LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter studying this chapter you should be able to:1. Use the resource- and institution-based views to

explain why nations trade2. Understand classical and modern theories of

international trade3. Realize the importance of political and economic

realities governing international trade4. Participate in two leading debates on international

trade5. Draw implications for action

Trade terms

exporting - Selling abroad

importing - Buying from abroad

merchandise – physical goods/tangible products

services - acts, efforts, or performances exchanged from producer to user without ownership rights, intangible services

Trade Balance

trade deficit - An economic condition in which a nation imports more than it exports

trade surplus - An economic conditionin which a nation exports more than it imports

balance of trade - The aggregation of buying (importing) and selling (exporting) by both sides leads to the country-level trade surplus or deficit.

Trade Theories

classical trade theories - major theories typically studied consist of mercantilism, absolute advantage, and comparative advantage

modern trade theories - major theories typically studied consist of product life cycle, strategic trade, and national competitive advantage

Classical Trade Theories

Theory of mercantilism - belief that held that the wealth of the world (measured in gold and silver) was fixed, and that a nation that exported more and imported less would enjoy the net inflows of gold and silver and thus become richer

Protectionism - idea that governments should actively protect domestic industries from imports and vigorously promote exports

Classical Trade Theories

free trade - idea that free market forces should determine how much to trade with little (or no) government intervention

theory of absolute advantage - economic advantage one nation enjoys that is absolutely superior to other nations

theory of comparative advantage - relative (not absolute) advantage in one economic activity that one nation enjoys in comparison with other nations

opportunity cost - given the alternatives, the costof pursuing one activity at the expense of another activity

Classical Trade Theories

factor endowments - extent to which different countries possess various factors, such as labor, land, and technology

factor endowment theory (Heckscher-Ohlin theory) - The proposition that nations will develop comparative advantage based on their locally abundant factors

FACTORS OF PRODUCTION

natural resources – things that are useful in their natural state, such as land, forests, minerals, and water

human resources – anyone (from company presidents to grocery clerks) who works to produce goods and services

capital – resources (such as money, computers, machines, tools, and buildings)that a business needs to produce goods and services

entrepreneurs – innovative businesspeople who are willing to take the risks involved in creating and operating new businesses

knowledge – the collective intelligence of an organization

Modern Trade Theories

product life cycle theory - economic theory that accounts for changes in the patterns of trade over time

strategic trade theory - theory that suggests thatstrategic intervention by governments in certain industries can enhance their odds for international success

first-mover advantages - Advantages that first entrants enjoy and do not share with late entrants

strategic trade policy - Economic policies that provide companies a strategic advantage through governmentsubsidies

Modern Trade Theories

Theory of national competitive advantage of industries (or diamond theory)The theory that the competitive advantage of certain industries in different nations depends on four aspects that form a “diamond”

Evaluating Theories of International Trade

Resource MobilityThe assumption that a resource removed from one industry can be moved to another.

REALITIES OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE

tariff barrier- Trade barriers that rely on tariffs to discourage imports.

import tariff - A tax imposed on imports

nontariff barriers (NTBs) – restrict imports but are not in the usual form of a tariff: subsidies, import quotas, export restraints, local content requirements, administrative policies, antidumping duties, over-elaborate or inadequate infrastructure, “buy national" policy, bribery and corruption, unfair customs procedures, restrictive licenses, etc.

deadweight costs - Net losses that occur in an economy as the result of tariffs

REALITIES OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE

subsidy – Government payments to domestic firmsimport quotas - Restrictions on the quantityof imports for specific period of timevoluntary export restraints (VRAs) - superficial policy to show that exporting countries voluntarilyagree to restrict their exportslocal content requirements - A requirement that a certain - proportion of the value of the goods made in one country originate from that country.

REALITIES OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE

administrative policy – Bureaucratic rules that make it harder to import foreign goods

antidumping duties - Costs levied on imports that have been “dumped” (sellingbelow costs or below exporter’s home market price to “unfairly” drive domestic firms out of business)

Economic Arguments Against Free Trade

Prominent among economic arguments against free trade include:

1. The need to protect domestic industries - The oldest and most frequently used economic argument against free trade is the urge to protect domestic industries, firms, and jobs from “unfair” foreign competition - in short, protectionism

2. The necessity to shield infant industries - belief that if domestic firms are as young as “infants,” in the absence of government intervention, they stand no chance of surviving and will be crushed by mature foreign rivals

Political Arguments against Free Trade

Political arguments against free trade advance a nation’s political, social, and environmental agenda regardless of possible economic gains from tradeThese arguments include:(1) national security(2) consumer protection(3) foreign policy(4) environmental and social responsibility

Trade Embargo - Politically motivated trade sanctions against foreign countries to signal displeasure.

Trade Deficit versus Trade Surplus

Trade Deficit OK – Trading partners mutually benefit by developing a deeper division of labor based on comparative advantage.

“Trade is not about competition, it is about mutually beneficial exchange . . . Imports, not exports, are the purpose of trade.”

Trade Deficit Bad – International Trade is about competition—about markets, jobs, and incomes.

Classical Theories versus New Realities

Classical theorists and their modern-day disciples argue that the United States and India trade by tapping into each other’s comparative advantage. India leverages its abundant, high-skill, and low-wage labor. Americans will channel their energy and resources to higher skill, higher paying jobs. Regrettably, certain Americans will lose jobs, but the nation as a whole benefits.

Are the theories still valid?