1999/2000, Singapore Polytechnic]


Table of Content

1 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................3

2 COMPETENCY-BASED, ASSESSMENT-DRIVEN LEARNING..............................5

2.1 Fordism of the Education System 5

2.2 Dialectic Conflicts between ‘Standardisation’ and ‘Flexibility’ 6

2.3 Broad Competencies for Flexible Curriculum 8

3 EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING........................................................................................9

3.1 Experience As a Key for Learning and Growth 10

3.2 Objective Questionnaire as an Aid to Drawing Out Experience 13

3.3 Use of Learning Style and Its Effectiveness 15

3.4 Learning as the Major Process of Human Adaptation as well as the Source of Knowledge Creation 21

4 CONCLUSION................................................................................................................22

5 REFERENCES................................................................................................................23


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1 Introduction

The continual development of technologies of production can…. lead to radical changes in the workplace. This may require further training for some, but lead to unemployment for others. In this context, the promotion of learning clearly entails a struggle to give value to certain forms of knowledge, behaviour and attitudes over others. In Field’s analysis (Field, 1993) of vocational education for example, he argues the value given to this form of learning has three aims: to socialise our consent to the maintenance of status quo, to contribute to employee recruitment through the development of qualifications, and to generate forms of knowledge and behaviour appropriate from the employers’ perspective. (Thorpe. M. et al., 1993: p.2)

The views expressed above have led to reforms in adult education over the last decade

(Field, 1993), which emphasised competency-based framework of education to meet

these utilitarian perspectives. Competency-based education and training is receiving a

lot of attention as we focus on requirement for competency standards to meet workplace

requirements and prepare the workforce for the competitive global economy. In England,

Wales and Northern Ireland, the framework for National Vocational Qualifications was

initiated in 1986. NVQs specify what the workforce would be capable of doing in the

particular occupational field.

In the area of maritime training in Singapore Polytechnic, where I am a faculty member,

there is considerable international pressure to implement competency-based education.

Proponents of competency-based education claim that it provides clear expectations for

the learners as well as the employers. It provides clear guidelines for assessment

procedures and its scientific approach with mainly behavioural objectives are still being

rated highly by the employers. This paper attempts to analyse this competency or

outcome-based approach in adult education with some cautionary notes on its ways of


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implementation. However, as competency-based approach has little to offer on how

learning happens and how best the learning programs may be effectively developed the

paper then argues that learning is best conceived as a process and not in terms of

outcomes (Kolb, 1993: p.143). New learning paradigms should be built on the existing

framework of learner’s knowledge base. As Kolb puts it,

"The fact that learning is a continuous process grounded in experience has

important educational implications. Put simply, it implies that all learning is

relearning. How easy and tempting it is in designing a course to think of the

learner’s mind as being as blank as the paper on which we scratch our outline.

Yet this is not the case. Everyone enters every learning situation with more or less

articulate ideas about the topic at hand. " (Kolb, 1993: p.145).

Kolb is referring to the experiential status of individual learners in a learning situation. We

never start with a tabula rasa. So, it seems worthwhile for a facilitator to enquire about

this status for each individual learner, which could then make the appropriate

connections easier for new adaptations of knowledge. This awareness of the experiential

status is perhaps equally helpful for the learner, which could give the learner a clear

perspective on his/ her possible learning routes necessary for making the learning more

meaningful. Hence, this paper further argues that in a learning situation, it will be prudent

to assess the learner’s existing beliefs in the subject domain based on his/ her

experiential past before attempts are made to refine the learner’s belief system to a

higher level. The approach contrasts from the traditional classroom based teaching

where a topic is addressed in a sequential manner from ‘A’ to ‘Z’ without much regard to

learner’s present belief system on the subject at hand. Finally, the paper endorses the

‘learning process’, to be a holistic process of adaptation to the world, whereby new


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knowledge is created through transactions between objective accumulation of previous

human cultural experiences and the subjective life experiences of the learner. (Kolb,

1993: p. 152)

2 Competency-based, Assessment-driven Learning

"Competency based assessment, in its present form, threatens to become the new Fordism of the educational system. The proliferation of competency specifications and the increasing precision with which competencies are stated parallels the ‘parcellization’ of the work-force and labour process. As competencies are differentiated more finely, so it becomes more and more possible to narrow the scope of initiative and field of responsibility of each individual in (his or ) her work; the coherence and the goals of the organization accordingly becomes less rather than more intelligible. " (Field, 1993: p.48).

This is the technology-focused approach to learning and Boud (1989: p.41) refers to this

as freedom from distraction. Learning goals and competencies required are derived from

analysing the needs and expected behavioural change of learners. These programmes

are tested on learners and feedback from them is used to continuously improve the

content, delivery and also the assessment format. The assessment practices for such

programmes are based on behaviourist psychology, as behavioural changes are easier

to measure and quantify.

2.1 Fordism of the Education System

The competency-based approach in education could be paralleled to Fordism in mass

production where work processes were repackaged into smaller, repeatable and

measurable steps to reduce the grips of the skilled workers (Field, 1993: p.41). This is

likely to result in performance improvement when the nature of work is highly repetitive

without much demand for changes in processes involved. The approach is perhaps


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suitable for specialised industries, where narrow skills are sought after. Arguably, even in

such industries, the workforce would be restricted to the specialised plants or processes

and such training would encourage more employer control and less flexibility for the

workforce. As Field (1993: p.42) puts it:

Training for the Fordist production worker, such as was needed, took place on the

line and was so empty of any wider content than repetition that there was serious

policy concern over the utter absence of any wider awakening of the young mind

– to civic virtues, to culture, to discoveries in technology and science which would

produce the new, white-hot future.

Additionally, the behaviourist process of well-defined outcome-based approach is

criticised for its lack of attention to context (Prior 1989). Candy and Harris (1990)

reported poor retention of such decontextualised training for a particular competency.

However, it is also argued that competency-based courses have clear-cut outcomes with

well-defined assessments. These assessment processes have a way of changing

teacher and student behaviour (Field, 1993) and thus, may be used as a tool for

effecting change in an educational system.

2.2 Dialectic Conflicts between ‘Standardisation’ and ‘Flexibility’

In its conventional forms, as Field (1993: p.48) points out, the competency movement

…seeks to impose uniformity of standards of performance and its measurement,

in order to strengthen employer control over labour, and support strategies to ‘add

value’ through the more efficient distribution of the work-force. Yet in order to work


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towards these ends, it also has to allow for flexibility in the face of constant

technical and organisational change, as well as the movement of labour and its

skills between different employers.

Field is referring to the dialectic conflicts between ‘standardisation’ and ‘flexibility’ in

competency-based approach. The need for flexibility in training is also far from

consensual as the employers attempt to manage the risks created by the unpredictability

of their investments in human resource development (Field, 1993).

In a technical domain there is support for the competency-based approach as pointed

out by Mezirow:

There is nothing wrong with this rather mechanistic approach to education as long

as it is confined to task-oriented learning common to the ‘technical’ domain of

learning… It is here such familiar concepts as education for behaviour change,

behavioural objectives, need assessment, competency-based education, task

analysis, skill training, accountability and criteria-referenced evaluation are

appropriate and powerful. (Mezirow, 1981)

On the other hand, from the viewpoint of liberal education Jarvis attacked behaviourist

approaches for at best confusing the processes of learning with the outcomes and at

worst ignoring the processes altogether (Jervis, 1987).

The positive aspect of a competency-based model is that it makes education and training

more relevant to the workplace requirements (Harris et al. 1995). In theory, competency-

based education should combine theory with practice and reduce the gap between the


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mind and the hands. However, in practice, there is a danger that the model may be

conceptualised in behavioural terms, when the competence is broken down into the

performance of discrete tasks. In such circumstances the model could be pedagogically

unsound (Chappell, 1996; Hyland, 1994). It is claimed that behavioural models ignore

connection between tasks and according to Hyland (1994) these connections are

important for performance where synthesis of knowledge and skills are necessary.

2.3 Broad Competencies for Flexible Curriculum

To cater for progressive individual development without emphasizing end-state of a

competency-based framework a trainee could be led through stages of development to

reach his optimum potential. The broad competencies of such a flexible curriculum,

applicable in maritime training sector, is suggested in Table 1 below, which

encompasses three aspects, vocational, social and individual to equip one with a

capacity to assess ones educational needs and to supplement the shortfall of

requirements with new knowledge and skills.

TABLE1: BROAD COMPETENCIES FOR A FLEXIBLE CURRICULUM

Core Competency Competencies for

Progression

Competencies for

Life/ Awareness skills

To impart every trainee a

basic levels of

competence for his or her

immediate participation in

activities on board the

vessel.

To equip the trainee with

a broad body of flexible

knowledge base, which

could serve as pre-

requisites for his

progressive development

in various specialised

areas of maritime

technology, which the

industry needs.

To equip the trainee with

other essential life-skills

and awareness skills such

as skills in healthy living,

providing first aid, working

in a team or leaving in

harmony with the

environment.


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I am involved in maritime education, where the workforce is expected to change their

employers or their places of work (as they get transferred from ship to ship) on frequent

basis. Hence, if competency-based education is designed with highly specialised or

narrow competencies as the course content, it will produce a workforce at worst needing

retraining, perhaps every time they get transferred to a different type of ship. More

importantly, the competencies, which are taught in decontextualised manner, will have

limited retention for the learners. Unless the learning outcomes are made content-

specific, grounded in learner’s prior experience and delivered in a constructivist manner

for each learner, the resources expended for a competency-based programme is less

likely to be worthwhile.

Kolb (1993) de-emphasises outcome or content-based learning and views learning as

the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. In

the following section I look at adult learning beyond the outcome-based approach and

view it from an experiential perspective, which perhaps holds the key for unlocking new

knowledge.

3 Experiential Learning

"An experience is always what it is because of a transaction taking place between an individual and what, at the time, constitutes his environment, whether the latter consists of persons with whom he is talking about some topic or event, the subject talked about being also a part of the situation….The environment, in other words, is whatever conditions interact with personal needs, desires, purposes and capacities to create the experience which is had. Even when a person builds a castle in the air he is interacting with the objects which he constructs in fancy. " (Dewey, 1963: p.42-3).

While cognitive learning theories emphasise acquisition, manipulation and recall of

abstract symbols and behavioural learning theories deny any role for consciousness and


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subjective experience in the learning process, experiential learning suggests an

integrated perspective of learning, which combines experience, perception, cognition

and behaviour (Kolb, 1993). Kolb also pointed out the strong emphasis of this

experiential perspective in the work of Dewey, Piaget and Lewin. In the next section I

attempt to depict the commonalties of their models of learning, where the dimension of

experience played a key role.

3.1 Experience As a Key for Learning and Growth

Dewey described learning as dialectic processes integrating experience and concepts as

well as observation and action. He claimed that the crucial educational problem is that of

postponement of immediate action until observation and judgement have intervened

(Dewey 1938: p.69). The following figure depicts this formation of a purposeful action

from an original impulse modified through judgmental intervention, which constitutes the

learning process.


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Observation of surrounding conditions

Knowledge of what has happened in similar conditions in the past

Judgement on observation and knowledge-recall to decide what is significant

Impulse of experience gives ideas their moving force

Formation of purposeful action – a rather complex intellectual operation

Fig1. Dewey’s view of learning process from the experiential perspective


For Piaget, the dimensions of experience and concept, reflection and action form the

basic continua for the development of adult thought. Development from infancy to

adulthood moves from a concrete phenomenal view of the world to an abstract

constructionist view, from an active egocentric view to reflective internalised mode of

knowing (Kolb,1993: p.141). Thus, there seems to be continuous transaction between

accommodation of new experience and assimilation of the same into one’s existing

schema leading to a higher level of cognitive functioning. Again as pointed out by Kolb

below, the type of intelligent adaptation resulting from balanced tension between

accommodation and assimilation depends on the dominance of one or the other of these

two processes. Referring to Piaget, Kolb observed the following:

When accommodation processes dominate assimilation, we have imitation --- the

moulding of oneself to environmental contours or constraints. When assimilation

predominates over accommodation, we have play --- the imposition of one’s

concept and images without regard to environmental realities. The process of

cognitive growth from concrete to abstract and from active to reflective is based

on this continual transaction between assimilation and accommodation, occurring

in successive stages, each of which incorporates what has gone before into a

new, higher level of cognitive functioning. (Kolb, 1993: p.141)

Figure 2 illustrates Piaget’s view of the learning process as seen from the experiential

perspective.


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Figure 3 is adapted from Lewin’s cycle of adult learning as described by Kolb (1984).

Here, the concrete experience is given the focal point of the learning process, which

provides a subjective personal dimension leading to individual constructivist growth for

the learner. Much of the individual and organisational ineffectiveness could be traced to

the lack of observation and reflection (Kolb, 1993), as this feedback process may not

take place as a spontaneous follow up action after each concrete experience. Thus,

perhaps there is a distinct requirement to initiate such action by nudging the learners into

a reflective mode. I would like to argue that many times this could be achieved through

raising judicious queries to coax the learners to re-examine the concrete experience from

various perspectives, which, in turn, may lead the learners to higher levels of knowledge

concepts and generalisations. So, it is stressed that concrete experience alone may not

be the key to the progressive growth of the body of knowledge for the learners unless

there is perhaps a facilitated mechanism to initiate reflective observations about this


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Accommodation of concepts or schemas as new experience

Existing level of cognitive functioning

Higher level of cognitive functioning

Fig 2. Piaget’s view of learning process from the experiential perspective



Assimilation into existing conceptsAssimilation into existing concepts

Assimilation into existing concepts


experience. In the next section I argue that this facilitated mechanism could take the

form of objective type questionnaires on the experience to set the learners into a

reflective mode.

3.2 Objective Questionnaire as an Aid to Drawing Out Experience

In an adult learning situation, many times the learners have rich diverse experience on

the topics of the course curriculum. This is applicable for the advanced maritime courses

at the Singapore Polytechnic, where I am actively involved. The learners bring with them

their existing belief system for the subject in hand, some of that could be very relevant,

while others would need modification. So, when introducing new ideas for the subject in

hand, perhaps the key issue would be not to resort to a method of substitution of the

learners’ old belief systems. Instead, provide scenarios, which will encourage learners to

review their existing belief structure and if found pertinent they will modify these to suit

their new level of understanding. As Kolb (1993: p.146) advocated,


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Here-and-now concrete experience, used to validate and test existing knowledge concepts & generalisations.

Reflective feedback on the concrete experience on a personal basis.

Abstract conceptualisation leading to higher level of knowledge concepts and generalisations.

Existing level of knowledge concepts and generalisations.

Active experimentation leading to the next concrete experience.

Fig3. Lewin’s view of learning process from the experiential perspective


…. one’s job as an educator is not only to implant new ideas but also to dispose of

or modify old ones. In many cases, resistance to new ideas stems from their

conflict with old beliefs that are inconsistent with them. If the education process

begins by bringing out the learner’s beliefs and theories, examining and testing

them, and then integrating the new, more refined ideas into the person’s belief

systems, the learning process will be facilitated……On the other hand, when the

content of a concept changes by means of substitution, there is always the

possibility of a reversion to the earlier level of conceptualization and

understanding, or to a dual theory of the world where espoused theories learned

through substitution are incongruent with theories-in-use that are more integrated

with the person’s total conceptual and attitudinal view of the world.

Hence, as suggested by Kolb above, perhaps each education process should begin by

tapping into the learner’s experiential past, relating the topic-in-hand to the learner’s

theories-in-use. One way of doing that would be to expose the learners through leading

questions e.g. by using a number of objective type questions, which may prompt the

learners to re-live their experience on the topic-in-hand. This should encourage reflection

and if required, modification of the learner’s belief structure. This process would simulate

an environment where the learners can claim ownership of the new level of knowledge

and understanding on the topic-in-hand rather than considering the same being thrust

onto them by the lecturer. Additionally, from the outcome of such a transaction further

learning steps could be planned in an adaptive way, which will cater more precisely to

the learners’ needs while accrediting prior learning of the learners on the topic-in-hand.

Kolb endorses such a view (1993) when learning involves transactions between the

person and the environment and such an approach, thus, helps to go beyond the notion


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that learning and educational processes are strictly limited to the province of institutions

and classrooms. His frustrations are clear in the following extract:

The casual observer of the traditional educational process would undoubtedly

conclude that learning was primarily a personal, internal process requiring only

limited environment of books, teacher, and classroom. Indeed, the wider ‘real-

world’ environment at times seems to be actively rejected by education systems at

all levels. (Kolb, 1993: p.150)

Hence, as argued above, in trying to facilitate constructivist growth of the knowledge

structure in a learner and to emphasize the strength of experiential aspect in such

processes, perhaps one would do well to raise the relevant queries in the minds of the

learners; thereby catalysing reflection and higher levels of generalisation.

A discussion on experiential learning cannot be deemed to be complete unless we

include the instruments learning style inventories, which help us to determine the

individual learning styles of learners. This is addressed in the next section.

3.3 Use of Learning Style and Its Effectiveness

Recent educational research….shows that students are characterised by significantly different learning styles: they preferentially focus on different types of information, tend to operate on perceived information in different ways, and achieve understanding at different rates. Students whose learning styles are compatible with the teaching style of a course instructor tend to retain information longer, apply it more effectively, and have more positive post-course attitudes towards the subject than do their counterparts who experience learning/teaching style mismatches.

(Felder, 1993: p.286)

The use of learning style in increasing the effectiveness of learning and teaching is not

universally recognised. However, as aptly recognised by Rogers (1996), it seems that


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during our diverse exposure in learning and as we progress through life, we do tend to

develop our own learning styles. The key points of the widely used ‘Kolb’s Learning Style

Model’, adapted from explanations given by Felder (1996) and Rogers (1996) are given

below. They define the four distinct types of learners identified by Kolb.

Some of us are found to be proficient as reflectors. They tend to be imaginative

people; they generate creative, ‘divergent’ perspective of knowledge. According to

Felder (1996) they are Type 1 learners. They could be grouped as ‘Why?’-learners,

who respond well to explanations of how course material relates to their experience,

their interests, and their future careers. Felder also claimed that to be effective with

Type 1 students, the instructor should function as a motivator.

Some become proficient as theorists. They tend to be analytical people; they try to

make coherent pictures out of complex material. They speak in general rather than

concrete terms (Rogers,1996). According to Felder (1996) they are Type 2 learners.

They could be grouped as ‘What?’-learners, who respond to information presented in

an organised logical fashion and benefit if they have time for reflection. Felder also

claimed that to be effective with Type 2 students, the instructor should function as an

expert.

Some become proficient as experimenters or pragmatists. They generate convergent

perspective of knowledge and they tend to be successful in school education system,

as most assessment approaches focus on convergent skills. Convergent knowledge

brings to bear a number of facts or principles on a single topic: problems have ‘right’

or ‘wrong’ answers (Hudson, 1966). According to Felder (1996) they are Type 3


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learners. They could be grouped as ‘How?’-learners, who learn by trial-and-error in

an environment that allows them to fail safely. Felder also claimed that to be effective

with Type 3 students, the instructor should function as a coach, providing guided

practice and feedback.

Some become proficient as activists. They tend to be dynamic, intuitive people; they

pursue knowledge growth through discovery learning. According to Felder (1996)

they are Type 4 learners. They could be grouped as ‘What if?’-learners, who like

applying course material in new situations to solve real problems. Felder also claimed

that to be effective with Type 4 students, the instructor should stay out of the way,

maximising opportunities for the students to discover things for themselves.

Rogers (1996) stated that we tend to use all of these styles and we do not confine our

learning efforts to one type alone. But we feel stronger at learning through one approach

rather than through any of the others. Hence, we should be aware that in any learning

group there would always be people with a range of different learning styles.

Consequently, Rogers (1996) concluded that the instructors should adopt a wide range

of teaching-learning activities in order to help those who prefer to learn through active

engagement with experience, those who prefer to reflect critically, those preferred to

develop more generalised views, and those who prefer to experiment and test out other

people’s theories.

Commenting on the learning cycle, Fardouly (1998) expressed concern that the

expectations of educators are somewhat biased, as they are more inclined to validate

the way ‘theorists’ learn. According to him, the aim of all education is to produce


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analytical theorists even though about 70% of learners are not analytic learners. On the

use of learning styles, he noted the following:

We learn better, as well as feel good about ourselves, when someone is teaching

us in our most comfortable style. The process of learning which best encourages

well-rounded skill development, is one which moves through all the learning

styles. ….All students need to be taught in all four ways, in order to be

comfortable and successful part of the time while being stretched to develop other

learning abilities. They will also learn from each other as they each excel at

different places in the learning cycle. (Fardouly,1998: p.3)

Figure 4. gives a perspective view of the Kolb’s learning style concept, which is

superimposed on the experiential learning diagram. The figure shows the two major

differences in our learning activities, namely, how we perceive and how we process.

While perceiving, some of us prefer to receive information by sensing or feeling while

others are more at ease to think things through as we take new information. Fardouly

(1998) defined these two groups as follows:

Sensing/ feeling people

connect experience to meaning (connected knowing)

perceive through their senses

immerse themselves in concrete reality

are intuitive.


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Thinking people

separate themselves from the experience(separate knowing)

stand back and analyse what is happening

reason experience

perceive with a logical (cognitive) approach.

In processing information, some of would be active doers while others would prefer to be

reflective observers or watchers. Again Fardouly (1998) defined these two groups as

follows:

Watching people

reflect on new things

filter them through their experience to create meaningful connections.

Doing people

act on new information immediately

reflect only after they have tried it out

need to do it in order to make it theirs and extend it into their world.

These four combinations of perceiving and processing determine the four different

learning styles (Fardouly, 1998) and are included in the Figure 4.


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To determine a person’s learning style, Kolb developed an instrument called Learning

Style Inventory by answering questions contained in the Self-Scoring Inventory and

Interpretation Booklet (Kolb, 1985). The other widely used learning style inventory is by

Honey and Mumford and is called the Learning Style Questionnaire (Honey et al., 1982).

More recently Index of Learning Styles by Solomon and Felder (Felder et al.

http://www.crc4mse.org/ILS/ILS_explained.html ) are being mentioned in the literature,

which has forty four questions to categorise learners’ style of learning in the following

categories:

Active and reflective learners

Sensing and intuitive learners

Visual and verbal learners

Sequential and global learners (Felder, 1996).


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Activist Reflector

Theorist

Concrete Experience

ReflectiveObservation

AbstractConceptualisation

ActiveExperimentation

Experimenter

Fig 4. Kolb’s Learning Style model superimposed on the experiential learning cycle.

Sensing/ Feeling

WatchingDoing

Thinking

http://www.crc4mse.org/ILS/ILS_explained.html


However, the validity of Learning Style Inventory is still to be conclusively proven.

(Allison et al., 1988). Even though it is possible to identify the learning styles of

individual learners, Robotham questioned the appropriateness of learning style approach

in teaching, when individuals are exposed to only a limited number of learning activities

to which they are, in theory, best suited. (Robotham, 1995). Therefore, he advocated that

training should seek to move beyond the enhancement of performance within a narrow

spectrum of activities, and consider the development of foundation skills, such as self

directed learning, when the learner would choose the appropriate learning style to suit

the learning situation.

3.4 Learning as the Major Process of Human Adaptation as well as the Source of Knowledge Creation

….concept of learning is considerably broader than that commonly associated with school classroom. It occurs in all human settings, from schools to the workplace, from research laboratory to the management boardroom, in personal relationships and the aisles of the local grocery. It encompasses all life-stages, from childhood to adolescence, to middle and old age. (Kolb, 1993: p.149)

Thus, Kolb stated that experiential learning should be viewed from a broader

perspective, whose domain goes beyond an individual human functioning, such as

cognition or perception. Instead, it should be seen as an integrated process of human

adaptation, where thinking, feeling, perceiving, behaving are all there ------

encompassing various concepts such as creativity, problem-solving, decision-making

etc. Learning connects all experiential life situations such as school, work, leisure and

other exposures ---- thus, making it a holistic adaptive process, continuing through

various stages of life. This continuous nature of exposure, according to Dewey, has an

active side, which changes the objective conditions under which experiences are held.

Kolb refers to this as the transactional relationship between the learner and the


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environment, which gives a dual meaning to the term ‘experience’ ---- one subjective and

personal and the other objective and environmental and once they are related, both are

essentially changed. Learning is thus seen as a transactional process between objective

environmental knowledge and subjective personal knowledge, resulting in new

knowledge creation. Dewey noted these as civilised objective accumulation of previous

human cultural experience and the individual person’s subjective life experiences.

Hence, as Kolb puts it….to understand knowledge, we must understand psychology of

the learning process, and to understand learning, we must understand epistemology ----

the origin, nature, methods and limits of knowledge. (Kolb, 1993: p.153).

4 Conclusion

This paper attempted to analyse the present trends in outcome-based adult education

and its pitfalls when such practices are focused on a narrow range of competencies as

the course content. It was pointed out that in lieu of emphasising on content or outcome,

the stress should be on the process of adaptation and learning. Learning was also seen

as a process of knowledge creation through transformation of experience in both

subjective and objective forms.


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Chappell, C. 1996. "Quality & Competency Based Education and Training", in The Literacy Equation, pp. 71-79. Red Hill, Australia: Queensland Council for Adult Literacy.

Dewey, J. 1963. “Experience and Education”, Collier Books, New York.

Fardouly, N. 1998. “Learning Styles and Experiential Learning”. Cited at http://www.fbe.unsw.edu.au/Learning/instructionaldesign/styles.htm

Felder, R and B Solomon. "INDEX OF LEARNING STYLES" at http://www.crc4mse.org/ILS/ILS_explained.html

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Learning for the Workplace: Competency-based versus the Experiential Perspective

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