Theories of learning

Broad Goals

1. Operationally define terms relevant to theories of learning.

2. Examine learning theories that are currently important.

Definitions: Learning is:1. “a persisting change in human performance or performance potential . . . (brought) about as a result of the learner’s interaction with the environment” (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9). 2. “the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience” (Mayer, 1982, p. 1040).

3. “an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other forms of experience” (Shuell, 1986, p. 412).

Learning TheoryQ: How do people learn?

A: Nobody really knows.

But there are 6 main theories:Behaviorism

Cognitivism

Social Learning Theory

Social Constructivism

Multiple Intelligences

Brain-Based Learning

Behaviorism

Confined to observable and measurable behavior

Classical Conditioning - Pavlov

Operant Conditioning - Skinner

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov Born Sept 14, 1849 Died Feb 27, 1936 born in Ryazan, Russia physiologist, psychologist,

and physician awarded the Nobel Prize

in Physiology or Medicine in 1904 for research on the digestive system

John Broadus Watson Born Jan 9, 1878 Died Sept 25, 1958 Born in Greenville,

South Carolina American psychologist established the

psychological school of behaviourism

“Little Albert” experiment

The Behaviorist Manifesto In 1913, Watson published the article

"Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" — sometimes called "The Behaviorist Manifesto". In this article, Watson outlined the major features of his new philosophy of psychology, called "behaviorism".

The Behaviorist Manifesto The first paragraph of the article concisely described Watson's

behaviorist position: “Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective

experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute. The behavior of man, with all of its refinement and complexity, forms only a part of the behaviorist's total scheme of investigation.”

"Little Albert" experiment Occurred in 1920 One of the most

controversial experiments in the history of psychology

It was an experiment showing empirical evidence of classical conditioning in humans Rosalie Rayner

Albert B.John B. Watson

"Little Albert" experiment Watson and Rayner selected an infant

named Albert, at approximately 9 months of age, he was tested and was judged to show no fear when successively observing a number of live animals (e.g., a rat, a rabbit, a dog, and a monkey), and various inanimate objects (e.g., cotton, human masks, a burning newspaper).

"Little Albert" experiment He was, however, judged to show fear

whenever a long steel bar was unexpectedly struck with a claw hammer just behind his back.

"Little Albert" experiment Two months after testing Albert's apparently unconditioned

reactions to various stimuli, Watson and Rayner attempted to condition him to fear a white rat. This was done by presenting a white rat to Albert, followed by a loud clanging sound (of the hammer and steel bar) whenever Albert touched the animal. After seven pairings of the rat and noise (in two sessions, one week apart), Albert reacted with crying and avoidance when the rat was presented without the loud noise.

However Ben Harris in

“Whatever Happened to Little Albert?” 1979 says that “critical reading of Watson and Rayner's (1920) report reveals little evidence that Albert developed a rat phobia”

Little Albert Video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pVt0k9IPQ-A

Burrhus Frederic Skinner Born March 20, 1904 Died August 18, 1990 Born in Susquehanna,

Pennsylvania American psychologist,

author, inventor, advocate for social reform and poet.

Innovated his own philosophy of science called Radical Behaviorism

Radical Behaviorism Radical behaviourism seeks to understand

behaviour as a function of environmental histories of reinforcing consequences.

Reinforcement processes were emphasized by Skinner, and were seen as primary in the shaping of behaviour.

A common misconception is that negative reinforcement is some form of punishment.

Radical Behaviorism Positive reinforcement is the strengthening of

behaviour by the application of some event (e.g., praise after some behaviour is performed),

Negative reinforcement is the strengthening of behaviour by the removal or avoidance of some aversive event (e.g., opening and raising an umbrella over your head on a rainy day is reinforced by the cessation of rain falling on you).

Both types of reinforcement strengthen behaviour, or increase the probability of a behaviour reoccurring.

Radical Behaviorism Punishment and extinction have the effect

of weakening behaviour, or decreasing the probability of a behaviour reoccurring, by the application of an aversive event (punishment) or the removal of a rewarding event (extinction).

Inventor

Cumulative RecorderOperant Conditioning Chamber

(“Skinner Box”)Air CribTeaching Machine

Cumulative Recorder an instrument used to

automatically record behaviour graphically

The needle would start at the bottom of the page and the drum would turn the roll of paper horizontally. Each response would result in the marking needle moving vertically along the paper one tick.

Operant Conditioning Chamber (“Skinner Box”)

Operant Conditioning Chamber (“Skinner Box”) A box large enough to easily accommodate the

animal being used as a subject (including lab rats, pigeons, and primates).

It contains one or more levers which an animal can press, one or more stimulus lights and one or more places in which reinforcers like food can be delivered.

It is often sound-proof and light-proof to avoid distracting stimuli.

Operant Conditioning Chamber (“Skinner Box”)

In one of Skinner’s experiments a hungry rat was introduced into the box. When the lever was pressed by the rat a small pellet of food was dropped onto a tray. The rat soon learned that when he pressed the lever he would receive some food. In this experiment the lever pressing behaviour is reinforced by food.

Operant Conditioning Chamber (“Skinner Box”) If pressing the lever is reinforced (the rat gets

food) when a light is on but not when it is off, responses (pressing the lever) continue to be made in the light but seldom, if at all, in the dark. The rat has formed discrimination between light and dark. When one turns on the light, a response occurs, but that is not a Pavlovian conditioned reflex response.

Operant Conditioning Chamber (“Skinner Box”) In this experiment Skinner demonstrated the

ideas of "operant conditioning" and "shaping behaviour." Unlike Pavlov's "classical conditioning," where an existing behaviour (salivating for food) is shaped by associating it with a new stimulus (ringing of a bell or a metronome), operant conditioning is the rewarding of an act that approaches a new desired behavior.

Operant Conditioning Chamber (“Skinner Box”)

Skinner's operant chamber allowed him to explore the rate of response as a dependent variable, as well as develop his theory of schedules of reinforcement. The first operant chambers were attached to cumulative records on drums producing characteristic pauses, scallops, and other lines.

Learning Theory Behaviorism Cognitive Learning Theory Social Learning Theory

Cognitivism

Grew in response to Behaviorism

Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols

Learning is the process of connecting symbols in a meaningful & memorable way

Studies focused on the mental processes that facilitate symbol connection

Cognitive Learning Theory

Discovery Learning - Jerome Bruner

Meaningful Verbal Learning - David Ausubel

Cognitive Learning Theory Discovery Learning

1. Bruner said anybody can learn anything at any age, provided it is stated in terms they can understand.

Cognitive Learning Theory Discovery Learning

2. Powerful Concepts (not isolated facts)

a. Transfer to many different situationsb. Only possible through Discovery Learningc. Confront the learner with problems and help

them find solutions. Do not present sequenced materials.

Cognitive Learning Theory Meaningful Verbal Learning

Advance Organizers:

New material is presented in a

systematic way, and is connected to

existing cognitive structures in a

meaningful way.

Meaningful Verbal Learning

Cognitive Learning Theory

When learners have difficulty with new

material, go back to the concrete anchors

(Advance Organizers). Provide a Discovery

approach, and they’ll learn.

Critiques of Cognitivism Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is given

and absolute

Input – Process – Output model is mechanistic and deterministic

Does not account enough for individuality

Little emphasis on affective characteristics

Learning Theory Behaviorism Social Learning Theory Cognitive Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory (SLT) Grew out of Cognitivism

A. Bandura (1973)

Learning takes place through observation and sensorial experiences

Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery

SLT is the basis of the movement against violence in media & video games

Social Learning TheoryLearning From Models -Albert Bandura1. Attend to pertinent clues2. Code for memory (store a visual image)3. Retain in memory4. Accurately reproduce the observed

activity5. Possess sufficient motivation to apply

new learning

Social Learning TheoryResearch indicates that the following factors

influence the strength of learning from models:

1. How much power the model seems to have2. How capable the model seems to be3. How nurturing (caring) the model seems to be4. How similar the learner perceives self and

model 5. How many models the learner observes

Social Learning Theory

Four interrelated processes establish and strengthen identification with the model:

1. Children want to be like the model2. Children believe they are like the

model3. Children experience emotions like

those the model is feeling.4. Children act like the model.

Social Learning Theory

Through identification, children come to believe they have the same characteristics as the model.

When they identify with a nurturant and competent model, children feel pleased and proud.

When they identify with an inadequate model, children feel unhappy and insecure.

Critiques of Social Learning Theory Does not take into account individuality,

context, and experience as mediating factors

Suggests students learn best as passive receivers of sensory stimuli, as opposed to being active learners

Emotions and motivation not considered important or connected to learning

Social Constructivism

Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism, framed around metacognition

Knowledge is actively constructed

Learning is… A search for meaning by the learner Contextualized An inherently social activity Dialogic and recursive The responsibility of the learner

Lev Vygotsky Social Learning

Zone of Proximal Development

Social Constructivism in the Classroom

Journaling

Experiential activities

Personal focus

Collaborative & cooperative learning

Critiques of Social Constructivism Suggests that knowledge is neither given

nor absolute

Often seen as less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction

Does not fit well with traditional age grouping and rigid terms/semesters

Multiple Intelligences (MI) Grew out of Constructivism, framed around metacognition

H. Gardner (1983 to present)

All people are born with eight intelligences:

Enables students to leverage their strengths and purposefully target and develop their weaknesses1. Verbal-Linguistic 5. Musical

2. Visual-Spatial 6. Naturalist

3. Logical-Mathematical 7. Interpersonal

4. Kinesthetic 8. Intrapersonal

MI in the Classroom Delivery of instruction

via multiple mediums

Student-centered classroom

Authentic Assessment

Self-directed learning

Critiques of MI Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI exist

Lack of evidence that use of MI as a curricular and methodological approach has any discernable impact on learning

Suggestive of a departure from core curricula and standards

Brain-Based Learning (BBL) Grew out of Neuroscience & Constructivism

D. Souza, N. Caine & G. Caine, E. Jensen (1980’s to present)

12 governing principles

1. Brain is a parallel processor 7. Focused attention & peripheral perception

2. Whole body learning 8. Conscious & unconscious processes

3. A search for meaning 9. Several types of memory

4. Patterning 10. Embedded learning sticks

5. Emotions are critical 11. Challenge & threat

6. Processing of parts and wholes 12. Every brain is unique

BBL in the Classroom Opportunities for group

learning

Regular environmental changes

A multi-sensory environment

Opportunities for self-expression and making personal connections to content

Community-based learning

Critiques of BBL

Research conducted by neuroscientists, not teachers & educational researchers

Lack of understanding of the brain itself makes “brain-based” learning questionable

Individual principles have been scientifically questioned