Learning

LEARNING CONCEPTS

• Learning– any relatively permanent change in behavior that

occurs due to experience.

• Conditioning-forming associations between environmental stimuli and responses– Classical Conditioning– Operant Conditioning

• Cognitive learning

Classical Conditioning

• The process of learning by which a previous neutral stimulus comes to elicit an identical or similar response to one originally elicited by another stimulus as the result of the pairing of the two stimuli.

• Ivan Pavlov was the first to describe and document the form of learning we now call classical conditioning.

• Classical conditioning is also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning.

Principles of Classical Conditioning

– Unconditioned stimulus (US)--stimulus eliciting an automatic or reflexive response

– Unconditioned response (UR)--response that is automatically produced

– Neutral Stimulus (NS) stimulus that before conditioning does not produce a particular respomce

– Conditioned stimulus (CS)--an originally neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with a US

– Conditioned response (CR)--response that is elicited by a CS

Extinction

When the conditioned stimulus (CS) is

presented repeatedly without the

unconditioned stimulus (US), the

conditioned response (CR) eventually

disappears.

Spontaneous Recovery

After a response has been extinguished, it may

spontaneously reappear after the passage of

time, with exposure to the conditioned stimulus.

Higher-order Conditioning

A neutral stimulus (NS) can become a

conditioned stimulus (CS) by being paired with

an already established conditioned stimulus

(CS).

Stimulus Generalization

After a stimulus becomes a conditioned

stimulus for some response, similar stimuli may

produce the same reaction.

Reconditioning

Relearning conditioned response after

Extinction.

Conditioned Emotional Reaction(CER)

Emotional response to a particular stimulus

acquired through classical conditioning.

Operant Conditioning

Process of learning in which the

manipulation of the consequence of a

response influences the like hood or

probability of the response occurring.

Thorndike and the Law of Effect

• Thorndike observed that behavior is controlled by its consequences.

• Responses that have satisfying effects are more likely to recur, while those that have unpleasant effects are less likely to recur.

Radical Behaviorism

• Introduced at the turn of the 20th Century.

• Philosophical position that free will is an illusion or myth and that human and animal behavior is completely determined by environmental and genetic influences.

Burrhus Frederic (B.F.) Skinner

• Behavior is explainable by looking outside of the individual.

Reinforcers Always increase the likelihood of a response

• Positive reinforcement– something pleasant is presented

• Negative reinforcement– something unpleasant is removed

Reinforcers

• Primary reinforcers – satisfy biological needs

• Secondary reinforcers– reinforcing through association with other

(possibly primary) reinforcers

Schedule of Continuous Reinforcement

• Reinforcing a response each time it occurs.

• Most effective for initial learning.

Schedule of Partial Reinforcement

• Also known as intermittent schedules.

• Reinforcement occurs only after a certain amount of time has passed or only after a certain number of responses have been made.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

• Reinforcement is given after a specific number of correct responses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

• Certain number of correct responses needed before reinforce is given varies around some average number.

• Gamblers never know when their lucky number will come.

Escape and Avoidance Learning

• Escape Learning – Learning of behavior that allows the individual

to escape from an aversive stimulus.

• Avoidance learning– Learning of behavior that allow an organism

to avoid an aversive stimulus.

Punishment

• Aversive stimulus or removal of reinforcing stimulus after a response occur, which leads to the weakening or suppression of the response

• Punishers– decrease the likelihood of a response

• Positive punishment– something unpleasant occurs

• Negative punishment– something pleasant is removed

Behavior Modification

• The systematic application of learning principles to strengthen adaptive behavior and weaken maladaptive behavior.

Token Economy

• Behavior modification technique.

• Uses tokens earned for performing desired behaviors.

• Tokens can be exchanged for positive reinforcers.

Programmed Instruction

• Complex material is broken into a series of small steps.

• Individual learn at their own pace.

Computer-Assisted Instruction

• Computer is used to guide student through a series of increasingly difficult questions.