LEARNING UNIT 3 - University of the Western Capeplanet.botany.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Conservation...

Diploma in Travel and Tourism

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LEARNING UNIT TITLE PAGE

1. Introduction to Ecotourism 5-19

2. Ecotourism Principles 20-29

3. Ecology & Its Key Concepts 29-47

4. Environmental Management 48-57

5. Protected Areas 58-75

6. The National Parks of South Africa 76-91

7. The Community 92-99

8. Culturology 100-118

9. Partnerships 119-128

10. Ecotourism Principles & LocalCommunities 129-141

Appendix I Tour Guiding & the Natural Environment 142-148

Appendix II National Responsible Tourism Guidelines for South Africa 148-164

Diploma in Travel & Tourism Ecotourism

Varsity College Growing Futures Page 4 of 167


LEARNING UNIT 1INTRODUCTION TO ECOTOURISM

KEY OUTPUTS FOR THIS UNIT

After studying this unit you should be able to:

identify the key South African role players in Ecotourism

explain the meaning of Ecotourism

explain why South Africa needs Ecotourism

understand what Natural Resources are, and how they should be managed

understand the need for Environmental Economics (= Resource Economics)

outline the four major study areas of Ecotourism.

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Ecotourism in South Africa

People from all over the world travel to South Africa for the sunshine and to enjoy nature,

and there is a growing move towards more and more of these tourists to become known as “Ecotourists”. This is not only a South African phenomenon but also a global

trend that means that for South Africa to grow its Ecotourism we have to maintain a competitive edge globally. Right now times for tourism in general are difficult because in

the last few years it has become clear that security and disease (e.g. Sept. 11 th and SARS),

and other matters (e.g. rates of foreign exchange, pricing structures, personal safety, rip-offs

by restaurants and/or hotels, etc.) can radically affect all of the tourism industry. Impacting

both on the destinations, the numbers of people travelling (or rather NOT travelling), and the

kind of people travelling (backpackers, people on packages, etc.).

Because South Africa is renowned for its

good weather beautiful and diverse coastline superb scenery



friendly and hospitable people from a diverse cultural background for its abundance of wildlife and excellent National Parks

South Africans have the advantage of having their country being a prime destination. But we

have to be acutely aware of all threats to all tourism to maintain and grow the industry, and

more particularly the Ecotourism industry.

1.2 A Brief History of Ecotourism

Ecotourism is not new. Travellers have been going on safari (a Swahili word meaning “to

travel”) in Africa for at least two centuries. Many of Europe's great naturalists of the 19th

century “safaried” the continent (mainly through East and southern Africa) identifying and

naming plants and animals, and popularising Africa's vast diversity of nature. While at the

same time “opening up” the interior with “missionary zeal”. In the 20th century these safaris

became much more popular. Initially the visitors were either hunters, explorers, naturalists,

writers and/or film makers. They publicised and interpreted their “Africa”, and these early

“Ecotourists” laid a firm foundation for the modern Ecotourism industry. By the mid-1900s

growing numbers of people were coming to Africa to see and experience for themselves

what the continent had to offer.

A definition of “Ecotourism”

The term Ecotourism is comparatively new, although the concept is much older. There are a

number of definitions of the term, but perhaps the most comprehensive is that created by the

American-based Ecotourism Society, which describes it as; "purposeful travel to natural areas; to understand the cultural and natural history of the environment; taking care not to alter the integrity of the ecosystem, while producing economic opportunities that make conservation of natural resources beneficial to local people”. This definition

fits neatly into the South African context, catering for the need for conservation of both the

cultural and the natural environment, and for sustainable economic development -

particularly for the benefit of “local people”. The South African definition, as formulated by Dr

G.A Robinson when he was CEO of SANParks in the 1990s, is very similar and essentially

reflects the same values with a somewhat different emphasis:

(1) “the protection of living and non-living natural resources,

(2) the promotion of appropriate and environmentally sensitive development, and



(3) the contribution to the goals of achieving social justice and enhancing the quality of life and stability - especially for the communities in the immediate vicinity of protected area”.

The international definition of the word Ecotourism implies far more than merely a nature-experience. The term environment in its broader context has come to include the diverse community activities and cultures of a country's peoples, as well as all the natural resources (including biodiversity). Ecotourism, therefore, implies tourism practices that

benefit all concerned parties (all people and all of the environment) - rather than benefiting some and neglecting others. The South Africa definition puts more emphasis on people as the key role players. To ensure that Ecotourist activities meet all the requirements in the

definition there are a number of prerequisites that must be met to ensure that Ecotourism is

sustainable. SOME of the most important are listed below:

Proper planning before development

Sustainable use of resources. This means that there must be no negative impact on either the environment and/or local communities (people)

Economic viability of all tourism products must be ensured, with significant economic benefits flowing to local communities

The developers must be held responsible and accountable for the environ-ment on which their business is dependent

The tourism industry and tourists must be properly regulated.

In South Africa a new element, Afro-tourism or African tourism, is being introduced into the

definition of Ecotourism. This refers particularly to the study and enjoyment of the diversity of

the cultures present today, and is essentially a marketing ploy.

2 SOUTH AFRICA AS A PRIME ECOTOURISM DESTINATION

The theme that underlies all of South African Tourism's marketing activities for South Africa

as a prime destination for the Ecotourist is:

“Discover South Africa, Rediscover Yourself”South Africa has a number of advantages in favour of being a prime Ecotourist destination

and these are:



2.1 National Parks

Ecotourism in South Africa probably begins with the country's network of 20 National Parks, representing just about every biological zone or natural environment in the country.

Apart from the National Parks there is also a network of marine reserves, other protected

areas, and game reserves (with many of the last run by local or provincial authorities, and

private enterprise). Many of the National Parks, mountainous regions, and coastal areas

feature National Hiking Trails (for which South Africa is famous), presenting an opportunity

for serious Ecotourists to walk “into the wilderness”.

2.2 Ecotourism Partnerships

Ecotourism initiatives countrywide are fully cognisant (or should be) of the need to involve neighbouring communities. There are many highly successful partnerships adhering to

these principles, ensuring that local communities benefit directly from such projects and

development - either through direct partnerships or through a commitment to plough a profit-

share back into the community.

2.3 Culture

The cultural side of Ecotourism is also extremely important, and many of the local cultures

and traditions are accessible to tourists. There are many tribes and/or ethnic groups in South

Africa, and there are no fewer than 11 official languages (12 if one includes “Sign”).

Very old cultures such as the San or Bushmen, living in their age-old traditional way, are

unfortunately becoming difficult to find. Anyone fortunate enough to actually witness the

lifestyle of the San or Bushmen is in fact witnessing the lifestyles of Homo sapiens, as it was

hundreds of thousands of years ago.

2.4 Local Cultural Specialities

South Africa has one of the biggest Indian communities outside India, both Hindu and

Muslim. The Afrikaner community maintains many of its pioneer traditions, some of which

have become firm features of South African culture. There is also a small, but vibrant,

Chinese community as well as other European cultures such as Greek, Portuguese,

German, etc. So South Africa is particularly rich in cultures, both indigenous African and from

overseas.



2.5 “Adventure” Tourism

Within the framework of Ecotourism lies the concept of Adventure Tourism. These are

tourists seeking new avenues of exploring and experiencing their surroundings. Because of

South Africa’s vast diversity these niche markets are well represented, and we need to cater

more cleverly for this market. Amongst other activities available in South Africa we find:

Extreme water sports such as:

diving, including snorkelling or scuba - not only around the coastline but also in inland

waters

rafting and canoeing - there is some of the world’s best river rafting, canoeing, and

kayaking available on South African rivers

yachting and power boating - both at sea and on inland waters is becoming

increasingly popular

South Africa is world renowned as a windsurfing destination

surfing and/or parasailing/gliding are sports that are also well catered for in South

Africa, and the world surfing championships are often held here.

Terrestrial activities such as :

Vehicle safaris, especially 4x4 trails, are becoming increasingly popular and these

can be found in many different natural environments around the country. In keeping

within the Ecotourism framework every effort is made, and should be made, to avoid

environmental damage and lessen the impact of this activity

Cycling - both road and mountain biking are growing in popularity. There are many

organised cycling events, as well as trails that may be done at any time

Cross-country running and orienteering

South Africa also has many other advantages over most African countries because we offer

modern infrastructure such as:

A sophisticated transport infrastructure (road, rail and air)

A readily accessible international financial and banking system

A wide range of accommodation facilities - ranging from the best world standards

to hiking huts, camping safaris, and private B&Bs



Restaurants that also serve takeaways to international standards, and of many

cuisines

International shopping venues and locations where African arts and crafts are readily available - where our different cultures may be experienced and where we

cater for discerning tastes

Advanced medical facilities.

3 THE FOCUS OF ECOTOURISM

In the past much of the focus of Ecotourism was on the natural environment. Thus

Ecotourism came to incorporate other forms of tourism such as “Nature Tourism”,

“Wilderness Tourism”, “Low Impact Tourism” and “Sustainable Tourism”, to name some.

More recently “culture” has also been included in Ecotourism, and the diagram below is an

attempt to encapsulate the five fundamental elements of Ecotourism today:

Figure representing the five contemporary components of Ecotourism.


TOURISM

Mass tourism(= conventional, large-

scale tourism)Alternative forms of

tourism

AdventureScientific Agri-tourism, and/or Farm

Tourism

EducationalCultural

= Ecotourism (sometimes incorrectly referred to as “Nature Tourism”)


4 KEY ROLE PLAYERS

Ecotourism involves a large cross section of professionals. It is in fact a joint operation of caring and creative people who combine their experience on many different levels. Each role player has an important function in the development, operation and marketing

of Eco-tourism, and of Ecotourism destinations.

The KEY role players in any Ecotourism activity are:

The authority (such as the State, a local authority, and/or an owner [if the land is privately owned] from whom permission to operate must be obtained)

The tour operator (a registered company and/or individual who brings in the Ecotourists)

The local community (the people who live adjacent to and/or in the area of operation)

The tourists (the individuals who use the facilities and who are the clients of the operator, and/or those who use the facilities themselves).

It is important that all these role players adhere to a strict set of guidelines or values to

ensure that all the criteria are met (see those discussed in the INTRODUCTION).

The Strategic Framework for Tourism Development in South Africa, compiled by South

African Tourism and The Development Bank of S.A., emphasises the values of:

equitable socio-economic benefits for all participants and communities

community involvement in decision-making and levels of responsibility, and

economic and resource sustainability - which requires the balanced management of

renewable Ecotourism resources (both human and natural).

5 NEW ASPECTS OF ECOTOURISM RELEVANT TO SOUTH AFRICA

Today Ecotourism in South Africa has also come to include ‘tourist participation’ in all

aspects of the operation. This means that the Ecotourist should not only experience all the

natural aspects of Ecotourism, but they should also be exposed to (and involved - where

feasible) with aspects of local community life. Thus the Ecotourist should have an integrated

and holistic experience, a truly South African episode.

Important experiential aspects include such things as:



Ethos–bonding. This implies that the Ecotourist wants to do more than just travel

and participate in activities such as hiking, snorkelling and/or viewing wildlife, etc. – in

fact the entire spectrum of outdoor activities that is part of “the African Experience”.

The Ecotourist also wants to get “involved”’ or “participate” in local community matters

and/or interact with “locals” in some way. They want to gain insights into the needs

and daily life activities of local people, and to better understand their cultural values.

Exposed to the New Democracy. A complete change has occurred in South Africa

with regards to a new and emerging democracy post-1994. To be exposed to this

new stage and process of development in South Africa’s history is of interest and

enlightening to many Ecotourists. They are particularly interested in aspects of the

“peace and reconciliation” process, and how family values and personal freedoms

have changed.

Natural and Cultural Diversity. South Africa has been marketed as “A World in one

Country”. It not only has a rich diversity of wildlife and scenic splendour, but also an

unusual mix of different cultural and ethnic groups, each with their own language,

food, religion and customs. This excites foreigners, as the conservation of cultural

diversity is now a recognised global issue.

Surveys of South Africa’s most popular features reveal that these are:

scenic beauty which is consistently voted South Africa’s most popular attraction

followed by its year-round sunny climates

rich heritage of wildlife, and

fascinating cultures.

6 WHY DOES SOUTH AFRICA NEED ECOTOURISM?

6.1 Upliftment

The range of outdoor activities and scenic beauty is only a part of the picture. Given the

realities of rural poverty and under-development in South Africa, Ecotourism activities can

contribute to the upliftment of rural communities.

South Africa’s biggest current challenge is the battle against poverty. There are two pre-

conditions required before poverty can be adequately addressed:

There must be political stability

There must be economic growth and development

Political stability and economic upliftment are mutually dependent.



6.2 Rural Poverty

Some of the poorest people in South Africa live in densely populated rural areas, often adjacent to highly valued natural areas. Much of this land is marginal for farming and ecologically fragile. An estimated 16+ million people live in such rural areas, four-fifths of

them live under the “Household Effective Threshold’ – the minimum on which a family of five

can subsist. Of these 13 million people suffer deprivation to some degree or other, and some

nine million are landless.

Rural poverty in South Africa cannot be turned around by agricultural development because:

There is not enough suitable agricultural land to do so, and

Many individuals in rural areas prefer not to be involved in agriculture as a means of livelihood

Ecotourism presents one of the only viable opportunities to generate a livelihood for these

people and, significantly, in a less destructive and more productive manner.

Helping uplift

“This is an ancient tale of two men talking, one from Heaven one from Hell. The man from

Hell lamented. “It is indeed a wretched place, we are hungry all the time.”

“You mean there is no food in hell?” the man from heaven enquired.

“Oh there’s food – we sit at banqueting tables with the most sumptuous food our eyes could

behold spread out before us. However, we are made to eat with knifes and forks a metre

long. No matter how hard we try, it is impossible to put food into our mouths.”

“In Heaven”, the other man began, “ we too sit at a banquet table and we too are made to eat

with knifes and forks. But ours are two metres long.”

“It cannot be,” said the first man in disbelief. “If we cannot feed ourselves with knives and

forks a metre long how in Heaven’s name do you feed yourselves with knives and forks that

are twice the length?”

“Ah, but that’s the point, my friend,” the man from Heaven replied, “we do not feed ourselves,

we feed each other.” Anon

6.3 Development of Game Farms

Large parts of South Africa are semi-arid and rainfall is unpredictable. As such these areas

are not suited to sustainable agriculture. Privately owned game farms can prove to be a



lucrative and environmentally sound form of alternative land use in these areas. Thirty five of

the world’s best-known and privately owned game lodges exist on the three million hectares

of land between the Sabie and Olifants Rivers, adjacent to the two million hectares

comprising the Kruger National Park. However, part of the problem is that the rural poor do

not have access to land of sufficient size to start game farms, thus the redistribution of land is

a key political issue that needs to be addressed with urgency and diplomacy.

6.4 Job Creation

Total tourist arrivals in South Africa for 2001 were 5.78 million. In 2002 the total amount of

foreign tourists to South Africa increased by 11.3%, and there was a further increase in 2003.

Thus the tourism sector is a key South African industry that is growing, and has the potential

to grow much more. For every eight tourists in South Africa one job is created. In South

Africa there are an estimated 740 000 people (South Africa yearbook 2000/2001) employed

in the tourist industry, about 4.5% of the work force. Crime levels (often caused by

unemployment) can directly affect all tourism and, therefore, can have a major negative

affect on our whole tourism industry. Other problems also affect tourism, so it is vitally

important for the State to address any issues that negatively affect the whole industry.

Around the world tourism provides one in every 14 jobs, injecting nearly US$ 4,494 billion in

foreign exchange into the international economy every year. Nearly 500 million people

around the world go on holiday every year – and every person buys consumer items for the

trip before leaving home. They then travel to their destination and use accommodation, they

eat, drink and enjoy entertainment, and buy gifts for those at home as well as for themselves.

7 RESOURCES

What are our key tourism resources?

Our natural resources are soil, water (marine and fresh), air and all living things (including

our ethnic/cultural mix of people), that is our total South African environment and all that is

embodied in it. As humans we are involved in the management of all these resources

through cropping, ranching, forestry, fisheries, water quality management and supply, soil

conservation, wildlife management, air quality control (pollution), economic activities, and a

host of human pursuits, etc. What is vital for our future is that we look after these resources,

and this is called conservation (= the wise use of resources, or the sustainable use of

resources).

The three main objectives for the conservation of living resources are:



To maintain essential ecological processes such as recycling of nutrients and

purification of water (= the maintenance of life support systems) for human develop-

ment and survival (a group of living things and the physical environment in which they

live together is known as an ecosystem)

To preserve genetic diversity. Apart from the protection of endangered and vulnerable

species, this forms the basis of breeding programmes for the protection and improve-

ment of cultivated plants and domesticated animals. Scientific progress (like the

development of new medicines) and the security of many industries utilising living

resources are also dependent on genetic diversity, and

To ensure the sustainable utilisation of species and ecosystems (mainly fish, wildlife,

forests and grazing lands) which support millions of people as well as many

industries.

Resources can be “ used” and/or “abused” in the following ways: Exploitation. South Africa with our superb wildlife and scenery should be a prime eco-

destination. If we lose the wildlife, or turn wildlife over to crops, or simply fill the land

with people, we will be killing the proverbial “goose that lays the golden egg”. It is said

in some quarters that we cannot afford to spend too much money on conservation

when so many people are living in poverty. However, the destruction of the resources

from pollution and over-exploitation also endangers development and human life AND

CREATES POVERTY. So one could well ask the question “can we afford to not conserve?”

Under-utilisation. There is also the danger of under-utilising our resources. If we fail to

develop our resources sufficiently OR SOUNDLY we may not be able to provide an

acceptable standard of living for all members of our society, and in this turn could

result in great social unrest, economic collapse and political upheaval

Over-development. We may overdevelop where the demand forces large-scale

development, which all but destroys the environment. Ecotourism is not a responsible

alternative if it degrades the environment.

8 MAIN AREAS OF ECOTOURISM STUDY

There are four major areas of focus within the Ecotourism Industry. The people involved in

the industry are:

tourism planners and marketing personnel natural resource managers resort owners conservationists and tour operators.



It can be argued that South Africa has unlimited needs and limited resources. Ecotourism

has the potential to be a lucrative venture, but to reap the benefits we have to understand

Environmental Economics. The real tough question is, “how do we maximise profits from

limited resources in a sustainable way?”

Ecotourism planning and management. An Ecotourism venture should operate both

as a successful business and be managed in a manner that minimises its impact on the

natural environment, while at the same time maximising public awareness.

Effective business and marketing for Ecotourism. Ecotourism business owners and

operators must balance the financial and/or business needs of their operation with the

need to maintain high ethical and environmental standards. They face the challenge of

incorporating the conservation ethic into all aspect of their business - from the product

itself, to the transfer of business skills to local communities.

Infrastructure design and use of low impact technology on Ecotourism. An effective

Ecotourism manager must know how to:

Design an Ecotourism resort that enhances the natural beauty of a fragile

environment without damaging it

Provide visitor comfort without polluting natural waterways, generating large amounts

of non-recyclable waste, destroying habitats of indigenous flora and fauna, and/or

using non-renewable sources of energy

Incorporate educational and interpretive materials into the site that will increase the

visitors’ understanding and appreciation of local environments and culture.

Ecotourism for the benefit of conservation and communities. This offers a unique

opportunity for those responsible for raising awareness and appreciation of South Africa

ecosystems, and indigenous cultures, both within South Africa and overseas. Ecotourism

has attracted much attention from governments, conservation groups, private industry

and local and indigenous communities. And as such it can provide the economic and

social incentives needed to preserve areas of great ecological or cultural importance. In

certain cases Ecotourism can be used as a tool for nature conservation and provide

employment for local communities. The Ecotourist can also be educated to have a strong

conservation ethic. One, therefore, needs to carefully consider the costs and benefits to

areas where Ecotourism ventures occur.

9 STATUS OF ECOTOURISM IN SOUTH AFRICA

There is a growing awareness of environmental, social and economic responsibility among

the members of the tourism industry. Parties that are directly involved in a nature-based

tourism experience, such as the National and Provincial Parks, as well as private game

reserve owners, are now including the concept of involving and benefiting local communities



in their mission statements. Similarly the need for thorough planning it is being emphasised

publically and, for example, it is now generally conceded that mining in ecologically sensitive

areas can have a major long-term negative environmental impact. Conservation and the

careful management of scarce resources is increasingly becoming a National priority.

REVISION EXERCISE

Multiple choice questions

1. Ecotourism is:a) Limited to nature lovers

b) A growing trend throughout the world

c) Appealing to people who will want to

escape from the rat race and city life

d) attractive to surfers

e) restricted to bush-walkers

2. Not altering “the integrity” of the environment means:a) using the environment to provide

Ecotourist destinations

b) sustaining the environment for future

use

c) contributing to the economic welfare of

local people

d) having good partnerships

3. Ethos-bonding means:a) learning more about African cultures

b) becoming physically involved in

activities and experiences

c) learning more about the new, free South

Africa

d) none of the above

4. An African safari means:a) Swahili for “living in Africa”

b) going to the National Parks

c) enjoying African wildlife

d) travelling in the African bush



5. Rural poverty refers mainly to the fact that:a) millions of South Africans live below the

Household Effective Threshold

b) there is massive unemployment

c) we are not attracting enough tourists to

South Africa

d) that there is political instability

6. Building flats high up on the slopes of Table Mountain would be an example of:a) exploitation

b) under utilization

c) over-development

d) poor planning

e) A and B

f) C and D

7. Ecotourism is all about:a) maximising profits

b) developing partnerships

c) proper land-use planning

d) travelling cheaply

e) people and places

8. Ecotourists are the:a) rich and famous in Africa

b) visitors from the West

c) a wide cross-section of people

interested in culture and nature

d) young back-packers travelling the world

Discuss

The importance of having an accurate definition of Ecotourism

Is “Adventure Tourism” synonymous to Ecotourism?

How important is it to the SA Ecotourism industry to indulge/take part in “new

aspects” of Ecotourism?

Why it is important to understand the main areas of Ecotourism study




LEARNING UNIT 2ECOTOURISM PRINCIPLES



define responsible and sustainable Ecotourism

explain how Ecotourism in South Africa can be promoted

understand some of the basic principles for Ecotourism development

list the main advantages of Ecotourism

assess an eco-experience by using the ten commandments of eco-travel

be aware of what rural people understand as the ‘New Big Five’.

1 RESPONSIBLE AND SUSTAINABLE ECOTOURISM

Responsible Ecotourism is sustainable - which means that it integrates economic, social, and

environmental considerations within a sustainable system. A sustainable system is one that

survives and continues to function over a long period of time (many decades at least). Being

sustainable means using only enough of the earth’s resources (air, water, soil, minerals,

animals and plants) to meet our needs, and conserving enough of these resources to meet

the needs of our children, their children after them, and so on. But the sustainability of the

earth’s resources as listed above, is not a complete list of what must be conserved. There

are other non-tangible items like the maintenance of a beautiful landscape, peace and quiet

(no noise or light pollution), and a host of human values like culture, religion, and aesthetics

that also need to be considered.

1.1 What is Sustainable Ecotourism?

Listed below are a number of things that make Ecotourism more sustainable. The list

is by no means exhaustive as each operation may and can have unique experiences

and/or values, so try to add to this list if you can! Therefore, to have sustainable

Ecotourism operators/guides must strive to:



Be informative as possible. Travellers not only learn about the destination,

they learn how to help sustain its character while deepening their own travel

experiences. Residents learn that the ordinary and familiar may be of interest

and value to outsiders.

Support integrity of place. Destination-savvy travellers seek out businesses

that emphasise the character of the locale in terms of architecture, heritage,

cuisine aesthetics, ecology, etc. Tourism revenues give added value to those

assets. A value that the locals may not have previously acknowledged.

Ensure that benefits flow to local residents. In Ecotourism it is essential,

and makes good long-term business sense, to employ and train local people,

buy local supplies, and use local services. The more the locals benefit from

the operation the more they will support the activities, and the better they will

conserve the assets.

Conserves resources. Environmentally aware travellers favour businesses

that have active programmes to minimise pollution, waste, energy

consumption, water usage, the use of landscaping chemicals, and

unnecessary night time lighting (i.e. companies that demonstrate

environmental awareness by their actions).

Respect local culture and tradition. Foreign visitors who learn about and

observe local etiquette (including using at least a few courtesy words in the

local language) feel a greater empathy with the experience. Local residents in

turn who learn how to deal with foreign expectations that may differ from their

own also appreciate the additional knowledge.

Not abuse the product. Stakeholders who recognise that development

pressures can deplete resources, and apply limits and management

techniques to prevent the "loved to death" syndrome can gain respect. Thus

businesses that co-operate to sustain natural habitats, heritage sites, scenic

appeal, local culture, etc. are perceived as GOOD businesses that are

environmentally sensitive.

For quality, not quantity. Communities need to measure Ecotourism

success not by the sheer numbers of visitors, but by the length of stay, money

spent, and quality of experience. More is not necessarily better as every site

has a maximum carrying capacity, which should not be exceeded, because if

the carrying capacity is exceeded then the resources become depleted.



To give unforgettable experiences. Satisfied, excited visitors take new knowledge

home and send friends off to experience the same and/or similar things they enjoyed

- which provides continuing business for the destination.

Offer a “romantic” experience. Africa has many ‘romantic” things to offer such as

pre-historic paintings, the African night sky, a unique rhythm of life, etc. One has to be

careful of not being too contrived by offering “un-romantic” experiences like over-

commercialised “traditional villages”, bad cultural experiences, etc.

1.2 The Principles of Sustainable (Responsible) Ecotourism

From the list above, and from the additional points that you may/will have added, it is clear

that to have sustainable Ecotourism there are a number of basic principles that must be

followed in order to achieve the levels of responsibility required to enjoy a sustainable

operation. What these principles achieve is “ to make everyone from government, to the

man-in-the-street, aware of the importance of the environment and the resulting Eco-

tourism”. The principles of Sustainable Ecotourism are that:

1. All resources should be respected and every effort must be made to use them

sparingly

2. Education and training of all parties concerned - local communities, the Ecotourists,

government and industry - is key to success

3. Participation by the Ecotourist should be encouraged at all levels and in all sectors

4. Value adding by all parties and at all levels is essential for success

5. Partnerships between all parties involved in the venture should be promoted

6. Ethical and moral attitudes, and responsibility towards the natural and cultural

environment, should be promoted by all concerned with the operation

7. The long term benefits of the resource, to the local community, and to the operation

must be enshrined (benefits may be economic, scientific, social, cultural, ethical or

biological)

Ecotourism operations should/must involve big business (external partners) in the form of

people and investment for development, but it must also involve local communities and

individual entrepreneurs.

Comprehensive training programmes at all levels of the Ecotourism industry are vital, and

the quality of this training and the resulting services that are offered must be of the highest

standards. These standards must also be maintained and improved over time, and this



requires the implementation of a monitoring and evaluation programme. For Ecotourism to

succeed there must be a high level of co-operation on the local, regional, national and

international fronts, so that everyone benefits to the maximum. This co-operation must also

extend into the field of marketing.

2 MASS TOURISM AND DEGRADATION VS ECOTOURISM AND CONSERVATION

Mass tourism is the bulk movement of people on the basis that their collective buying

power drives prices down. It is often cheaper for this category of tourist to holiday outside

their own country, than it is to holiday inside their home country. Traditionally this kind of

tourism was very popular, and it still is for certain clients, and for some reasons is gaining

popularity once more.

Mass Tourism and negative impacts

In Kruger National Park large bus liners at kills often block viewing and belch diesel fumes over microbuses and cars. This problem could perhaps simply be addressed by designating “special” routes where buses have priority. The logistics of this would have to be carefully planned, but such a plan could overcome a recognised problem.

Table Mountain receives more than 600 000 visitors per year by cable car, and many more thousands who climb the Mountain. Being one of the natural wonders of the world the value of the Mountain is inestimable as a recreation site for local and foreign visitors alike, both for its unique fynbos species and its aesthetic beauty. Traversing the Mountain becomes a ‘pilgrimage’. The continual presence of all these people together with a lack of a comprehensive environmental policy continues to take its toll on the fragile ecosystem of the Mountain.

In terms of Ecotourism it should be remembered that one tourist spending a hundred dollars

is worth much more that 10 tourists spending 10 dollars each. Thus one focus of Ecotourist

destinations is to maximise the financial benefits from a smaller number of people – without

compromising the value of the destination. This is a simple concept, but in reality is more

complex to implement. For example, Eastern markets are now requesting an Ecotourism

experience but prefer large tour groups for language/cultural reasons. Rather than lose

foreign earnings we must now try to cater for these groups because tourism creates jobs,



even if this demands more facilities and puts added pressures on the sustainability of

resources. With careful management it is possible to offer a quality Ecotourism experience to

large groups of people, though there will always be some compromises because small

groups are able to have experiences that are impossible to give/offer to large groups. The

key is careful planning.

All over the world there are places and situations where ‘special areas’ are being bombarded by human impact to the extent that they are being stripped of the very beauty

and assets that draws these hordes of tourists to them in the first place. This is true for many

ecosystems and great historic cities of the world – unsustainable utilisation can only lead to

exploitation and destruction.

3 PROMOTION OF ECOTOURISM IN SOUTH AFRICA

Ecotourism has tremendous potential in South Africa. It must, however, be remembered that

it is essentially a service industry. You have to be acutely aware of your market’s needs and market aggressively to them to be successful and more importantly, to maintain market

share.

Every year millions of people from the “developed world” head for an Ecotourism

experience/adventure in one or more of the global biodiversity hot spots. They visit these

areas as participants of well marketed and expertly conducted ecotours. However, much of

their valuable currency remains in their home country from whence their tours are organised.

This is a real problem for those countries that are being visited and are providing the

Ecotourism experience. Countries where there are real needs to increase their foreign

earnings and standards of living. It is essential for South Africans to break into these niche

markets, but this is not easy. The marketing of these tours is highly professional and

intensely competitive. Without a hard-hitting and effective marketing strategy we in South

Africa will not attract the wealthy, information-hungry and resource-friendly clientele who

support these ecotours, and earn most of the money for ourselves. To develop a

sustainable Ecotourism industry we need to:

Provide local communities with strong incentives to participate in and benefit from

the industry

Provide appropriate training in Ecotourism principles and service standards at all

levels

And most importantly launch aggressive and effective marketing strategies that

will ultimately maximise local profit share and capture the lion’s share of the global

Ecotourism market.



4 ADVANTAGES OF ECOTOURISM

Ecotourism is the fastest growing sector in the international travel industry.

The main advantages of Ecotourism are:

1. it provides an excellent source of foreign exchange that can be used by the

governments of developing countries to finance economic growth and

development

2. Ecotourism and its associated activities is a better form of land use than most agricultural pursuits, especially in arid and semi-arid areas

3. It is a form of economic development that can, if managed correctly, spread

revenue to the poorest strata of marginal rural communities. In South Africa it can

be a source of restitution for disadvantaged rural communities

4. It is an ‘industry without chimneys’ (that is can promote economic growth with-

out damaging the environment) while assisting social and economic development

5. Ecotourism is a ‘peace industry’ because it promotes respect for other cultures

and can only safely occur in peaceful areas

6. It can also promote business partnerships between the private sector,

conservation authorities and residents located in, or adjacent to, wild areas

5 SOME BASIC PLANNING PRINCIPLES FOR ECOTOURISM DEVELOPMENT

For the successful establishment of Ecotourism destinations we have learned from

experience that there are certain planning principles that must guide the development. Some

of these are:

Apply strict conservation measures to the natural area used for Ecotourism to

protect the flora, fauna and ecosystems, and any existing archaeological or historic

sites, and local culture

Establish carrying capacity standards so that there is no over development of

tourist facilities, or overuse of the environment – ensuring that the resource is not

depreciated

Develop small-scale tourist facilities in environmentally suitable locations with

locally based designs, use of materials, energy saving devices and proper disposal of

waste material. Large scale developments are much more difficult to establish in an

environmentally friendly fashion. Develop a visitor centre with exhibits about the site

and local conservation attractions should also be developed.

Prepare and distribute Ecotourism codes of conduct for Ecotourists and tour

operators, and closely monitor the application of these codes



Provide well trained tour guides who will give accurate information to Ecotourists to

educate them on matters of biological diversity, conservation management

techniques and requirements, observe good conservation behaviour during tours, and

give them a great introduction to social values

Integrate local communities into Ecotourism development by providing them jobs

and income.

6 THE TEN COMMANDMENTS OF ECO-TRAVEL

From the point-of-view of the Ecotourists themselves they need to understand, or be

taught/encouraged, to:

respect the frailty of the earth by realising that unless they are willing to help in the

preservation of unique and beautiful destinations they will not be there for future

generations to enjoy

leave only footprints, take only photographs! No graffiti! No litter! Do not take away

souvenirs from historical sites and natural areas

make their travel more meaningful and educate themselves about the wildlife,

geography, customs, manners and cultures of the region they. Take time to listen to

the local people

encourage local conservation efforts

respect the privacy and dignity of others, for example, inquire before

photographing people

not buy products made from endangered plants or animals. Generally these

include items made from ivory, tortoise shell, animal skins, feathers, and even wood,

though in some places these products are produced sustainably so request permits in

prior to purchase

always follow and keep to designated trails, do not disturb animals, plants or the

natural environment

learn about and support conservation-oriented programmes and organisations working to preserve the environment (i.e. encourage local conservation efforts)

Whenever possible walk or use environmentally sound methods of transportation

Patronise those (hotels, airlines, resorts, cruise lines, tour operators, suppliers, etc.)

who use energy sparingly (or better, use energy obtained from renewable resources),

and who practise environmentally friendly conservation practices when it comes to

the use of water, take care to recycle, deal safely with waste and toxic materials and



are aware of the need for noise abatement, have community involvement

programmes, and that provide experienced, well-trained staff dedicated to strong

principles of conservation

Encourage organisations to subscribe and adhere to environmental guidelines

For Ecotourists to be able to establish the genuineness of a proposed Eco-tour operator the

Ecotourist should check the following procedures and practices:

Research their destination before leaving, so as to be informed of what are the

social and environmental problems facing your host nation or community

Show respect for the people and area by knowing something about their language,

culture, beliefs, and social behavioural norms

Get some background on your tour operator to discover whether he is really

conservation orientated and practises what they preach

Be aware of your impact on the area. How will your presence impact on the local

ecosystems. For example on a cruise ship ask what the company does with its waste

at sea

Know where your money goes and how much of the money you spend will benefit

the place you visit. What does your tour operator or resort do to support the local

environment and/or local community-based projects

Employment practice. Does, for example, the establishment you will be staying at

employ local people, and do they merely fill menial roles with little opportunity for

advancement? Ask questions about the provision of education, homes and basic

services like clean water and health for employees and their families

Make others aware by being prepared to lobby politicians, the media and

environmental /conservation groups to draw their attention to issues of importance

Buy carefully and be sure you are helping indigenous economics by buying local

products and services. Do not buy curios and mementoes without knowing the source

of the material used and whether they have been legally and sustainable obtained

(for example Bali has a flourishing giraffe carving industry that is under-cutting African

carvers)

Support a conservation agency by joining or contributing financially

Question your lifestyle and ask yourself whether your lifestyle at home has any

negative affects on the area you are visiting? If so, what can you do to change it?

There are surely a number of other things you can add to the list that are place and person

specific. What are they?



REVISION EXERCISE


1. To establish the genuineness of a proposed Eco-tour, checks should reveal that:

a) the destination earns a good foreign exchange

b) respect is shown to local people

c) the Ecotourism revenue helps the rural economy

d) all of the abovee) none of the above

2. How are game parks developed?

a) by changing farm boundaries

b) by adding or changing the animal species present

c) by including the sale of African crafts and industries within its borders

d) B and C above

3. What does the term ‘peace industry’ mean?

a) an industry, which can promote economic growth without damaging the environment

b) an industry, which promotes respect for one another’s culture

c) an industry, which is focussed on the marginal rural communities

4. Many Ecotourists are stressed city dwellers wanting to get back to their roots and have an African experience. How would you describe what they are looking for?

a) a romantic interludeb) an un-romantic interludec) a Survival Mode Experienced) an opportunity to learn.

5. Which of the following statements are TRUE?

a) mass tourism is tourism for the masses

b) mass tourism drivesprices down.

c) mass tourism is not suitable for the African Market.

d) mass tourism has positive economic impacts

e) all of the abovef) A and B above

6. In the principles of sustainable tourism and Ecotourism:

a) the overall environmental quality should be maintained

b) a high level of tourism satisfaction is optional

c) partnerships are difficult and optional

d) only business training is important

e) Ecotourists should be offered a “full” experience.


LEARNING UNIT 3ECOLOGY AND ITS KEY CONCEPTS



briefly explain the meaning of ecology and related terms

identify the seven South African biomes on a map

identify the World’s Floral Kingdoms (one whole Kingdom is limited to South

Africa – The Cape Floral Kingdom)

understand the various study areas of ecology

be aware of what natural resources attract Ecotourism.

1 DEFINITION OF ECOLOGY

1.1 The Meaning of Ecology

Ecology is a relatively new concept. A German biologist named Ernest Haeckle in the late

1800s first used the term “ecology”. The word ecology is derived from two Greek words -

“oikos” meaning house, and “logos” meaning study. Translated the word ecology means

to “study organisms in their houses”. The most general definition of ecology is - the study of the relationships of plants and animals with each other, and with their environment (which is their house or HABITAT).

Ecology is thus broadly regarded as the study of the structure and functioning of nature and,

therefore, includes all the inter-related interactions that occur in nature.

1.2 Objective of Ecology

The objective of ecology is to study how organisms live in their native (natural) habitat. Organisms are directly dependent on their environment for all their life support systems. The

organisms interact on and in this environment, as well as with all the other living things that

surround them. This inter-acting system is called an ECOSYSTEM, the size of which can be

small or large depending on the system being studied (a mossy rock on a forest floor, or the

Indian Ocean).

1.3 Biotic and Abiotic

There are basically two elements in ecology, and broadly speaking in the world around us,

these are namely

1) the biotic, and

2) the abiotic components

Abiotic relates to the non-living elements of the world: i.e. rocks, water, air, etc.

Biotic relates to the living elements of the world: i.e. plants, animals, etc.

When studying ecology one can either study the ecology of a single species, which is called

autecology, or more generally ecologists study communities with a mix of species, this

branch of ecological study is called synecology. Thus autecology incorporates the study of,

for example, aspects of the lifecycle of an organism, feeding methods, behavioural patterns,

etc. Synecology on the other hand is the study of different groups of organisms that function

as a unit in a community - and here ecologists study the inter-actions and processes that

support the functional requirements of the system (which is what we basically see when we

look around us at the natural world).

It is important to remember that ecological studies need not apply only to open fields and/or

natural systems, but also to urban areas. Most ecologists are interested in observing and

measuring change that occur in systems, and more specifically changes that have been

imposed on the system – most often by human activities .

Ecology is, therefore, a basic division of biology, and because it relates to all living

matter it is almost impossible to practically differentiate clearly between plant and animal

ecology. Ecology is about how one action influences another, or how the ecosystem in

general is impacted. A simple example is given below to clarify our understanding:

Any influence in the environment has an influence on an organism, and vice versa. For

example, antelope graze on grasslands, recycle what they do not metabolise as dung, which

provides nutrients for the soil that promotes further grass growth. This is a simple cycle (or a

FOOD CHAIN) and is vitally important to both antelope and plant life. If a drought occurs

(abiotic factor) no rain arrives, thus the grass does not grow and the antelope (biotic factor)

cannot get enough food and cannot recycle enough nutrients to promote further growth. The

antelope may die as a result of the drought and the plants may stop growing because they

have no water and/or nutrients, and as such the whole environment (house) is affected.

The important point to remember in ecology is that everything is connected (or, better

still, INTER-CONNECTED). Biotic and abiotic factors have a reciprocal relationships - they

influence one another.

1.5 Holistic

The term “holistic” is often used in ecology. And lately in most ecological contexts holism

relates to the view that encompasses the whole environment and all the organisms that

live in it (= the ECOSYSTEM – sometimes also referred to the “WEB OF LIFE”, being the

inter-connected and inter-related interactions between all the abiotic and biotic components

in the landscape). The landscape that can be viewed as being extremely large, as for

example the whole Amazon Forest or Amazonia, or it can be viewed as extremely small such

as the mossy growth on a log in the Amazon Forest. This is simply a matter of scale

definition.

1.6 Habitats

Ecology is thus based on the study of the habitat (the HOUSE) of the organism. A habitat

is a geographic area that can support a particular organism. A habitat is circumscribed

by the organisms inhabiting it, i.e. The Amazon Forest is the habitat of many Rain Forest

trees and associated flora and fauna, and a moss covered log on the Amazon Forest floor is

a habitat dominated by mosses, small invertebrates and fungi. Another example is that of a

seal which cannot function in a desert since it is an aquatic animal (mammal) that inhabits

the ocean. Though seals breed on land and along the Namibian coast in desert conditions.

For example, the seal colonies north of Swakop-mund. Even though a habitat has limitations

it can vary dramatically in size, from many millions of hectares in a rain forest, to a few

square centimetres on a log, it is a matter of human definition/perception that defines the

size/scale.

2 LEVELS OF ECOLOGICAL STUDY

Ecologists study the world on three different levels:

Population – meaning the individual species level

Communities – at the level where many species occupy the same or very similar

space or habitat, and interact with each other in a variety of ways

Ecosystems – where many communities occur and interact with one another

3 CARRYING CAPACITY

This is a key concept in ecology. The concept of carrying capacity originated in the

1950s, when ecologists generally realised that habitats could not support increasing

numbers of individuals without these individuals beginning to compromise/impact the ability

of the habitat to sustain the population indefinitely. Central to the concept is that

environmental factors set limits on the population (= the numbers of individuals) that an

area can sustain. Or in other words the carrying capacity is the largest size of a population that can be supported by a particular habitat. This can be calculated using a

complex formula that takes into account all the limiting factors. The result will be a certain

number of animals, or people, which a habitat, or an ecosystem, can ‘comfortably’ sustain in perpetuity (even under adverse conditions, such as extreme drought or when rangelands

are razed by fire and all the grazing is lost). When these limits are exceeded the quality of

the environment suffers (i.e. degradation occurs, which could be manifest by soil erosion or

loss of biodiversity, etc.), and ultimately the ability of the environment to support that

population is compromised. Thus under natural conditions the population declines (either

slowly or catastrophically – and because we are technologically capable we humans can

devise short term solutions to such catastrophes). And it is worth noting that “ecological

time” is measured using evolutionary time-scales, thus “short term” means a good few

years, medium term means tens and hundreds of years, and long term means more than

1,000 years. We are extremely fortunate here in Africa that our ecosystems are well

buffered against many human impacts, thus they are fairly resistant to change – which is

good and bad (bad because we may not be readily aware of the damage we are creating

until it is too late).

What is most relevant to the Ecotourism industry is that there are three main elements to

calculating Ecotourism carrying capacity:

Biophysical (= ecological) - are those factors that relate to the natural environment

Socio-cultural - primarily being the impact of Ecotourists on the host population

(including cultural aspects)

Facility - which relates to the quality of the visitor experience

4 BIOMES OF SOUTH AFRICA

There are a few slight variations of the definition of the term biome, but the most

comprehensive definition is:

A Biome is a unit of classification for a naturally occurring plant community (the plants of which have a similar structure, being all grasses or all trees). Biomes usually have a recognisable associated faunal assemblage (animals adapted to the particular conditions of the biome). And all these plants and animals occur under similar micro-climatic conditions within a certain geo-graphic zone.

Thus each Biome consists of a distinctive combination of plants (and animals), and each is

characterised by a uniform vegetation structure, a similar climate, and occupies a restricted

geographical range. South African examples are the Succulent Karoo that is semi-arid, with

most rain falling in spring and autumn (as opposed to the Nama Karoo which is also semi-

arid but the rainfall is mainly in summer). The vegetation of the Succulent Karoo is largely

comprised of succulent-leaved and succulent-stemmed shrubs, and the characteristic faunal

component was Black Rhino, Springbuck, and others. The Succulent Karoo occurs on the

western plains of South Africa, and on the coastal plains and rolling hills of the hinterland

(though the topography in the north can be rugged – e.g. the Richtersveld). While the Nama

Karoo has patchy summer rainfall, is dominated by small-leaved, tough shrubs with a

seasonal grass component, and the faunal component is typified by small antelope including

Springbuck and Blesbuck. Geographically the Nama Karoo is confined to the inland basins

and the topography is flat with flat-topped hills and even low mountains.

Biomes rarely have sharp boundaries, as they comprise large landscape units that typically

grade into one another at the boundaries.

South Africa has seven major terrestrial biomes (= terrestrial ecosystems):

1) Forest - a community of mainly evergreen trees with a closed upper canopy and

several layers of trees and shrubs in the understorey. With woody and

herbaceous climbers, and a ground layer of herbaceous plants and ferns - and in

parts an abundance of epiphytes (mainly ferns and some orchids). Occurring

mainly where the rainfall is more than 900mm/year and where there is often low

cloud or mist that brings additional precipitation. And in South Africa forest

generally occurs as small isolated patches along the south and eastern

escarpment (reaching its maximum extent at Knysna). One estimate is that there

are over 17,000 patches over 5ha in area (thus the forest patches are essentially

islands in a matrix of other vegetation).

2) Thicket - a unique South African biome comprising a dense tangle of often spiny,

woody, deciduous and evergreen (and even succulent), small trees and shrubs

often in deeply incised river valleys, on steep mountain/hill-sides generally on

scree (= rocky patches), and on some coastal dunes. Occurring from the winter

rainfall area (Saldanha Bay in the west) to the summer rainfall area (as far north

as KZN, inland of Richards Bay) and not occurring too far inland.

3) Grassland - as the name implies, it is dominated by grasses. And in South Africa

these are mainly of the tussocked or tufted kind (also some times called bunch

grasses). They are generally restricted to the uplands and the interior plateau in

the eastern parts of the country, where the rainfall is more than some

600mm/year - but less than 1,000mm/year. Rainfall is seasonal and summer

dominated, and lightning strikes are a common feature causing fires which are

thought to be an integral part of the ecological processes governing the

distribution and maintenance of these grasslands.

4) Succulent Karoo - as the name implies, is dominated by succulents. These are

all small, generally scattered bushes with either succulent leaves and/or stems.

The biome occurs in the winter dominated, semi-arid western lowlands of the

country. This is another uniquely South African biome that also has a big

component of annuals, which flower profusely in spring if there have been suitable

conditions in the preceding seasons. These spring flowers have enormous

Ecotourist potential, as there is nowhere else on earth where there is such a

profusion of spring flowers.

5) Nama Karoo - is a perennial shrub dominated and also uniquely southern African

biome that is restricted to the semi-arid interior. The countryside consists of large

plains with emergent hills and ridges, and in good seasons there can be a

conspicuous grassy component.

6) Savanna - is a mainly deciduous tree dominated community with a grassy

understorey. Many of the trees are thorny (mainly Acacia spp.), though there are

a great number of other tree species (possibly a total of some 400-500 species).

This is the so-called “big game” country of South Africa, and because the rainfall

is generally less than 600mm/year it is not suited to cropping.

7) Fynbos - is a uniquely South African vegetation type that comprises a low to

medium height heathland vegetation dominated mainly by Cape Reeds

(Restionaceae) and ericoid-leaved plants (tiny rolled leaves usually <5mm long).

Fynbos occurs mainly on the nutrient poor soils of, or derived from, the

sedimentary rocks of the Cape Mountains, and on calcareous soils (particularly on

the Aghulas plain and coastal limestone hills) - in the winter to all year round

rainfall zone (thus from Vanrynsdorp in the north and west, to Port Elizabeth in the

east and south).

According to Acocks, who described and mapped the Veld Types of South Africa in the late

1940s, South Africa actually has 72 different major Veld Types, and a team of plant

ecologists currently finalizing a vegetation map of South Africa have identified and mapped

well over 300 major vegetation units. For our purposes, however, the recognition of the major

South African biomes is sufficient. Worthy of note is that as one moves north the biomes are

fewer and more extensive, and that in the south and east of the country there is a good deal

of complexity that relates to steep topographic, geological variation (and hence soil), and

climate gradients. It is this complexity that makes South Africa one of the most biodiverse

countries globally. This diversity at a global level is today referred to as megadiversity. And

it is interesting to note that there are only 17 nations that possess more than two thirds of the

earth’s biological resources, of which South Africa is one. And in terms of plants and animal

species at risk (from extinction), as much as 80% of the world’s most endangered

biodiversity is found within these megadiverse countries. These countries are also home to a

major portion of the planet’s cultural diversity.

NOTE: Two maps of the Biomes of South Africa have been included on the following pages.

The first map has been taken from the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism’s

website. Because the map on the website is in colour and is printed in black-and-white in this

text, it is not always easy to distinguish between the grey scales. Therefore, a simplified

sketch map is also included for clarification.

These Biome maps are followed by a simplified Vegetation Map of South Africa. It is clear

that some vegetation types (mostly more than one) match the Biome boundaries. For the

Learners’ purpose it is good to note the similarities and differences, and to ask questions

where interpretation is difficult.

5 WORLD FLORAL KINGDOMS

Worldwide plant geographers recognise six Floral Kingdoms. These are regional areas (all

cover more than one country with one exception) where, because of the particular

distribution of certain plant species, genera and families, the flora can be recognised as

unique from that covering other and even adjacent areas. The map below shows this

distribution. What is of note is that one Kingdom, the Cape Floral Kingdom is by far the

smallest (covering <1% of the land surface of the world), AND is the only Floral Kingdom that is confined to ONE country. Thus the southwestern and eastern part of South Africa,

basically from about Vanrynsdorp in the north and west, south and then east to about Port

Elizabeth, is where this Kingdom occurs. For Ecotourism, and biodiversity conservation, this

makes South Africa unique (compare also SA Biome and Vegetation Maps).

Since global biodiversity conservation has become a major conservation focus in the last

decade biologists have started mapping biodiversity hotspots. Again South Africa has more

than its fair share of hotspots and the map below indicates the location of the major hotspots.

Again it is the presence of such hotspots that attracts global Ecotourists. Responsible

Ecotourist guides who are familiar with where these hotspots are and what makes them

unique are in demand to lead specialised tours. Thus it is to your advantage to know what

floral and faunal occur in the Cape Floral Kingdom, and the various Biological Hotspots (of

the 17 world-wide hotspots three occur in South Africa and are the Fynbos, the Succulent

Karoo and the Tongaland-Pondoland region – no other country has three hotspots within its

political boundaries –thus South Africa is TRULY UNIQUE!). On the map the Tongaland-

Pondoland hotspot is shown as separately named areas, Maputaland (= Tongaland) and

Pondoland.

6 OTHER ECOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE

6.1 The Biosphere

The Earth and all living organisms make up the biosphere. Thus Biosphere Ecology is the

study of the largest and nearly self-sufficient global biological system, because this includes

all of the earth’s living organisms interacting with the physical environment AS A WHOLE.

6.2 The Environment

The meaning of the word environment has a number of different interpretations because

different professions use the word differently. The reason for this is the “the environment” has

become an over-used concept because it is fashionable to be “environmentally sensitive”.

Some examples of what “the environment” can mean are:

the house, suburb or place where we live

the city and environs being a “unit” managed by a municipality, and depending on the

professional discipline if

1. architects are referring to the environment they will mean the built part

2. horticulturalists will mean the garden/green part

3. medical doctors will mean any number of things depending on their own

speciality

i) thus an epidemiologist may mean a whole geographic area

ii) a pathologist may be referring to water quality or another health risk

area

iii) a paediatrician the school/home of children, etc.

simply the countryside or veld out there, especially to an agriculturalist or game

ranger

to a sociologist it may be the people and their culture, etc.

In ecology the environment usually refers to the abiotic components of a system and

any biotic factors that impact ecological processes. It is usually those elements that are

“natural” that are considered to be environmental.

6.3 Defining Natural History

Natural History is the interdependency and interaction of plants and animals (the biotic component) and objects in nature (the abiotic components), which can be observed and recorded. The Ecotourism guide must have a thorough understanding of this subject.

For example, plants depend on grazing (eating grass) or browsing (feeding on the

foliage/flowers and or fruits of small shrubs or trees) animals, which provide a “natural stress”

for renewal and growth. Animals provide nutrients by way of their waste products, whilst the

decaying remains of the animals (and dung) and plants provide “compost/fertilizer” and

maintain the decomposers in the system. Thus, there is a dependency and interaction

between animal and plants and the soil, all of which are a part of “natural history”.

This is very important to humans because our survival as a species depends on these basic relationships. It is the awareness of the importance of the natural world and its

fascinating life interactions that motivates the Ecotourist. And today human cultural diversity

has been added to and incorporated in this topic.

A “natural history tour”, therefore, requires the services of recognised specialist tour guides.

In South Africa we have many academics and specialist tour guides that are under-utilised. A

list of registered specialist tour guides is available from THETA on request.

NOTE: At the back of this manual there are two appendices each of which contains

additional information of relevance to Learners once they prepare to enter the workforce.

These are APPENDIX I: TOUR GUIDING AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT and

APPENDIX II: NATIONAL RESPONSIBLE TOURISM GUIDELINES FOR SOUTH AFRICA.

7 ADDITIONAL USEFUL PESOURCES

7.1 Natural History Museums

Natural History Museums are extremely useful and informative. They also help to fill in the

blanks that could not be observed first hand in the bush and/or in nature reserves. They can

make what is imagined come alive. The exhibits are realistic, world–class and enhance

the natural perception of our heritage. They should be used and/or recommended on every

tour.

The Natural Science Museum in Durban and the South African Museum in Cape Town are

two particularly good examples.

7.2 Conservation organisations

The projects and activities of non-governmental conservation organisations (NGOs) like the

Wildlife and Environmental Society of Southern Africa (WESSA), the Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) and the Botanical Society of South Africa (BotSoc) are of great

interest to Ecotourists, and the young entrepreneur would do well to become ‘involved’ in one

of the organisations on a voluntary basis. This involvement can result in obtaining good ideas

and valuable contacts when starting an Ecotourism venture.

7.3 Publications

Useful publications include:

The Outhere Adventure Guide is published annually and gives information on

Ecotouristic adventures, ideas, services and safety. It also contains contact lists.

The Tourism Blue Print provides a comprehensive listing of tourist attractions in South

Africa’s nine Provinces as well as detailed maps.

7.4 Magazines

Magazines such as:

Veld and Flora (published by the BotSoc)

Africa Wildlife (published by WESSA)

Africa Geographic

Africa Birds and Birding

Diversions

Great Outdoors

Getaway and

Vision (published by EWT)

Offer excellent articles for Eco-tour guides and operators.

REVISION EXERCISESMultiple choice questions

1. Ecology can be defined as:a) the study of plants and animals

b) the study of the structure and

function of nature

c) people in nature

d) a major climatic-vegetation zone

2. The study of all populations occupying a given area is known as:a) Physiological Ecology

b) Community Ecology

c) Ecosystem Ecology

d) Population Ecology

3. The most important type of reserve in term of Ecotourism is:a) a National Park

b) a Transfrontier Park

c) a Specialised Nature Reserve

d) a Biosphere Reserve

4. The following are examples of food chains:a) the study of bees and wasps

b) the study of grasses and shrubs

c) the study of herbivores and carni-

vores

e) the study of grass, cows and milk

consumption

5. The ecological study of all the earth’s living organisms is known as:a) Population ecology

b) Biosphere Ecology

c) Community Ecology

d) Autecology

e) Synecology

6. Which of the following statements is TRUE?a) The study of Natural History is to

assess the interdependency and inter-

action of plants and animals, and objects

b) A Natural History tour requires the

service of a specialist guide

c) Regional Guides may accompany

tourist overnight, but are usually confined

to provinces

d) Natural History is the study of

human cultures

7. Carrying capacity is:a) all the plants and animals in an

ecosystem

b) all the animal populations in a Park

c) all the Ecotourists that visit Kruger

Park

d) the maximum sustainable biota of

an area

e) all organisms that can be sustained in

an ecosystem

8. There are six Floral Kingdoms worldwide, and only one in S.A. It is:a) the Cape

b) the Palaeotropic

c) the Antarctic

d) none of the above

.

LEARNING UNIT 4ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

KEY OUTPUT FOR THIS UNIT


understand the purpose of environmental management systems

explain what sort of decisions ecologists make

understand the concept carrying capacity even more thoroughly

describe different environmental management procedures

explain the ISO 14001 as an environmental standard

distinguish and explain different classes of environmental problems.

1 INTRODUCTION

Government has identified inadequate environmental management as one of the main

limitations of the Ecotourism industry in South Africa. Ecologists play a key role in the

environmental management process and South Africa has good ecologists, many of them

world-renowned. There is also more than adequate legislation in place to ensure sustainable

management, and the new Biodiversity legislation strengthens this even more (visit the

DEAT website for a complete and continually updated list of all relevant environmental

legislation). The main impediment to sustainable management in South Africa is the lack of

proper policing and implementation of the legislation. This essentially comes down to a lack of political commitment. It will only be when the South African electorate is properly

educated, and is able to ensure government does the job expected that things may change.

Global pressures, such as global climate change and increasing awareness by more and

more people, may also hasten the day when we start to really care about environmental

conservation matters seriously. The ultimate conservation victory will be when all South

African citizens not only understand but implement proper conservation actions on a day-to-

day basis. Alleviation of global poverty is impossible without sustainable use and

management of all our resources.

1.1 Managing Environmental Impacts

There is an intimate reciprocal relationship between Ecotourism and the environment. Many features of the natural and built environment are attractions for Ecotourists, and

Ecotourism can help achieve improved levels of protection - as South Africans begin to value

their natural and cultural resources. Ecotourist facilities and infrastructure constitute one

element of the built environment (whether these are in urban and/or rural settings).

Ecotourism development and Ecotourist use of resources can generate both positive and

negative environmental impacts. For sustainable Ecotourism development it is essential that

the environmental quality of the Ecotourism areas is not compromised – this is important for

both the residents and the Ecotourists.

Many types of environmental impacts can and are generated by Ecotourism development and Ecotourist use of resources (and the environment). If Ecotourism is

well planned, developed and managed, negative impacts can be mitigated and positive

impacts emphasised. Appropriate Ecotourism development can:

Help justify and pay for the conservation of important natural areas and wildlife,

including marine environments (in the section on Culturology the conservation of

culture will be discussed, as this is another South Africa attraction to Ecotourists)

Help justify and pay for the conservation of archaeological and historic sites Help improve the overall environmental quality because tourists like to visit places

that are attractive, free of graffiti and clean (not polluted)

Help improve infrastructure, which can also contribute to better environmental

quality

Increase local environmental awareness because when residents observe tourists’

interest in conservation they realise that by protecting the environment they are

protecting an asset.

If Ecotourism is not well planned, developed and managed, it can generate several types of

negative environmental impacts including:

Water pollution resulting from improper waste management of sewage and solid

waste systems of hotels and other tourist facilities. Water pollution includes pollution

of rivers, lakes and dams, and coastal water (one of the main causes is from sewage

and ground water seepage of waste materials)

Air pollution resulting from excessive use of vehicles in Ecotourism areas, and

inadequate exhaust systems on these vehicles

Noise pollution resulting from Ecotourist activities and Ecotourist vehicles including

aircraft movements

Vehicular and pedestrian traffic congestion generated by Ecotourists at popular

attractions and facilities

Unattractive landscapes resulting from several factors such as:

1. poor design of Ecotourist facilities

2. badly planned layout of facilities

3. inadequate and inappropriate landscaping of facilities

4. poor use of large and ugly advertisement signs

5. obstruction of scenic views by infrastructure development (such as power-lines,

telecommunication towers, buildings, etc.)

6. Inappropriate urban and regional planning

Littering of landscapes by Ecotourists and defacing of features by graffiti and

vandalism (the popular/unpopular ban of plastic bags has had a huge positive impact

already)

Ecological disruption of natural areas and disturbance of wildlife by overuse and

misuse by Ecotourists, and by inappropriate Ecotourism development. Coastal,

marine, mountain and desert environments, all-important types of Ecotourism areas,

are particularly vulnerable to ecological damage. In coastal areas, for example,

onshore development may increase erosion and runoff with sedimentation into the

coastal waters, which smother and kill reefs. Another case in point is the siting of

roads, a topical example being the proposed new toll road on the Wild Coast

Damage to archaeological and historical sites by overuse and misuse by

Ecotourists, and by inappropriate Ecotourism development. South Africa has a

particularly rich and well researched pre-history, and but one example of huge

damage that has and is still being caused is to coastal shell middens that are a

common and prominent feature of the whole South African coast

Environmental hazards such as erosion, land slippage, damage from high waves,

flooding, earthquakes, etc. And land use problems resulting from poor planning and

poor environmental understanding by engineers. Another key South African concern

is wild fire that can destroy habitat and infrastructure.

1.2 Environmental Management Systems

Part of South Africa’s legislative framework is that we have excellent environmental

legislation (and the environment is also enshrined in our Constitution). The white paper on

Environmental Management Systems (EMSs) was published in 1993. It aims to set out a

policy with regard to meeting national environmental guidelines in accordance with

government policy and commitment on all environmental matters. The following statement is

drawn from the white paper to illustrate this policy:

“South Africa should rigorously pursue economic development, subject to maintaining

the services and quality of environmental resources, and the setting of affordable

environmental standards for all sectors of the economy”.

In this document the Government tries to streamline its functions and to encourage the

private sector to also adopt management styles that are as environmentally friendly as

possible. Thus it is incumbent on all developers (government and private sector alike) to

ensure that any development is environmentally sound. And this is achieved by following

EMS guidelines.

2 THE FUNCTION OF ECOLOGISTS

2.1 What Ecologists Do

An Ecologist is a professionally trained scientist who is at the top of the decision-making pyramid when it comes to all environmental matters. There are ecological experts in many

different fields from fresh water and marine ecologists, to terrestrial ecologists with expertise

in very diverse fields from megaherbivour management to pollution control and bio-

remediation procedures, and others who have expertise in archaeology (to mention a small

cross-section). The Ecologist(s) are responsible for collecting, analysing and collating, and

finally presenting data - before making recommendations regarding development prior to a

decision being taken of whether to proceed, modify the plans, and/or abort the project.

Thus before any development can take place the Environmental Management Act and Environmental Impact Assessment regulations must be adhered to. Ecologists are also

employed in industries where Environmental Audits are regularly performed.

Thus prospective entrepreneurs should be familiar with the steps necessary to start an

Ecotourism venture, and know how to comply with the relevant environmental standards.

3 THE PURPOSE OF ENVIROMENTAL EVALUATIONS

Environmental management require evaluations to:

Aid decision making by providing objective information on the environmental results

of actions, plans and projects

Provide sound and comprehensive data to inform and direct development

Analyse plans objectively to make sure that the greatest good is attained and

negative effects are minimised

Propose solutions to problems that may arise between the role players

Communicate information as to the positive and negative effects of the

development proposal to both decision makers and all interested parties

4 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PROCEDURES AND STANDARDS

4.1 Applicable Environmental Standards

If an entrepreneur wants to start an Ecotourism venture, or any other land development,

South African law requires a formal investigation. This is known as an Integrated

Environmental Management Procedure (IEM)

4.2 The Integrated Environmental Management Procedure (IEM)

The IEM process is intended to ensure that environmental considerations are efficiently and

properly integrated at all stages. It consists of a checklist of environmental considerations

in a time sequence, allocating checks at all phases from conceptualisation to implementation.

Thus all possible consequences are taken into consideration and all results monitored.

There are four stages in the development of any proposal:

1 Develop the proposal

2 Assess the proposal

3 Make the decision4 Implement the decision

Only proposals that have significant impacts on the environment require a full impact

assessment. This is the formal investigation required by law. However, not all proposals have

a significant impact on the environment so they do not all require a full impact assessment.

Specialists have to make the decision whether an impact assessment is required or not

(because this “judgment” on what is considered “significant” cannot always be deemed

objective, there is room for corruption/dishonesty – so the whole process has to be very

carefully monitored and it must be completely transparent).

The IEM Process is designed to ensure that the environmental consequences of development proposals are understood and adequately considered in the planning process. The IEM process aims to resolve or reduce any negative impacts, and to enhance

the positive aspects of development.

The ecologist will be in the forefront of the assessment and will consult with a number of

specialists like geologists, biologists, meteorologists, etc., etc. for advice and information.

Finally the ecologist(s) will make a decision based on all the findings and advice obtained.

The bigger the development the more careful all the experts consulted have to be.

4.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

An environmental impact assessment is a scientific evaluation of the environmental change that is most likely to take place as the result of a development action.

The IEM Procedure determines whether an impact assessment is undertaken or not.

Provision is made for an initial assessment to establish whether a detailed assessment

should be made. If it is clear that the development will have a significant impact, a full EIA will

have to be done. An EIA has the following components:

Scoping. This determines the extent and the approach to the investigation. The

proponent (the person or group who want the development to take place, and the

relevant authorities and interested or affected parties, determine which alternatives

and issues should be investigated.

Investigation. The investigation is guided by decisions during the scoping phase of

the project. It is intended to provide the authorities with enough information on

positive and negative aspects for them to take a decision.

Report. All parties will have established particular requirements for the report

determined during the scoping.

In less developed countries like South Africa where the main concern (especially of the rural

population) is for food, shelter and security, environmental concerns are of lesser

importance. Thus poverty alleviation and environment/biodiversity conservation are intimately

inter-connected and both need to occur in tandem.

The environmental effects of a project are analysed by EIAs. The results are evaluated in

the following ways:

Long term ecological criteria

Aesthetic consideration and

Scientific \ educational interests.

4.4 The ISO 14001

This is an international standard for environmental management systems. ISO 14001

was designed to be applicable to any organisation - whether small, medium or large, in a

first world or a developing economy, whether in the public or private sector, in industry and/or

or the services sector.

By implementing this standard and an environment management system, it means that all activities which could have an impact on the environmental are:

Identified Carried out under controlled circumstances Regulated by targets are set for all improvements.

For a company to implement an ISO 14001 environmental management system top

management must define an environment policy.

5 ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Humankind is totally dependent on planet earth for all their needs, and thus to plan

responsibly is essential. We need to take a wide and holistic view on all environmental problems. These environmental problems arise from human actions that damage the

interrelationships between people and nature. We have FOUR classes or environmental

problems with each needing to be solved by a different approach.

5.1 Degradable Wastes

These consist of: the pollution of water by organic wastes

the pollution of air mainly by products of combustion, for example factory boilers and

vehicle fumes

thermal pollution

noise.

The current method of reducing these impacts is essentially by dilution and dispersion. The

problems are, however, serious and we should be acting against them using legal, economic

and societal (environmental action groups) frameworks, and not simply putting off the day of

reckoning.

5.2 Persistent Wastes

These consist of:

Heavy metals (Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, etc.)

Manufactured products such as pesticides (e.g. DDT and many thousands of other

chemicals), plastics, etc.

Nuclear wastes with a long half-life

These are all removed from the biosphere, the thin layer around the earth in which all living

organisms exist, very slowly. Dilution and dispersion of these wastes is already recognised

as not being the answer because they pose serious threats long term by accumulation, in the environment and in animal food chains (a food chain is the movement of energy and

nutrients from one feeding group of organisms to another in series that begin with plants and

end with carnivores (flesh eaters), and detritus feeders (bacterial and fungi feed on fresh or

decomposed plants and animals).

Technological answers are not yet readily available to neutralise these waste products, thus existing methods of disposal (treatment) must be rigorously controlled.

These wastes are a very serious problem and currently disposal methods do not take

adequate account of very long term time-frames/concerns.

5.3 Reversible Biological and Geophysical Impacts

These include agriculture, road building, and open cast mining operations in large stable

ecosystems. These activities can deprive communities of basic services such as clean water and thus lead to a poorer quality of life. Time, planning and money spent on this

area of degradation can and will reduce negative impacts.

5.4 Irreversible Biological and Geophysical Impacts

Changes in world climate and weather resulting from certain factors like global warming,

ozone depletion and acid rain all present major global problems, which could deplete one of

the earth’s resources to the point of extinction. These impacts could well lead to the

extinction of animals, plants and fragile ecosystems sooner than later. Certainly the year

2050 is generally considered to be of vital importance for humankind.

REVISION EXERCISE


1. Ecologists study the world on different levels which are:

a) populations

b) communities

c) ecosystems

d) all of the above

2. The Carrying Capacity is:a) a formula

b) environmental factors that limit

growth

c) the largest population that can

be supported by a habitat

d) all of the above

3. Developing and assessing the proposal, making a decision and implementing it is part of:

a) an Environmental Impact

Assessment

b) the ISO 14001

c) integrated Environmental

Management Procedure

d) Carrying Capacity

4. The ISO 14001 is:a) An International standard

b) An environmental management

system

c) Both of the above

d) None of the above

5. The earlier spraying for malaria mosquitoes and tsetse flies in the Okavango Swamps using DDT is today considered:

a) Degradable waste

b) Persistent waste

c) Reversible Biological Impacts

d) B and C above

6. South Africa has better environmental legislation than:

a) Russia

b) China

c) India

d) Nigeria

e) Brazil

f) all of the above

7. Air pollution in South Africa is:a) not a problem

b) a major problem

c) better than in Australia

d) worse than in Santiago, Chile

e) worse than in Bangkok

Which is True?

8. Ecotourism activities in South Africa do not:

a) disrupt the behaviour of wildlife

b) have no impact on people

c) are the main cause of water

pollution

d) increase the risk of malaria

Which is True?

LEARNING UNIT 5PROTECTED AREAS



explain the objectives for conservation areas

describe the IUCN categories of protected areas in South Africa

evaluate the background to these categories

distinguish between various categories of internationally recognised protected

areas (e.g. Peace Parks, World Heritage Sites, Biosphere Reserves, and

Ramsar Sites)

have an overview of protected area legislation

appreciate the role and efforts of voluntary conservation organisations.

1 INTRODUCTION

The World Conservation Strategy drawn up by the International Union for Conservation of

Nature (IUNC) states:

“Conservation has evolved from being anti-people and anti-development

to the point when even the designated protection areas are now recognised

as offering major sustainable benefits to society on the condition that human

intervention is conducted in harmony with the retention of biological diversity.”

In South Africa, where poverty is rife, this approach makes sense. Protected areas ensure

biodiversity so that species and ecosystems can survive. Humans in turn are dependent on

these ecosystems for their survival.

Worldwide there are more than 102,102 protected areas covering almost 18 million km in

124 countries.

Varsity College Building Futures Page 56 of 167

2 CONSERVATION OBJECTIVES FOR PROTECTED AREAS

The IUCN has identified the following primary conservation objectives for protected areas:

To maintain essential ecological processes and life support systems Preserve genetic and biological diversity Protect aesthetic values and natural ecosystems

Conserve watersheds and the production of run-off water

Control erosion, sedimentation and soil depletion

Maintain air quality Protect the habitat of representative, as well as rare and endangered species

Provide opportunities for Ecotourism Provide opportunity for research, education and monitoring Contribute to sustainable use systems and eco-friendly development

Protect natural and cultural heritage Retain future options

Indigenous local communities are included in these objectives as the conservation of cultural

heritage is now an essential part of the protected area concept. The advantage of the

protected area options listed above is that where an area is strictly protected human

pressure can be redirected to places which can carry more human pressures.

3 IUCN CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTED AREAS

3.1 Why the IUCN has Criteria for Classifying Areas?

This helps in:

Legislation

Planning management strategies and making management decisions

Controlling the type and intensity of use

Justifying the benefits claimed for the protected areas policy.

Having different categories of protected areas permits flexibility in management, allowing for

a swing away from national responsibility to provincial, non-governmental organisations

(NGOs), and private landowners themselves.


3.2 South African Protected Areas (Marine and Terrestrial) in the IUCN Framework

There are five IUCN management categories each with their own management objectives.

These are:

IUCN NAMES S.A. EQUIVALENTSCategory 1 Scientific Reserves

Wilderness Areas

Special nature reserves

Wilderness Areas

Category 2 National Parks and

equivalent reserves

National Parks

Provincial or Regional Parks

Nature Reserves (either regional or

provincial)

Category 3 Natural and/or Cultural

Monuments

National Monuments

Botanic Gardens

Zoological gardens

Natural Heritage Sites

Sites of Conservation significance

Category 4 Habitat and Wildlife

Management Areas

Private Nature reserves

Indigenous State Forest

Category 5 Protected landscapes

and seascapes

Protected natural environments

Natural resource areas

Scenic Landscapes

Urban Landscapes

The INCU categories mentioned above can be explained as follows:

Category 1: Scientific Reserves and Wilderness Areas are lands that are usually owned

and controlled by government, foundations or institutes. They usually contain fragile

ecosystems or fragile life forms, and/or are areas of significant biological diversity, and/or

areas that conserve genetic resources.

These areas are largely free from human intervention. They are available for scientific

research, environmental monitoring, education and non-mechanised, non-disruptive forms of

Ecotourism. Wilderness areas are large areas that protect the “pristine” natural environment

and is said to contribute to our physical and spiritual well-being. The definition of

“Wilderness” in the USA is an area as described above. In Africa, the cradle of humankind,

there are no areas where humans have not had an impact on the biota over evolutionary


time, and the USA definition of Wilderness is not appropriate for Africa. Unfortunately the

USA and Western European countries dominate the thinking in the IUCN (they also provide

most of the funding to the IUCN), and we, as Africans, need to redefine Wilderness as

appropriate to our continent.

Criteria for selection and management: These areas have some outstanding and

representative ecosystems, features and/or species of plants and animals of scientific

importance. Many of these areas are generally close to the public because they are highly

sensitive to human impact. Size is determined by the area required to ensure the integrity of

the system and to accomplish the management objectives to ensure protection.

These areas are usually best controlled by governments, foundations, universities or

conservation agencies.

Category 2: National Parks and Equivalent Reserves are defined as relatively large

outstanding natural areas managed by a nationally recognised authority. They are

proclaimed to protect the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems. National Parks

also:

Protect ecosystems for this and future generations

Prevent exploitation of the area (e.g. Coal mining in the Kruger National Park)

Prevent urbanisation

Provide a foundation for spiritual, scientific, educational and tourism opportunities

Equivalent reserves (selected state, provincial parks, or tribal council parks) are defined as

outstanding natural areas managed by a state or provincial government, a tribal council, a

foundation, or other legal body which has dedicated the area to long-term conservation.

All Category 2 areas are protected for their spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and

tourism purposes, and visitors enter with these special conditions in mind. They contain one

or several entire ecosystems that are not materially altered by human exploitation or

occupation (again the westernised definition).

Criteria for selection and management. These must be relatively large areas containing

representative samples of major regions, features or scenery, and where plant and animal

species, geomorphological sites and habitats are of special spiritual, scientific, educational

and recreational interest. They contain one or more entire ecosystems that are “not altered

by human intervention”. The area must be managed in a natural or near natural state. People

enter the park under special conditions, for instance for spiritual, educational and recreational


reasons. Sport hunting is not generally considered a compatible practice in National Parks

(by Western criteria), although this is changing in African parks as a more viable alternative

to culling.

Category 3: Most countries have natural and cultural features of special scientific and

educational value. Natural features are spectacular waterfalls, caves, craters, volcanoes,

sand dunes and other scenic attractions, as well as unique species of fauna and flora.

A natural monument is defined as a natural, or natural-culture feature, which is an area of

outstanding and unique value because of its inherent attributes.

Cultural features are archaeological sites and indigenous heritage sites and can include

other national monuments (of historical significance), botanical and zoological gardens,

natural heritage sites, and other sites of conservation significance. The scenic, scientific,

educational or inspirational importance of these sites gives them the right to be protected for

educational and scientific use, and public enjoyment. The uniqueness, rarity or how

representative the features of these monuments are need not be in the same league as a

National Park, nor do they have the diversity of National Parks. The area only needs to be

large enough to protect the integrity of the site, thus they are generally rather small by

comparison to National Parks.

Criteria for selection and management. Ownership or management is usually by central or

other government agencies, non-profit trusts, and/or corporations as it is essential to ensure

their long-term protection. At present individual land owners, corporate timber and paper

companies have registered Natural Heritage sites. Criteria for selection and management are

size and diversity, but are not critical factors.

NOTE: The South African National Monuments Act, No 28 of 1996, protects all rock art sites.

Anyone found guilty of removing or damaging rock art paintings or engravings can be fined

up to R10 000, or be imprisoned for two years, or both.

Category 4: Habitat and Wildlife Management Areas are areas where humans may

intervene and manipulate the systems to ensure the natural condition necessary to protect

significant species, groups of species, biotic communities, and/or physical features of the

environment. Scientific research, environmental monitoring and educational use are the

activities related to the sustainable resource management of this category.


A variety of areas fall in this category all of which need the protection of nature and survival

of species. The size of the area depends on the habitat requirements of the species to be

protected, and may include nesting areas, marshes (wetlands), lakes, estuaries, forests,

and/or grassland habitats, fish spawning areas or seascapes incorporating feeding beds for

marine mammals. Some bird sanctuaries may be extensive.

It may be necessary to manipulate the area to provide the right conditions for the species to

survive. For example, a marsh for wintering waterfowl may require continual removal of

excess reeds and supplementary planting of waterfowl food; or a reserve for endangered

animals may need protection against predators. Limited areas may be developed for public

education and appreciation of the work of wildlife management.

Ownership may be by central or other levels of government, non-profit trusts, corporations,

private individuals, and/or groups. This is provided that adequate safeguards and controls

exist for posterity.

Criteria for selection and management vary with the objective as different types of areas

fall into this category, but each has its own reason for the protection of nature and the

survival of species. The size of the area depends on the habitat requirements of the species

to be protected. The area may require habitat manipulation to provide optimum conditions for

the species.

Category 5: Protected Land and Sea Ecosystem Conservation Areas. These are the most complex of all categories, as they are frequently large and often need sophisticated planning

techniques, as they often require multi-zoning and eco-development. Thus they may have

the characteristics of National Parks, Scientific Reserves, Natural and Cultural Monuments

and Wildlife Management Areas. Each of these may appear as zones within these protected

areas in which human use is harmoniously integrated.

They may be natural scenic areas along our coastlines and lakeshores, in a hilly or

mountainous area, along the banks of rivers, inland adjacent to important tourist highways,

and/or near and even within population centres. They have outdoor recreational development

potential. Some are privately owned or are established and managed under public

ownership, while others are State owned and controlled.

These areas lend themselves to Ecotourism as they generally include rural agriculture,

villages, towns and other communities, as well as forestry and wildlife management areas.


Protected land-/seascapes are defined as areas where humans and nature interact in

harmony. They may give insight into customs, beliefs, social organisations and/or material

traits, which will be shown in use patterns. Scenic beauty and aesthetically unique patterns of

human settlement are portrayed in the traditional practices associated with agriculture,

grazing or fishing. The objective of this category is to maintain the economic and normal, but

unique, lifestyle for recreation and tourism, and for the sake of conserving cultural and

biological diversity, as well as for scientific and educational purposes.

Criteria for selection and management of these areas is broad because of the cultural and

natural diversity of areas in which may occur. These areas are usually privately owned, and if

in State ownership are usually delegated to locals to control as long as the continued

integrity of the area in ensured. Government assistance and subsidies might be needed long

term.

3.3 Transfrontier Protected Areas (or Peace Parks)

A Protected Area that crosses one or more international boundaries is defined as a

Transfrontier Park. They are also known as Peace Parks, because such areas cannot exist

unless the adjoining countries have agreements for protection, and their peace and stability

is political between them. Other names for these areas are:

Transfrontier Protected Areas

Border Parks

International Peace Parks

There has been a significant increase in international recognition of these parks over the last

five years, which is due to the potential for reducing international tensions and for

creating peaceful conditions between the participants. The other advantages, due to their

usually larger size and international recognition, may include:

Improved resource and ecosystem management

Enhanced preservation of cultural values of local communities as frequently political

boundaries of people divide communities from the same ethnic and/or cultural group

Preservation of wildlife migration routes where they cross artificial boundaries that

may also have been curtailed by border fences.

Some regional examples are:

In 1990 negotiations between the governments and conservation authorities of South Africa,

Mozambique and Zimbabwe began over land bordering the Kruger Park to the east and to

the north. Substantial border fences that were made even stronger during the Apartheid era

had curtailed the natural movements of wildlife between South Africa and the other two


countries. The inter-governmental discussions revolved round the possibility of including

adjacent land in Mozambique and Zimbabwe to form what has become known as the Greater

Limpopo Transfrontier Park (there have been a series of suggested names for this park and

it may still change again). The areas considered for inclusion in the mega-Park are:

The Banhine National Park in Mozambique and some adjacent land

The Gona-re-zoha National Park in Zimbabwe and some adjacent land to make up a

corridor

In the historical past (up to 1971 when the first fence was erected by South Africa) wild dog,

eland and elephant certainly migrated across the border into Mozambique, and there are

records of animal migrations north and then east-west into Zimbabwe. This proposed

Transfrontier Park will be much larger than Kruger; perhaps some three times the size - and

it would then be the biggest protected area in Africa.

3.4 Spatial Development Initiatives

Spatial Development Initiatives (SDIs) occur as a result of government inspired attempts to

bring some sort of economic opportunity to impoverished rural areas. This concept is now

fairly well developed and “endorses” and complements the “Peace Park” concept. An SDI is

a programme shared by partners (governments and/or individuals) within one or in adjoining

countries, while not replacing the responsibilities of ‘normal’ government. The idea is to

prepare projects with investment potential for private sector involvement. These ventures

often “kick-start” regional economic development (which is what they are intended to

achieve).

There are TWO types of SDI’s Industrial: Such as the Maputo Development Corridor which links Gauteng (South

Africa’s industrial, economic and financial ‘power house’) to Mozambique’s coast and

capital Maputo.

Ecotouristic: Such as the Lubombo SDI that has involved new and upgraded roads,

agri-tourism, agriculture, and Ecotourism development. The Lubombo Mountains are

largely unspoilt, and with their scenic beauty is complimented by the history and

culture of the area. Border Cave, ear-marked as a World Heritage Site for its paleo-

anthropological importance dating back some 130 000 years, is on the Lubombo. The

grave of the Zulu King, Dingaan, is also on the Lubombo in the Gwaleweni Forest.

Both these sites are near the small mountain-top town of Ingwavuma.


4 PROTECTED AREAS RECOGNISED UNDER INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS

4.1 World Heritage Sites

World Heritage Sites are either natural and/or cultural areas that are internationally

recognised for their outstanding and universal value to humankind. All sites must have strict

legal protection (and although recreation and interpretation facilities can be in place). Some

sites are so important that the public may be prohibited from entry or are strictly controlled to

ensure adequate protection of the natural values.

There are about 270 World Heritage Sites worldwide, ranging from the pyramids in Egypt to

glaciers in Alaska, the Swayambhu Temple in Nepal to the Serengeti in Tanzania, Ayers

Rock (Uluru) in Australia to Aldabra in the Seychelles.

4.1.1 Criteria for World Heritage ListingThe criteria for inclusion on the World Heritage List (according to the United Nations

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)) are listed below, and for

inclusion a site must meet at least one of these criteria:

They must represent outstanding examples of one or more of the major states of the earth‘s evolutionary history (these may also be of extremely important

historical value to the world)

They must have outstanding examples of significant ongoing geological processes, aspects of biological evolution and/or evidence of human interaction with the natural environment

They must contain unique and rare natural phenomena, formations or features, or be

areas of exceptional natural beauty

They must contain the most important and significant habitats where threatened

species of plants and/or animals of outstanding universal scientific and conservation

value still survive

4.1.2 Advantages of World Heritage Sites for South AfricaThe listing of South African World Heritage Sites can have great added advantages, which

include:

Our existing and outstanding natural environmental heritage can gain by even

greater recognition and conservation efforts

Local communities will benefit as they themselves become an integral part of the

Site

The country can benefit from the foreign exchange earned from Ecotourists who

wish to visit such significant Sites


4.1.3 Important World Heritage Sites in South AfricaSouth Africa is currently a full member of UNESCO and can submit proposals for the

proclamation of World Heritage Sites. The most important sites earmarked as World Heritage

Sites in South Africa include: Kruger National Park, Table Mountain and the Mountain Chain

of the Cape Peninsula, The Greater St Lucia Wetland Park, the Drakensberg Mountain range

(Natal Drakensberg Park), Robben Island, and the Richtersveld.

The Kruger National Park has a huge segment of pristine African savanna

preserved intact, and an enormous variety of animals live as their predecessors have

done through thousands of years in this area. The Kruger also has important

archaeological sites from the Iron and Stone Ages.

The Greater St Lucia Wetland Park, where SIX different ecosystems exists side by

side consists of the Cape Vidal State Forest, the Dukuduku Indigenous Forest (at

present under threat), False Bay Park, St Lucia Game Reserve, and the St Lucia

Marine Reserve. This area possesses some of the last remaining areas of Swamp

Forest in South Africa as well as some fringing Mangrove communities.

The Table Mountain and Peninsula Chain has more plant species than the whole

of Britain. The cultural aspects range from evidence that the Phoenicians (who lived

600 BC) visited the area, to examples left by the Khoisan peoples who had lived here

for at least some 2000 years.

The Richtersveld is a mountain desert area with a unique flora and extremely

complex and interesting geology. The Nama people who still live there constitute an

interesting human component living much as they did in pre-historic times.

The Natal Drakensberg Park is not only is part of the Afromontane Biome, but is

also of outstanding natural beauty. The are many caves and shelters that are rich in

San Bushman paintings, being a National treasure trove of San rock art. More than

550 known rock shelters which contain over 30 000 individual images are painted in

the unique styles of these hunter-gathers. This is the richest San rock art area in

Africa, and one of the richest in the world. It is also a significant watershed and

wilderness area of high recreational value. Geologically it is an outstanding example

of escarpment mountain formation with layers of sandstone, shales and basalt eroded

over more than 200 million years (the top of the mountains still represent part of the

Gondwana land-surface). Some 190 species of fauna and flora occur here and nowhere else on earth.

Robben Island is a critically important historical site mainly as the place where the

Apartheid Regime jailed Nelson Mandela for part of his 27 years of incarceration.


4.2 Biosphere Reserves

These reserves are also registered under the auspices of UNESCO. At present there are an

estimated 320 of these reserves worldwide. This is the most important type of reserve in

terms of Ecotourism. Most of these reserves are based on pre-existing National Parks and

other protected areas that usually form the core area. These reserves consist of three zones:

A core or central area This is a formally protected area of the highest conservation status, e.g. a wilderness

area - in other words having minimal or no interference by humans, with access

limited to foot or horseback and for management purposes (with no roads or

infrastructure in the core). In Africa this is not always the case simply because

humans have always managed African natural ecosystems, thus part of the Kruger

Park’s “wilderness area” is one of the core areas of the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere

Reserve. Core areas are always linked to some significant ecological factor - for

example, the protection of very rare plants, animals and/or ecosystems.

A buffer zone This is the next zone, which is usually a protected area or game reserve while

activities such as hunting, Ecotourism and environmental education are practised.

Here there is sustainable use of land and the principle objective is the conservation of

the environment.

A transitional zone In this zone other land-uses can exist - e.g. agriculture, fishing, forestry and

commercial tourism. This implies that the farmers or rural communities that are

adjacent to this valuable conservation land have to be environmentally responsible in

their environmental practices (e.g. no overgrazing, use of harmful pesticides, etc.).

This has to be done to ensure that the integrity of these components is maintained.

The management committee of a Biosphere Reserve is a completely democratic body. They serve as a conflict resolution structure. Government play a facilitatorary and

advisory role only. Through cooperative management the influence of the expertise that is

provided by the formal conservation authority is increased and extended to private and other

land. Fundamental to all these three zones is a code of conduct - a set of rules that is laid

down by the committee that run the Biosphere Reserve.

Biosphere Reserves are internationally designated protected areas, managed for their

conservation value. Each Biosphere Reserve has to be UNESCO approved. Briefly, it implies

the maintenance of existing conservation areas, and the application of environmental principles to the surrounding areas. Biosphere reserves are zoned and many include


areas managed strictly for conserved to even intense agricultural areas in the transition

zone(s) and urban communities. Conservancies may also be included in the buffer zone that

protects the core area.

4.3 Ramsar Sites (www.ramsar.org)

These are wetland areas of significant importance to conservation. They have been

designated under the Convention of Wetlands of International Importance. The Ramsar Convention was signed on 2 February 1971 at a meeting in Ramsar, Iran, and took the

name from this town when it came into force in December 1975. Wetlands are defined as:

“areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or artificial,

permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh,

brackish or salt, including areas of marine water, the depth at which

at low tide does not exceed six metres. Wetlands may incorporate

riparian (along banks rivers and streams) and costal zones adjacent

to the wetlands, and island or bodies of marine water deeper than six

metres within adjacent wetlands”.

For information the DEAT map of SA Wetlands is given and for simplification a separate map of RAMSAR sites only is also given.


5 AN INTRODUCTUION TO PROTECTED AREA (PA) LEGISLATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

5.1 Why we need PA Legislation?

The need arose soon after the arrival of the first Dutch settlers at the Cape. The Dutch East

India Company needed fresh food and timber for their ships and sailors en-route to the Far

East. Laws were introduced to protect the very resources on which this station depended.

For millennia the plains of southern Africa had teamed with wildlife. Within three hundred

years of arrival of the Europeans at the Cape and their colonisation of the interior the great

migratory herds of mainly blue and black wildebeest, red hartebeest, eland, quagga and

springbok had been decimated and had disappeared, or almost so. Tens of thousands of wild animals were shot out indiscriminately. Those that were left were pushed into the

more remote and more arid areas to the north, and the tsetse-fly areas to the east, and

replaced by domestic animals which destroyed or drastically changed large areas of

indigenous vegetation (mainly due to the provision of permanent drinking water and fencing

which allowed the rangelands to be continuously grazed, rather than seasonally by the

nomadic indigenous herbivores).

5.2 The First Reserves

The immediate response in the Cape was for The Company to restrict the right of free

burghers to hunt. Tree felling was banned in 1656 and official woodcutters, licensed to sell

timber and fire wood, were appointed. This was the first state control of conservation for which South Africa took responsibility. Thus the first conservation areas in South Africa

were the forest reserves, set out in terms of the Cape Forest Act of 1888. Natal appointed a

Forestry Officer in 1891, and by 1903 the Orange Free State and the Transvaal followed with

Forestry Services. Transkei and Pondoland forests were also controlled -the fauna and flora

within Forest Reserves were also protected.

The formal protection of “game and wild animals” outside of the Forest Reserves followed:

In the Transvaal the Pongola Game Reserve was proclaimed in 1894 and the Sabi

Game Reserve in 1898

In Zululand the Hluhluwe, Umfolozi and Mkuzi Game Reserves were proclaimed in

1897

In the Natal Drakensberg the Giant’s Castle Game Reserve was proclaimed in 1903

Central government took over conservation responsibilities for the forestry in 1910.

This included coastal drift sand areas, indigenous forests and mountain catchments.

In addition inland waters, islands and the seashore between the high and low water

marks were also afforded protection.


5.3 The Different Types of Acts

The first National Park Act was promulgated in 1926 in response to appeals made to central

government to permanently protect the Sabie Game Reserve for the whole nation. Because

it was feared that mining and agriculture might prove a problem to conservation efforts. The

1926 Act proclaimed the Sabie Game Reserve as part of the now Kruger National Park.

Some of the key Acts are listed below (the DEAT website has a full listing of the legislation

and all the amendments – see also Appendix III):

National Park Act 57 of 1976

Mountain Catchment Areas Act 63 of 1970

Lake Areas Development Act 39 of 1975. This includes tidal lagoons, tidal rivers or

any land adjoining a lake or river

Environmental Conservation Act 73 of 1989, which includes protected natural

environments, special nature reserves, limiting development areas, and protected

areas under the international instruments and agreements

The Forest Act 13 of 1941, which includes state forests, nature reserves, wilderness

areas and National Botanic Gardens

National Monuments Act 28 of 1969, which includes national monuments and

conservation areas

Defence Act 44 of 1957, which prohibits or restricts access to land under military

control used for training and testing purposes. It is policy to manage these

scientifically with nature conservation objectives as a secondary function

Sea Fishery Act 12 of 1988

Sea Shore Act 21 of 1935, which controls the land and the water between the low

water mark and the high water mark

Sea Birds and Seal Protection Act 46 of 1973, which controls most islands around

the South African coast

Various Provincial Nature Conservation Ordinances.


6 THE FUTURE OF OUR PROTECTED AREAS

Environmental damaging land-use decisions are still being made despite the legislation and

the best efforts of a few to prevent the damage. A uniform national policy to decide on the

establishment, status and management of protection areas was put in place in 2003, and the

legislation needs to be put into effect before irreparable damage is done, and the damage

has a negative impact on Ecotourism investor confidence.

7 ECONOMICS OF TOURISM IN PROTOECTED AREAS

Ecotourism in protected areas can lead to increased economic benefits through both the

direct expenditure by Ecotourists and the associated employment opportunities generated,

both within and adjacent to the park. The economic benefits of Ecotourism have the potential

to provide additional support for park protection, and for giving parks a role in supporting

rural development.

The question of who gets the benefits and who pays the costs is complex. Limited attention

has been given to the economic costs imposed by the infrastructure developed to attract,

accommodate and facilitate Ecotourism, or to the costs of maintaining and /or restoring the

park resources adversely affected by Ecotourism. This raises the concern of whether

perceived economic returns of Ecotourism in or associated with protected areas will lead to

inappropriate developments, and/or use levels that will threaten the conservation objectives

upon which the park is founded.

8 CONSERVANCIES

Conservancies may be established by a voluntary agreement as to the management of the environment by two or more landowners. Like-minded landowners may conserve

private properties and even inappropriate communal and/or State-owned land.

Conservancies originated in the KwaZulu-Natal Midlands and have been very successful.

Co-operation between the farming community and the conservation authority has enhanced

this system, making it a national conservation movement. Apart from just the farming

community it must be noted that conservancies also serve urban and industrial areas

allowing them to better conserve their environment.

Conservancies give landowners an opportunity to deal with the increased pressure of

Ecotourism on their properties in a structured and pro-active manner.


9 VOLUNTARY CONSERVATION ORGANISATIONS

There are a multitude of voluntary conservation organisations in South Africa. Three of the

most important (biggest and active in many fields) non-governmental organisations (NGOs)

are:

1. The Botanical Society of South Africa . This has the largest membership and has a

strong association with the National Botanic Gardens. Traditionally the BotSoc, as it is

known, was mainly a Western Cape dominated Society but has always had a National

membership with many overseas members too. It publishes a quarterly journal called Veld &

Flora and has been extremely active in recent years with a number of community

conservation matters.

2. The Wildlife and Environmental Society of South Africa (WESSA). The Society acts

as not only a public watchdog on conservation issues but also as an educator, helping to

improve the quality of human life and enabling communities to care for their environment.

The Society also publishes two magazines African Wildlife for adult members and Toktokkie

for its junior members.

3. The Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) aims to conserve the biodiversity of southern

Africa, particularly the rare and endangered animal species (usually the icon species). It

harnesses the energy of a wide range of participants and has a wide range of working

groups focussing mostly on endangered species and habitats. These include amongst

others:

The Blue Swallow Working Group

Raptor Conservation Group

South African Crane Working Group

Vulture Study Group

Poison Working Group

Carnivore Conservation Group

Mozambique Working Group

Dolphin Conservation Platform (at Richard’s Bay)

The Trust has its head office in Johannesburg and publishes a regular, quarterly magazine

called the ‘ Endangered Wildlife Trust ’ and ‘Vision’ – the latter being an annual publication.



1. Which of the following are different names for a Peace Park?a) Border Park

b) International Peace Park

c) Transfrontier Protection Area

d) All of the above

2. Which of the following statements are TRUE regarding the IUCN World Conservation Strategy?a) Conservation should be anti-people

b) Conservation should offer benefits to

society

c) Human activities in conservation areas

should not affect biological diversity

d) B and C above

3. Which of the following is an IUCN conservation objective?a) Preserve genetic and biological

diversity.

b) Protect Natural and Cultural heritage.

c) Maintain air quality.

d) All of the Above

4. Which of the following would NOT be classified as a Natural/Cultural monu-ment:a) Rock art sites

b) National Parks

c) Botanical Gardens

d) Zoological gardens

5. Which of the following is false regarding ecosystem conservation areas:a) They can include rural agriculture and

forestry

b) They can be the scenic areas along the

coast or mountains

c) They are generally relatively small

areas


6. Which are NOT criteria for World Heritage Listing?a) Must be outstanding examples of

geological formations

b) Must be unique sites of ecological

importance.

c) Must have enormous cultural

significance

d) Must have global historical significance

e) Must cover extremely large areas

7. Which are NOT SA World Heritage Sites?a) St Lucia

b) Table Mountain and the Peninsula

c) Richtersveld

d) The Cape Floral Kingdom

e) KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg

f) Robben Island

8. Biosphere Reserves must have:a) A core area

b) Many towns and villages

c) Mountains, plains and valleys

d) Many people living in the area


LEARNING UNIT 6THE NATIONAL PARKS OF SOUTH AFRICA

KEY OUTPUTS FOR THIS UNIT______________________________________________________________


appreciate the current and future politics of South African National Parks

be familiar with legislation protecting South African National Parks

describe features of the National Parks of South Africa such as location, activities

and conservation value

give guidelines for tourists visiting National Parks

explain who does what in the tourism services field.

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 South African National Parks (SANParks)

South Africa has one of the world’s richest and most unique biodiversity heritages (both

natural and cultural). Much of our scenic beauty and wildlife heritage is protected in our

system of National Parks. The South African National Parks (SANParks) manages a system

of parks that represents the indigenous fauna, flora, landscapes and associated cultural

heritage of large parts of the country. National Parks of South Africa have three fundamental

spheres of focus:

The conservation of a representative sample of the biodiversity of the country

Maintain a focus of community upliftment and capacity building amongst people living

in Protected Areas and around the parks

Provide a recreational outlet to the public to experience and enjoy the wonders of the

parks.

The third of these responsibilities is achieved through TOURISM and is necessary to provide

the financial resources required by the organisation in order to sustain the first and second

responsibilities. Ecotourism manifests itself in many ways, but in SANParks' situation the

definition involves the movement of people into the parks to interact with the park

environment. Once there, visitors use facilities and take part in activities. One specific facility


type is accommodation. Park run accommodation is offered in 14 of the National Parks.

Those that do not have on park accommodation have privately run accommodation off park.

Ecotourism also carries with it many focused niche markets and areas of specific interest.

Some of these include birding, accessibility and malaria information, and many more.

National parks offer visitors a diversity of Ecotourism opportunities including game viewing,

bush walks, canoeing and exposure to cultural and historical experiences, to mention but a

few.

South Africa’s National Parks (arranged in alphabetic order) are given in the table below,

which also summarises some of the vital statistics of these Parks:

PARKDATEPRO-CLAIM-ED

AREA IN1994

AREA ADDEDSINCE 1994 (ha)

CURRENTSIZE (ha)

BIOMETYPE

Addo Elephant 1931 51 309 23 030 74 339 ThicketAgulhas 1999 0 5 690 5 690 FynbosAugrabies Falls 1966 11 743 29 933 41 676 Nama KarooBontebok 1931 2 786 0 2 786 Fynbos

Cape Peninsula 1998 0 13 450 13 450

Fynbos (some Thicket, Renosterveld and Forest)

Golden Gate Highlands 1963 11 633 0 11 633 Grassland (some Forest)

Kalahari Gemsbok (now Kgalagadi Transfrontier) 1931 959 103 0 959 103 Savanna (arid)

Karoo 1979 41 047 36 047 77 094 Nama Karoo

Knysna National Lakes Area 1985 15 000 0 15 000 Forest (some Fynbos)

Kruger 1926 1 962 362 0 1 962 362 Savanna (semi-arid)Marakele 1993 37 035 13 691 50 726 Savanna (semi-arid)Mountain Zebra 1937 6 536 18 127 24 663 Nama KarooNamaqua Succulent KarooRichtersveld 1991 162 445 0 162 445 Succulent KarooTankwa Karoo 1986 27 064 16 835 43 899 Succulent Karoo

Tsitsikamma 1964 63 942 0 63 942 Forest (some Fynbos)

Vaalbos 1986 22 697 0 22 697 Savanna (semi-arid)Vhembe-Dongola 1998 0 5 356 5 356 Savanna (semi-arid)West Coast 1985 32 361 3 912 36 273 Thicket and FynbosWilderness 1985 10 600 0 10 600 ForestTOTAL 3 417 663 166 071 3 583 734


1.2 Current and Future Politics of SANParks

In the past conservation areas in South Africa were largely established through enforcement

and compulsory exclusion of people. The history of our National Parks was often

characterised by conflict between the Parks and neighbouring communities. The

preservationist view, that conservation can only succeed if people and Parks are kept

separate and that communities contaminate natural wilderness, resulted in a rift between

those who lived around National Parks and those who were responsible for running the

Parks. This adversarial relationship was exacerbated by the fact that communities often paid

heavily for conservation in terms of:

loss of land (they were removed from the land to be included in the new Park)

loss of access to natural resources and hence, reduced economic opportunities, and

losses to livestock and crops - from predators and herbivores.

International trends and the broad transformation of South African society demanded that the

“People versus Parks” or “fences and fines” approach that has characterised

conservation for the greater part of the 1900s be revisited. It has been determined that

successful long-term management of South Africa’s National Parks depends on the co-

operation and support of the local people, rather than them being hostile to the Park. The

shift is now to look at how best the rift between Parks and People can be narrowed – and

this is becoming a worldwide trend.

1.2.1 Local InvolvementFirstly local people must be involved in conservation once again because Parks cannot exist

in isolation. If they are to be of relevance in a transformed South Africa, Parks will have to

see themselves as part of the community in which they are situated. This means they will

need to recognise their links with, and dependence on, local communities - and to achieve

this they must include local people in their planning and management programmes, and

contribute to or facilitate community development. Thus there is a critical link between

development and conservation, and National Parks are well placed to encourage sustainable

living in the surrounding communities. SANParks have realised that South Africa’s cultural

heritage is inextricably linked to the biodiversity of our country.

1.2.2 Changes to Philosophy of SANParksSince the democratic elections of 1994 SANParks have undergone major changes with

regard to philosophy, policy and organisational structure, thus SANParks now reflects the

new political, economic and social realities of South Africa. The first major step in the


transformation process was taken in 1995 with the appointment of a new board whose new Vision for the SANParks was articulated as follows:

National Parks will be the pride and joy of all South Africans.

In order to achieve this vision SANParks adopted the following mission:

To acquire and manage a system of National Parks that represents the

indigenous wildlife, vegetation, landscape and associated cultural assets

of South Africa for the pride and benefit of the Nation.

This statement clearly represents a fundamental shift from what were the traditional

conservation practices to a more holistic, integrated natural and cultural heritage

management approach. The new approach is enshrined in the South African Constitution

and the Bill of Rights, and has also been shaped by other legislation - such as the Land

Restitution Act of 1995 (which makes provision for the restitution of land rights to people or

communities who were dispossessed by the racist laws of the past). SANParks is playing an

active and positive role in facilitating the resolution of land claims using the framework of the

SANParks Land Claims Policy.

1.2.3 Restructuring of SANPARKSThe core business of the restructured SANParks is conservation in the most modern, broad

definition of the word - where conservation includes the management of biodiversity as well

as the pursuit of social ecology, by recognising that people are crucial in conservation. Social

ecology brings in the vital linkage of people participating in conservation. If conservation is

the business of SANParks then the key ingredients must be natural resources and people.

For practical considerations, the focus of the social ecology programme is on the historically

disadvantaged communities living in the neighbourhood of National Parks. Nonetheless,

SANParks is also keenly aware of the role that other neighbours play vis-à-vis the Parks -

such as farmers, industry and agriculture, so much so that it is a management objective in

the business plan for each National Park to actively engage with all its stakeholders for mutual benefit.

SANParks recognises the need to use the Ecotourism potential of National Parks to achieve

the objectives of conservation. It is the obligation of SANParks to make National Parks

accessible to everyone in South Africa, and the rest of the world, by delivering an appropriate

standard of service.


2 SANParks Commercialisation Programme

It is worth noting the considerable debate that continues to wage on with the implementation

of the commercialisation programme. The aim is to gradually empower local communities to

take over the running of various tourist facilities, and so provide an income to these people.

Income generation for local people is believed to be the key to the success of National Parks

in perpetuity, and this will be the focus for the next decade.

South African National Parks (SANParks) was established by the National Parks Act for the “

establishment, preservation and study therein of wild animal, marine and plant life and

objects of geological, archaeological, historical, ethnological, oceanic, educational and

scientific interest…in such a manner that the area which constitutes the park will, as far as

may be possible for the benefit and enjoyment of visitors, and be retained in its natural state”

SANParks’ historic role has been twofold:

To protect the assets it looks after

To deliver tourism and recreational services to Local and Foreign Travellers.

The political changes in South Africa have led to a big shift of most existing institutions.

SANParks now find themselves seeking new avenues, which will justify and secure their

future. The Government of South Africa faces a serious dilemma with respect to wildlife

conservation: “how to balance the extensive land and financial resources required by

protected areas with the acute social and economic development needs of poor rural people

with very limited access to any kind of resources”

Tourism and Ecotourism are a key component of Government’s economic strategy to

achieve growth, employment and redistribution of wealth in South Africa. National Parks are

a key component of the Ecotourism industry in South Africa. Concessions are claimed to be

one mechanism for generating social and economic benefits without compromising the

conservational ethos of a National park. These benefits include:

capital investment

foreign exchange generation

employment creation

stimulation of support industries and development of small, medium and micro

enterprises.

It is a means of generating an income for SANParks, which may be used for maintaining

SANParks, expanding, and/or subsidising access for those citizens who are unable to afford

to pay visitor fees.


2.1 Definition of a Concession“A concession is an opportunity to build and operate an Ecotourism facility in a National Park,

with strict regulations governing the conduct of the facility”. In most cases an exclusive area

is allocated for use, for two reasons.

It allows for the establishment of a luxury Ecotourism product that caters to a different

segment of the market than that which is the main focus of SANParks

There is an associated accountability for any environmental damage.

2.2 Commercialisation as a Conservation Strategy“Commercialisation as a Conservation Strategy” implies the intention to generate additional

revenue to ensure better conservation of South Africa’s National Parks. Granting the private

sector the opportunity to operate within National Parks without alienating any of the assets

generates additional revenue. This should, over time, result in an increase in the value of

assets under SANParks control.

A concession contract enables the concessionaire to use a pre-defined area of land, over a

20-year period, in return for payment of concession fees. It requires a private company to

completely implement the venture throughout the agreed concession period, after which it

hands over the asset to SANParks. SANParks remains the owner of the assets and, legally,

immediately becomes the owner of all new fixed assets built on the site, even if the

concessionaire financed these assets.

In addition to this there is a set of obligations on the part of the concessionaire. Infringement

of these requirements carries penalties and ultimately the termination of the contract, with the

assets reverting to SANParks.

The Commercialisation Strategy thus allows SANParks to:

increase and capture more of the net economic benefits attributable to parks

contribute more to local economic development

mitigate environmental impacts

help finance biodiversity conservation (recognising that only a small fraction of

ecologically-important areas have the potential to attract significant tourism).

2 THE NATIONAL PARKS ACT

The First National Parks Act was passed in 1926, because of representations made to

central government for the permanent protection of the Sabie Game Reserve despite the fact

that the area was proclaimed a Game Reserve by the South African government in 1898.

This is because it was feared the area was not adequately protected against mining and

agricultural development.


The purpose of establishing National Parks is stated in the 1976 National parks Act as:

“The object of the constitution of a Park is the establishment, preservation and study therein of wild animals, marine and plant life, and the objects of geological, archaeological, historical, ethnological, oceanographic, educational and other scientific interests, and objects relating to the said life or first mentioned objects or to events in or the history of the Park, in such a manner that the area which constitutes the park shall, as far as may be and for the benefit and enjoyment of visitors, be retained in a natural state”.

The two maps on the next page are DEAT’s map of Conservation Areas of South Africa, and

a map indicating where South Africa’s Protected Areas are in relation to Hotspots. You

should find and number on both maps the 20 National Parks


The Addo Elephant National ParkIn the Eastern Cape, 70 km north of Port Elizabeth lies the Addo Elephant National Park

famous for its elephants. There is however also a naturally occurring population of about 70

buffalo which strangely enough mainly browse rather than mainly graze. There is 60 km of

tourist road for game-viewing and over 240 elephants. Addo has/had (?) a valuable

population of the D. b. michaeli subspecies of black rhino, which were originally imported

from Kenya and have thrived in the Park. There are plans to repatriate these and stock the

Park with the D. b. bicornis subspecies that is the southern and endangered animal).

The proposed Greater Addo National Park will be about 397 500 ha, and when stocked with

the ‘Big Five’ will take its place on the international safari market.

The Park makes a profit, part of which accrues to the neighbouring communities.

The Zuurberg National Park is now a section of the Addo Elephant National Park, due north of Port Elizabeth and 50 km north of Addo itself. It is a scenic 35 000 ha park with steep river valleys and richly varied habitats. It is suitable for hikers as there are trails, but permits are required. This Zuurberg Mountain range is part of the Cape Fold Mountain belt.

Currently there are moves afoot to greatly extend Addo and link it to the Zuurberg N.P. and

thus provide much more habitat for elephant and black rhino.

The Agulhas National ParkCape Agulhas is approximately 230 km from Cape Town. The nearest towns are Agulhas

and the fishing village of Struisbaai. Cape Agulhas is the southernmost tip of Africa. A cairn

marks the tip’s exact location. It is here where the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans officially meet.

The flatish area around the southernmost tip of Africa is called the Agulhas Plain and is

rich in natural and cultural features. It is of international significance due to its rich biodiversity. It has approximately 2 000 species of indigenous plants, including 100 which

are endemic to that area and over 110 Red Data Book species. It is also home to the Cape

platanna and the micro frog, and has over 21 000 migrant and resident wetland birds.

Culturally there are significant archaeological sites and numerous shipwrecks of early

explorers. The Cape Agulhas lighthouse, a National Monument, as well as many historic

buildings are found in this area.


Augrabies Falls National ParkThis National Park lies 120 km West of Upington and 40 km North-West of Kakamas. It is a

scenic reserve covering 50 000 ha on both the northern and southern side of the Orange

River. The focal point is the 56 metre high Augrabies Falls, named by the Khoe-khoe people

and meaning “the place of the Great Noise”.

Sanctuary is provided to the smallest of succulents, birds, reptiles, springbok, gemsbok and

the endangered black rhino. Tourists can partake in nature trails, hiking trails, game drives

and horseback rides. Swimming pools are available.

Bontebok National ParkSituated in the Western Cape, SE of Swellendam, it is 2 786 ha in size with more than 470

species of flora. This park was proclaimed in 1931 in the Bredasdorp district and later moved

to its present position to protect the remaining 22 bontebok that survived hunting. At the time

of moving 84 bontebok were transferred. Today the park in carrying its maximum at about 200 bontebok, the surplus stock is being bought by other nature reserves and private

landowners with suitable habitat. The present world population is between 2 000 and 3 000

animals.

This species became separated from the blesbok during evolutionary time, with bontebok

becoming a fynbos endemic species, restricted to a very small range in the south-western

Cape, while the blesbok remained on the plains of the old northern Cape, Free State and old

southern Transvaal.

Cape Peninsula National ParkLying at the southwestern tip of Africa, the Cape Peninsula encompasses the very scenic

Peninsula Mountain Chain that stretches from Signal Hill in the north to Cape Point in the south – a distance of approximately 60 km. It is bound by the cold Atlantic Ocean in

the west and the warmer waters of False Bay in the east.

It has world-renowned landmarks within its boundaries: Table Mountain and the

legendary Cape of Good Hope were well known to early explorers.

Its dramatic topography, very rich array of habitats, and extremely rich variety of fynbos species are vital to conserve. The Cape Peninsula has some 2 285 species of plants – more

than the entire British Isles or New Zealand. Of these 90 are endemic to the area. Other

types of unusual vegetation found in the park include the rare Renosterveld grassland

patches on granite and Malmesbury shale outcrops, and afromontane forest patches most

common on the east-facing slopes of Table Mountain.


Ecotourism activities in the area include horse riding, mountain climbing and biking,

abseiling, hiking, angling, hang gliding or parasailing as well as water-based activities like

surfing, windsurfing, sailing, snorkelling and scuba diving.

With Cape Point and Table Mountain, both featured amongst the top five most popular

destinations in the Western Cape, there is considerable tourist pressure on this area.

Golden Gate Highlands National ParkIn the far eastern part of the Free State, South-West of Harrismith, this 11 630 ha park is

scenic cave sandstone at its best. Carved by the Little Caledon River the sandstone “gate-

posts” are impressive. The Bearded Vulture or “Lammergeyer”, and the equally rare bald ibis breeds here. Lying in the foothills of the Maluti Mountains the grassland occasionally

gives way to pockets of forest in ravines. It is well stocked with antelope and zebra which

flourish in this 11 600 ha of true highland grassland habitat. Nature trails, hiking trails, night

drives and environmental education courses are on offer.

The Kgalagadi Trans-Frontier ParkSituated in the far N of the Western Cape 278 km N of Upington. The Park is set in the red Kalahari sand dunes with the main roads between the camps running in the (usually) dry

riverbeds of the Nossob and Auob Rivers. There are three rest camps. Amongst the birding

fraternity the well known “Raptor Route” is a must. It has a good infrastructure for

Ecotourism. The Kalahari ecosystem is built on the drought-adaptive plant life of the Nama

Karoo and leads to the large carnivores at the top of the pyramid such as lion and eagle

being common. The gemsbok, which is abundant in the park, is well adapted to this

environment. This animal is capable of killing a lion with its rapier-like horns. This park

incorporates the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park in South Africa and the Gemsbok National

Park in Botswana and is now a Transfrontier Park.

The Karoo National ParkNorth of Beaufort West, there is a 90 km network of game-viewing roads. Dramatic scenery

in the wide-open arid plains, which rise abruptly into the mountainous country, makes this

park very scenic. There are black rhino and about 120 Cape Mountain Zebra. Overnight and

same-day 4x4 tours are available.


Knysna National Lake AreaThe park surrounds Knysna, including the lagoon, but is however a nightmare in terms of nature conservation management due to the urban development in the surrounding

catchments. The National Parks Board felt that the lake area did not qualify as a national

area in terms of recognised IUCN criteria as it is only a small part of a much larger system. In

practice the area could not be managed for conservation because of development. An oyster factory is a novelty for Ecotourists.

Kruger National ParkIt is situated in the northeastern part of Mpumalanga with the northern part in the Limpopo

Province. It is situated on the Mozambique border extending from Zimbabwe to within a few

kilometres of Swaziland. The park covers nearly 2 000 000ha of bushveld typical of the

Lowveld and can be divided into three regions, Northern, Southern and Central. There is

an excellent array of accommodation, ranging from over a R1000 a night to R100 a night. It

is the flagship of South African National Parks and is home to the ‘Big Five’, 336 tree

species, 49 fish species, 34 amphibians, 114 reptiles, 507 bird and 147 mammal species.

Activities on offer vary from short nature walks, game drives, night drives, 4x4 overland

drives to seven different wilderness trails which last three nights and two days, and other

attractions are being developed.

Negotiations are underway for a larger park - the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Park,

which will combine the Gaza concession area and Bannine Park in Mozambique and Gona-

re-zhou National Park in Zimbabwe.

The Marakele National Park (the name means “Place of Sanctuary”)Close to Thabazimbi in the Limpopo Province, 250 km N of Johannesburg, this National

Park is set to take the pressure off the Kruger Park once all the land is acquired. Lying in

the heart of the Waterberg Mountains this added montane ecosystem gives the Marakele

the edge on the Kruger Park in terms of an added scenic “mountain” attraction. Once more

land has been acquired lion will be introduced to complete the “Big Five” complement. It

has many treasures game-wise with 13 species of antelope. The bonus is the Vulture colony, which boasts the world’s largest breeding colony of the endangered Cape Griffon,

with more than 800 pairs.

Mountain Zebra National ParkSituated in the Eastern Cape, SW of Cradock, this park is 6536 ha and was established to

protect the last remaining populations of Cape Mountain Zebra, hence the name. Lying

on the northern slopes on the Bankberg, the area is scenic with deep ravines, grass-covered


mountain slopes and flat, open plateau. Several short nature trails, horse riding and

swimming is available.

Namaqua National ParkSituated some 495 km from Cape Town and 67 km from Springbok in the North West

Province, this area was developed to protect the fragile ecosystems and renowned spring flowers of Namaqualand. The main focus areas for the new park include:

the area around the Skilpad Wildflower Reserve, well-known for its spring flowers

the area between the Groen and Spoeg Rivers, which allows for the protection of

marine ecosystems and associated estuaries.

In the future these two areas may be connected through various concession arrangements

and/or conservancies.

Richtersveld National Park ‘The New South Africa’ National ParkIt is situated in the NW part of the Western Province on the southern bank of the Orange (=

Garipe) River. Is consists of 162 445 ha and is managed by SANParks on behalf of the local community of Nama pastoralists, who continue to graze their livestock within the

Park. Two existing diamond mines also operate within the Richtersveld along the banks of

the Orange River.

This is a mountain-desert Succculent Karoo habitat and offers scenic beauty, wilderness

and highly adaptive succulent flora like the halfmens, giant quiver tree and stone plants

Lithops. Its geology and geomorphology are starkly beautiful and add to the scenic views.

Its Ecotourism activities include a 4x4 trail, fishing in the Orange, and walking. It is

essential to carry water at all times and not advisable to sleep on the ground due to

venomous scorpions. Accommodation is available in ‘Matjieshuise’, as used by the Nama

farmers. This promotes awareness of the local community. A community-based

Ecotourism programme has been piloted in this area.

Tankwa Karoo National ParkIt is situated 250 km NE of Cape Town and 90 kilometres S of Calvinia, and consists of 27

000 ha of Succulent Karoo veld. This National Park is closed to the public as it is

recovering from decades of overgrazing and subsequent erosion.

The Ecotourism potential when it opens consists of the following. Ecotourists that will be

attracted to this area are those who can appreciate remoteness and silence of this totally

different kind of environment, as well as those interested in plants. The large desert-adapted

game species that used to live here, gemsbok and springbok, will be re-introduced.


Tsitsikamma National ParkIn the Eastern Cape, situated on the coastline E of Plettenberg Bay, this indigenous coastal forest supports the famous ‘Big Tree’, the Outeniqua Yellowwood, which is over 36 m tall.

This park is also a part of the 63 km Tsitsikamma trail, and the world famous Otter Trail runs

along the coast. The habitat is rocky coastline rising sharply through Afromontane forests to fynbos on the higher ground. The De Vasselot section of the park offers sandy beaches

and areas of fynbos and forest. At Storms River Mouth visitors can angle, scuba-dive and snorkel, with demarcated underwater trails, which qualified scuba divers may only

undertake. Hiking trails are the main attraction for international tourists.

Vaalbos National ParkWest of Barkley West, this 22 696 ha savanna grassland national park may possibly lose

its status. There are 40 km of game-viewing roads with extensive stretches of land along the

Vaal River, which in the past was mined for alluvial diamonds. The name Vaalbos originates

from the Vaalbos (camphor bush), a prominent plant species in the park.

Vhembe-Dongola National ParkThis is a new national park in the extreme N of the Limpopo Province near Musina. It shares

boundaries with Botswana and Zimbabwe. An open-border policy with the three countries

would ensure free and unhindered movement of game. The entire spectrum of game occurs

here with the exception of black rhino. This park has the potential of becoming one of

southern Africa’s largest protected areas.

West Coast National ParkIt is situated on the West Coast 110 kilometres north of Cape Town centred on Langebaan

lagoon. The reserve consists of the lagoon and both shores. It covers about 20 000 ha and

includes the Postberg Reserve where seasonal wild flowers abound. The bird islands of

Malgas, Jutten, Marcus and Schaarpen are all included in this National Park.

The vegetation types include the West Coast Sandveld, coastal fynbos, salt marshes and

mudflats.

Ecotourism in the area consists of birding tours to the bird islands, and game and flower

viewing. Yachting on the Langebaan Lagoon also offers Ecotourism opportunities.

Wilderness National ParkSituated 15kms E of George in the Western Cape, the Park lies in one of South Africa’s most

popular tourist routes. The Park covers 2 500 ha with a further 10 000 ha designated as

“under the National Park’s control”. The park incorporates the lakes between Wilderness and the Goukamma Nature Reserve. Birding at Langvlei and Rondevlei, and nature trails

through forests, along the beach and lakes all fulfil the needs of the natural history lover.


5 GUIDELINES FOR VISITING NATIONAL PARKS

What should one tell visitors to National Parks? Two basic principles apply:

Safety for yourself and others is more important than seeing something

Respect for the animals, plants and environment goes without saying but there is

also respect for other people. It is important to respect the need for tranquillity, peace

and quietness while visiting national areas.

The following are some useful hints.

Protected environment Remember the environment is protected. No picking of flowers or collecting of plants

without a permit. Animals should be treated with respect, if you see a snake on the road

do not jump out and prod it, as it may be playing “dead”, and besides there may be a

predator nearby. Also no stones or any other abiotic objects (such as shells) may be

removed from Parks.

Do not feed the animals Baboons are particularly at risk. They become brazen and desperate and can attack

humans to get what they now deem rightfully theirs. Their demise is caused by humans

trying “to be kind”. As the Cape Point Nature Reserve’s sign reads, “You feed them! We

shoot them!”

Stay in the Car If warned to stay in the car, do so. Predators cannot be talked out of killing humans and

there are fatalities every year. Even if the animals look harmless and you are in a reserve

with no predators or harmful game, stay put.

Stay on the roads and do not “get up close” Drive on the designated tracks (and road), otherwise you damage the veld and cause

erosion. Driving too close to wild animals is not a good idea. You may not know that a

female is in oestrus until the male suddenly turns on your car to protect his mate. Elephants

have done irreparable damage to cars with occupants having lucky escapes. Even a female

ostrich could prove formidable if she is protecting her nest in the spot near where you have

chosen to stop.

Fires


Only use designated areas to make your fire. Extinguish the fire properly and completely

once you are finished. You could cause loss of life and damage to grazing that may result in

forced culling of animals. If hiking, be aware of your gas canister, which will light with zest

after being shaken around in your pack for hours whilst walking. Never light it in a tent or long

grass, as you will not be able to contain the result and could burn the tent down or start a

massive grass fire.

Firewood Firewood collecting is usually forbidden, so use your stove or take your own wood or buy

wood if a braai area is available. Wood for sale is wood that has been carefully collected on a

sustainable-use basis.

Road conditions Check the road conditions – you may need a 4x4 vehicle. If going to an isolated area do your

homework beforehand. Rather make your first trip with someone who knows where they are

going and has been before.

First Aid Kit THETA now requires all registered tour guides to have completed a first aid course. It is

always wise to go prepared. Remember for snakebite, try to get a look at the snake to be

able to describe it when you do get to help and/or a doctor – so they have a good idea how

to treat you. Tell your visitors to be on the lookout for snakes. The leader of a hiking party

should have a stick to prod anything suspect on the path and all people should have good

protective footwear, preferably boots. Stay on footpaths, as snakes “hear” by feeling

vibrations and tend to stay away from regularly used footpaths. It is no longer recommended

that guides carry snakebite serum, as its incorrect use can be fatal.

Water Take your own water. Always preferably boil water before drinking no matter how clear the

stream looks. You will be surprised at how people higher up the stream can abuse the

system, and bilharzia and other health risks may be present.

Thousands of local people die annually from malaria. Pregnant women should just not go

into a malaria area. Nor should very young children, as they are advised not to take the

prophylactic drugs. One of the best forms of protection besides the mandatory medication is

a liberal application twice daily, and after a shower, of a good insect repellent. Also one

should ‘cover up’ early morning and particularly at nightfall (two hours before and three hours

after sunset).


Remember to warn your visitors when you say ‘goodbye’ for the last time about “transient”

‘flu-like symptoms’, which may occur for up to four months after leaving the area. Having a

simple blood test should check this. This warning could save their lives, as cerebral malaria

is a killer.

Bilharzia is a possibility if swimming at low altitude and 4 km upstream of an open lagoon. If

the lagoon mouth is closed then the possibility of saline seawater killing the Bilharzia there

may be less. The water is likely to be mostly “fresh” from the river flowing into the lagoon,

and swimming is not recommended. Some organisms live in shallow pans and slow-flowing

rivers in subtropical areas. Avoid contact with this water.

Tick-bite fever is a possibility all year round, and an application of Tabard Lotions, Ascabiol

or Benzyl Benzoate on the legs when hiking works well. Pepper ticks are minute and cannot

be seen in the bushveld. They will come up like an itchy heat rash all over the body so

always use the Tabard before walking if the grass is even slightly long. Constant headaches

develop about a week to four days after being bitten, so if you are travelling well away from

good health facilities take medication with you.

6 TOURISM TERMINOLOGY

There is often confusion over terminology used to describe certain categories in the “facility-

service” area of the hospitality industry. And it may be important to have a clear definition.

Game Reserve All activities advertised, such as game drives, hikes and canoeing take place “inside” the

premises of the organisation or game reserve. Game animals must be in their natural state, not boxed or fenced in. Game should be endemic (restricted to a given region) or

indigenous to the area, as opposed to being exotic (coming from another country or another

biome).

Safari Lodge An accommodation facility that is usually small and/or the game viewing may or may not

be done on the same property. The visitors can often also travel to neighbouring parks,

reserves and/or private farms to view game – this is termed “going on safari”.


Game Resort Game in this case is fenced in although this may be in a large area allowing the animals to

roam “seemingly freely”. This facility may be a hotel with a conference centre, restaurants,

etc.

Game Farm This is a facility where game does not necessarily have to be in their natural state, and can

be either fenced or boxed in. The game does not have to be endemic to the area.

Accommodation may not be available and the game may be the only attraction.

Wheels Operators Any person transporting tourists and acting as the driver must by law be in possession of a

Public Driving Permit (called a “PDP licence”), which is obtained from the normal car-

licensing office. However, the police will give clearance by taking finger-prints, and a clean

bill of health is required from a doctor. This whole procedure will take about eight weeks the

first time around. Thereafter it will be quicker but one should not allow the PDP to expire.

Every PDP requires a doctor’s consultation.

Transfer company: A vehicle operator who transfers fare-paying passengers between destinations on public roads. Is it very important for these operators to

carry a passenger liability (a minimum of R 5 million per vehicle per any one

incident – this is usually for a microbus carrying eight people) and Road Carrier

Permits are available from the Road Traffic Department.

With the statistics of road fatalities so high in South Africa it is vital that one only uses

companies, which carry this insurance. Many big bus companies (especially the local

ones) may not carry adequate insurance, so be advised – check all details carefully.

Safari Operators: This is an operator who organises game safaris and accommodation. Operator owned companies have their own vehicles.

Tour Operator: This is an operator with their own vehicle who arranges tour

itineraries, game safaris and accommodation.

Tour Broker There are TWO types of Tour Brokers:


A tour broker who arranges tour itineraries, game safaris and accommodation.

They do not own their own vehicles but hire from vehicle and bus companies.

Agents who ‘sell’ tour itineraries and accommodation establishments on behalf

of a third party. These agents should ensure that the tours they sell have ‘credible’

operators and that the accommodation establishments have public liability.


REVISION EXCERCISES


1. The benefits of a concession include:a) Capital investment

b) Foreign exchange generation

c) Employment creation

d) All of the above

2. The first National Park was declared in:

a) 1976

b) 1928

c) 1926

d) 1956

3. The following is an example of a ‘New South Africa’ National Park:

a) Kruger

b) Richtersveld

c) Tankwa Karoo

d) Marakele

4. Which of the following National Parks was declared for their scenic beauty:

a) Mountain Zebra

b) Augrabies

c) Addo Elephant

e) West Coast

f) Knysna Lakes

5. A National Park, which is known for its spring flowers, is:

a) Kruger

b) Tsitsikamma

c) Agulhas

d) Namaqua

e) Marakele

6. Game here is fenced and there may be a hotel and conference facilities:

a) Game Reserve

b) Game Farm

c) Game Resort

d) Safari Lodge

7. The vision of SANParks is:a) Protect indigenous fauna and flora

b) Provide adequate tourist facilities

c) Embark on a new philosophy of

conservation

d) Be the pride and joy of all South

Africans

e) Include neighbours

7. Commercialisation is good for SANParks as:

a) It allows more people to benefit

b) It saves SANParks money

c) The environment is better pro-

tected

d) More people can visit the Parks

e) Parks can get bigger


LEARNING UNIT 7THE COMMUNITY



describe the role of the community in Ecotourism

explain the advantages of Ecotourism to communities

understand the needs of the community.

1 INTRODUCTION

Let us re-look at the key elements in our definition of Ecotourism: “purposeful travel to

natural areas to learn about the culture and natural history of the environment, while

taking care not to alter the integrity of the environment, and contributing to the economic value of the local people.”

This definition should also include a sociological dimension, by inserting after ”integrity”

the phrase: “ OF THE CULTURE OF THE LOCAL PEOPLE AND…”.

2 THE ROLE OF ECOTOURISM ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Attention must be given to socio-economic development of adjoining rural areas to provide a

basis for goodwill and common interest between conservation activities and local

communities. The spin-off of Ecotourism activities is that they draw local communities into

the business process. Two main categories of involvement are:

Direct participation: The community themselves organise and develop forms of

economic activity, and in turn gain direct access into the industry. Local people create

their own niche and participate directly in the creation of wealth

Indirect participation: Communities do not actually own any of the Ecotourism

business operations and mostly provide peripheral services.

2.1 Direct participation

Direct community participation can be extended to include co-ownership of private or state owned game lodges and camps. There exist several successful examples of equity

ownership of Ecotourism ventures.

A different situation is possible with emphasis on direct participation in the business

process. Local people participate directly in the business decision-making processes. As a

result they understand much more intimately the conditions under which the business is likely

to flourish and/or fail. Because of a direct and significant stake in the growth of the business

the rural people are more interested in creating and maintaining profitable conditions. A

drawback to this may be that the company is more likely to be orientated towards the needs

of the community and may not offer the best deal for the Ecotourists and biodiversity

conservation.

In addition an important effect of direct participation is that local people are employed more

widely and not only in the traditional menial positions available in such a business. Joint

venture businesses are often linked with community capacity building programmes. Locals

are fully exposed to the business process and with training are required to do more than

merely menial tasks. This provides locals with experience and skills that enable them to start

their own businesses, or they are then better able to sell their skills and expertise elsewhere.

2.2 Indirect participation in Ecotourism

Under the indirect model of benefit the Ecotourism venture remains an activity that is not

fully understood by the local people. People are unlikely to truly identify with an Ecotourism

venture without much insight or direct stake in the business process. Also “deals” with locals

have the connotation of a bribe. Such indirect interaction creates dependency on the part of

the local communities and is not a good basis for community empowerment and

development.

Some game lodges redirect a percentage of their turnover to toward neighbouring

communities. This includes developing the ability of locals to provide services such as

construction, vehicle maintenance, etc. to the lodges. The idea here is that lodge operations

can be effective mechanisms for creating subsidiary economic activities in rural areas.

Tourism serves as a very effective starting point for rural development and growth. Many

nature reserves have attempted to promote a mutual economic interest in Ecotourism by:

Subcontracting certain services and functions to neighbouring communities i.e.

Laundry services

Buying local produce

Offering cultural activities and services to Ecotourists inside the reserves

Providing the means for locals to sell their wares: i.e. curios, arts and crafts.

The pros and cons of direct and indirect participation

The more valuable form of direct participation is in terms of community development, yet the

value and necessity of indirect participation should not be underestimated. Nor does the

achievement of direct participation mean that indirect participation should be neglected or

ignored.

For a successful Ecotourism venture the first step is to establish common economic interest

between the Ecotourism venture itself and the local community. And it should be noted that

indirect means are the quickest and easiest to implement initially.

3 SOME ISSUES AROUND ECOTOURISM

3.1 Respect Ecotourism is deemed the “peace industry” because it promotes respect for other people’s cultures, with the role of “host” being enjoyed by even the most poverty-stricken

South Africans. Ask any Ecotourist, “Do you want to see the authentic Zulu lifestyle, the way

Zulus cook and their customs?” Or “Would you like to visit Café Africa for a meal?

Ecotourists invariably jump at the opportunity to do the “real thing”.

3.2 Criminal Element

When a tour operator uses a local community as a destination that community should be well

known to the operator, and it should be one with whom the operator has established a

relationship and trust. This is important both for the authentic experience and also for the

personal safety of the Ecotourists. Our crime statistics are extremely high in South Africa and

the criminals can show up anywhere and anytime. There may also be factors we are not

aware of, such as tensions within the community, that need to be understood and discussed

with the community leaders beforehand.

3.3 Personal Contact

There is no substitute for personal contact. The sense of adventure for the traveller is always

memorable, and a vitally important ingredient for Ecotourists visiting Africa. Despite language

differences visitors want to communicate, and can communicate surprisingly well with rural or

urban South Africans. All it takes is a smile and an introduction through a facilitator. Despite

a life of hardship our urban and rural people still show great friendliness when interest is

shown in their activities and/or their culture.

3.4 Protocol and Etiquette

There is a protocol for making contacts with communities that must be strictly adhered to for

reasons of respect and understanding. Protocol is defined as the form of ceremony and

etiquette observed by heads of state and politicians. The correct people need to be consulted

in the correct manner for any Ecotourism venture to succeed. Etiquette refers more to a

social code of behaviour or courtesy. This is simply displaying good manners. Good manners

in any culture are the basis for meaningful social interaction and for gaining respect.

3.5 Partnerships

Some of the most interesting regions of South Africa are found in the communal lands. It is

believed that wildlife conservation in these areas can only be sustained with the acceptance

and support of the rural communities. There is enormous potential to develop additional

reserves and resorts, particularly in the coastal belt of the old Transkei and KwaZulu-Natal.

Such developments should not unduly disrupt traditional land-use, and should provide direct

benefits for local inhabitants: for example in the form of a levy.

3.6 Exploitation

Most communities will host visitors gladly in exchange for remuneration, which after all is

acceptable in a service-based industry. The Ecotourism industry should promote a spin-off to

the local community as opposed to a rip-off of the local community. The rip-off comes from

local entrepreneurs who exploit a culture by creating a pseudo- or artificial impression of that

culture to be presented to visitors. Overseas operators charge high prices in their countries

for cultural experiences in South Africa, but mostly the financial profits of the operator are not

passed on to the rural people providing the service.

3.7 Authenticity

It is important that the Ecotourist have an authentic experience. An amazingly powerful inter-

action between visitors and local people can be degraded by the greed of a local

entrepreneur, who does not possess the common sense (or sensitivity) to realise that the

spirit of the local people is what the visitor has come to see and feel. This cannot be

achieved by regimented shows on the hour, or when the commentary on entering into one of

the huts is rattled off parrot-style.

3.8 Instinct

As an Eco-tour operator seek out the experience for yourself carefully. After a reasonable

study of the culture try the product for yourself with your Ecotourist in mind. Trust your

instincts and good common sense, and you have a good chance of getting it right. Your client

will remember you for it and you will do good business in the future.

TRUE SPIN-OFFS Case Studies

The role of the community is paramount in the Ecotourist’s experience of South Africa. It is part of the ‘romantic’ in-Africa experience. Some examples of this essentially subtle form of communication from a tour operator’s perspective are the following:

1. A City tour with a visit to a ‘touristy’ African venue/village was planned for visiting American executives. With disgusting toilets, something that should always be checked out beforehand, the ‘show’ did little to impress the astute travellers. Fortunately the story had a happy ending with the highlight being a stop near an informal settlement, where there was much excitement among the guests with cameras clicking madly. On reflection, this was ‘real’!2. A wealthy Turkish business executive and his wife flew in from Mala Mala to do a Battlefield tour in KwaZulu-Natal. Booked into a country lodge, fortunately with no touristy Zulu ‘show’ available. The owners of the lodge asked their employees, whose children where at the local school, to dance for the guests. There was great excitement. The local black schoolteacher was delighted, as he was trying to instil in his pupils a sense of pride in Zulu culture by encouraging the children to dance.The parents provided a traditional Zulu meal in two traditional huts and, as darkness fell the couple enjoyed a meal in the traditional way with these humble

people. In the firelight of that African night enthusiasm turned to sheer joy. The atmosphere was magical! Later in discussion with the schoolteacher our wealthy guests asked what were the immediate needs of his small school. His prayers were answered directly by the guests donating generously to the school. In this exercise there were no pretences, no ‘tired’ people banging out a rhythm, and certainly ‘no shows’. Most of all the local community benefitted directly.

4 THE NEEDS OF THE COMMUNITIES

Ecotourism can bring new benefits to rural communities who most often do not have the

services, or the level of services provided in urban areas. Such as proper housing, electricity,

water, sewage and refuse removal. These are sometimes referred to as the “new big five” of

the rural communities. Sadly the very fascination of the First World Ecotourists with Third

World people is their struggle for survival and their coping mechanisms (ingenuity) to cope

with that struggle. So we must not hide or protect the Ecotourist from the abject poverty that

exists in South Africa today, as it is very much a part of the experience. Instead we need to

analyse this struggle to understand what the Ecotourist perceives of the present, what they

may know about the past, and what may bother them about the future. Sustainable living can

only be achieved by a redistribution of resources. The sites of struggle, as perceived by rural

poor are basically:

Land to grow food and to run livestock. Prior to 1994 75% of the population was

restricted to 13% of the land, which meant that they were denied a primary natural resource.

Five million people were forcibly removed to smaller areas, sometimes where the productivity

was poor and with few natural resources. Over-stocking in densely populated rural areas has

caused near desertification in many areas. Living in such crowded circumstances brought

about extreme poverty, which exacerbated environmental degradation. South Africa has

limited agricultural land. Of our surface area of 120 million hectares only some 55% (66

million hectares) receives enough rain for dry land production (and that only in better than

average years). Of this land only about 15% is arable. It is also apparent that most black

households have little incentive to make viable use of the communal land allocated to them

for crop production. Consequently much of the arable land, especially in KwaZulu-Natal is

under-utilised because emerging farmers do not have access to land that lies unused by

other households. At present the concept of land rental is being introduced so that everyone

concerned can benefit. Emergent farmers can expand their operations, while people who do

not wish to use their land, gain rental income paid in either cash or kind. This may even be a

share of the crops grown, from land that previously generated nothing.

Energy for fuel and warmth. Over half of South Africa’s population relies on non-

sustainable use of fuel wood for their energy requirements. Some 80% of urban blacks

receive ESKOM electricity, while 50% plus of rural blacks have access but use wood in

preference because it is cheaper for them. If the current consumption rates continue all

natural wood resources will be virtually denuded by 2020. To reverse this situation 500

000ha of woodlots close to the relevant communities must be planted in the next ten years.

Many urban blacks cannot afford electricity and also burn wood or poor grade coal. This

creates unhealthy air and contributes to the smog and the escalating chest problems of the

township populations.

Water for drinking and washing. For a long time fresh water has been polluted and

reduced in quantity by insensitive building, unsound agricultural development/practices,

industrial and municipal pollution, urbanisation, introduction of alien species, unwise

afforestation, and the clearing of natural vegetation. Meanwhile in formal urban areas water

is generally of high quality and sewerage is water borne. However due to the lack of finance

damaged sewerage pipes go unchecked and the general quality of water is fast becoming

questionable in all the major cities in South Africa. Despite the best efforts of government

many people in the rural areas and in informal settlements still do not have adequate access

to water of an acceptable quality. This has brought the inevitable health problems, and is

exacerbated by drought.

It is not, therefore, surprising that most rural people have very little concern for the

environment when they are simply struggling to survive on a daily basis. There is often an

apathy and even hostility at the mention of environmental issues to rural people. Through

education and the actions of mainly NGOs there is, however, a growing ‘green

consciousness’ in certain black urban townships. It is obvious that without an acceptable

redistribution of land many South Africans will not adopt an ethic for sustainable living.

REVISION EXERCISES


1. Tourist trap businesses are:a) Run by greedy people

b) Make money from forced culture

c) Exploit rural people

d) All of the above

2. Sites of struggle for rural communities refer to:

a) Authenticity

b) Land, Energy, Water.

c) Housing, Sewerage, Refuse

removal, Housing, Electricity

d) Abject poverty

3. The Criminal Element can be restricted by:

a) A well-planned itinerary

b) Protocol

c) Prior communication with

community leaders

d) All of the above

4. A peaceful solution to the lack of available land to black farmers is:

a) Land rental of communal land

b) Redistribution of wealth

c) Nationalisation of Farms


5. What is the key role of Ecotourism?a) That communities have the

opportunity to get rich

b) That communities are able to learn

more about conservation

c) That communities are able to afford

better health services

d) That communities are drawn into

the business process

e) That communities can meet

Ecotourists

LEARNING UNIT 8CULTUROLOGY

KEY OUTPUTS FOR THIS UNIT __________________________________________________________________


explain some of South Africa’s cultural differences through a study of culturology

describe the whereabouts of the different tribal peoples of South Africa

appreciate the value of the traditional and new developing cultures of South Africa.

1 INTRODUCTION

Any foreign visitor to South Africa will comment on our rich mix of cultural diversity, which is

often one of the reasons for their visit. From a South African perspective a study of these

cultures is also very important. The more we understand one another, the more we will

respect one another, and the greater our chances for peaceful co-operation and

development.

It is important to realise that the “environment” includes both the urban and the rural environment. Conservation therefore not only refers to our biodiversity but also includes the

preservation of the prehistoric, historic and contemporary cultural components of our country

- as they also contribute to the richness of our quality of life in both urban and rural settings.

2 CULTURAL SENSITIVITY

There are as many different customs and norms of acceptable behaviour as there are

countries around the world. And there are some big differences between African cultural

norms and those of Westerners. Here are some examples:

In Zambia males often walk together hand in hand as a sign of friendship, but the

custom of the country condemns any physical contact in public between members of the

opposite sex

In Zimbabwe guests to tribal homes should make loud noises while eating to

compliment their hosts


When visiting a private home in Botswana be careful not to step on the doorsills as

the Tswana believe that each doorsill contains a god and it would be sacrilege to disturb

them unnecessarily.

White South Africans tend to practise individualism, which is the pursuit of personal goals,

logic and forthrightness in the expression of emotions and thought. In tribal Africa these

exact qualities are foreign, and can even be construed to be offensive. The importance of the

individual in tribal Africa is earned through experience, age and lineage.

A common thread of etiquette that does run through all African cultures is that everything that

is yours should be exalted and everything that is mine should be humbled. Tribal people can

be really upset by even small infringements of taboos, faiths and behaviour. It is up to the

Ecotourist to try and not upset people they meet. This can be done by:

accepting that the conventions of your home country usually conflict with those of

other countries

potential travellers reading up as much as possible on the destination, and the culture

and beliefs of the society in the locations they intend to visit.

3 THE SOUTH AFRICAN CULTURAL SITUATION - AN OVERVIEW

We live in one of the most culturally complex countries in the world. After the first free

democratic elections in April 1994 South Africa adopted 11 official languages (and recently

“Sign” has been added to these to make 12), and recognised almost 850 dialects. To add

to the confusion of cultures there has also been an unchecked invasion of both legal and

illegal immigrants into the country from all over Africa. In addition South Africa has large

numbers of European residents that are still proud of their home country’s culture, thus there

is an even bigger mixture than simply the indigenous cultures.

South Africans of all colours and ethnic groups can become bewildered and frustrated by the

behaviour of others, simply because of their lack of understanding of the cultural differences.

This can lead to intolerance.

We will study a few of the South African cultures, not only to ensure that we can act as better

Ecotourist guides in our country, but also to improve our own understanding, dispel fear and

mistrust, and grow tolerance.

Some of the major communities in South Africa include Afrikaners, Coloureds, English,

Griqua, Indians, Khoisan/Nama, Ndebele, Pedi, Pondo, Shangaan, Sotho, Swazi, Tswana,


Venda, Xhosa and Zulu. In all these cultures there are critical lessons for our future as a

“Rainbow Nation”.

The information presented in this Learning Unit can only touch on a few key aspects of

culture. – which is a vast subject. The opinions expressed here may be different to some of

those held by you and your lecturers. For this reason time will be allowed for individual

presentations during this section.

4 CULTURE DEFINED

The dictionary of anthropology defines culture as:All that which is non-biologically and socially transmitted in asociety, including artistic, social, ideological and religious patternsof behaviour, and the techniques for mastering the environment.

In more simple language this translates into culture being used to indicate a social grouping that is smaller than a civilisation but larger than a single community.

5 AN INTRODUCTION TO SOME SOUTH AFRICAN CULTURE- with some useful examples of common differences in interpretation between

different cultures within South Africa

Eye contactIn Western customs by not making eye contact whilst speaking to another person implies

that you have something to hide and is considered dishonest or sly. In Black customs it is

unheard of to look a senior person in the eye while speaking to them because it is

considered a challenge to their authority. This is a major difference and one that can occur

daily.

GreetingsIn Western culture it is considered polite for a junior person to greet a senior person first and

for a man to greet a woman first. In the Zulu culture a junior person does not address a

senior person unless they are addressed first. In Tswana, Sotho and Southern Sotho, an

intermediary is used for greeting and announcements. There may be as many as 16 or 17

intermediaries, until “Sabona” is said (meaning “ We recognise you”). This is another daily

example of the cultural divide.

Leading the way


In Western culture a man lets a lady lead the way. In Black culture the man leads the way,

and this originates from the idea that the man must go first to make sure there are no

enemies or dangerous animals ahead. Yet another example of opposite behaviour between

Western and black cultures.

FuneralsIn Western culture a funeral normally takes place a few days after death. In black culture the

dead are not usually buried until the whole “family” has been notified, and had time to gather

to pay their respects. The funerals normally take place on a Saturday to give all relatives and

friends an opportunity to attend. Traditionally during the night before nobody sleeps and

much singing takes place, then early the next morning the funeral takes place. To be present

at the funeral is important as one’s presence shows that there was no involvement in the

death of the deceased. Because we have an increasing number of Muslims in South Africa it

is worth mentioning that in this religious culture the dead person must be buried on the day

that they died. So we have at least three very different ways to deal with death.

General Black cultures and customsTo a degree these are not practised with the same intensity, as they were in the past, but

they still form a part of the general accepted cultural norms and customs of the past, present

and future.

Social structuresThe social order of the Blacks in their tribal state is best likened to a triangle with the superior

chief at the apex. The name of the tribe is usually the same as the surname of this man

whose position is hereditary. The great chief rules over a number of lesser chiefs, each in

charge of a group of families, and all these families constitute the tribe. The father is head of

the family unit and all members are answerable to his rule, as he is answerable to his

headman, the headman to his petty chief, and the petty chief to the great chief. Thus there is

a strictly hierarchical structure dictated by Tribal Law.

TraditionThe law of the tribe is based on custom and tradition, and the tribe’s ancestors watch over

the living from the spiritual world. It is the duty of every living member of the tribe to observe

these laws and customs, even as their forefathers observed them. There is a curious sense

of mystic of tribal belonging, with each individual being part of a continuous pattern stretching

back to the forgotten past.

Family


In African culture all uncles and aunts (all older people in your local community) are

considered to be your “parents”. Thus it is possible for an African to attend several funerals

of their “mother” simply because they have many mothers, fathers, sisters and brothers.

EthicsBehaviour, manners and ethics are all tribal, and to sin against the interests of the tribe is

considered a sin indeed. Modesty is evident in tribal girls and woman, and is expressed by

prescribed behaviour and posture, rather than in covering the body.

Life cycle In the traditional Black society each individual has an established position from the cradle to

the grave, and beyond. The position may change through marriage. Polygamy is an

accepted state and all the duties of men and woman are clearly defined. A woman may only

work with cattle after the death of her husband; women’s work is in the fields or preparing

food, caring for children, and in the home. Men are soldiers and attend the affairs of state,

law and trading. Women must remain at home in their family groups, each working for the

good of the whole, and each has a well defined status.

LoboloTraditionally the husband presenting lobolo to the father of his bride cements a marriage

between a man and a woman. Lobolo marriages are recognised under South Africa law and

are therefore legal. Lobolo is not as payment, but a token of gratitude to the parents for

rearing the girl and to compensate them for the loss of a daughter. It is paid in honour of her

status and as an assurance that she will be well treated. Should she run away because of

unhappiness the lobolo is not returned. The size of lobolo indicates the bride’s status and her

chastity.

Ancestral SpiritsWhen trouble comes to the individual or the tribe the first question asked is whether the

ancestors are angry and the spirits are punishing the tribe. In the case of where the ancestral

spirit is angry a spiritual ceremony will be held where an animal is sacrificed to regain the

approval of the angry ancestor.

Traditional healerNo individual can solve his or her own troubles by intuitively discovering, or simply guessing

the mood of the spirits. The sangoma is a mouth piece (diviner) of the spirits, and may be

either a man or a woman. There are two types of sangomas - the herbalist or nyanga who

usually has a remarkable knowledge of nature and herbal remedies, and the clairvoyant who


sees into the future. Both may, however, throw bones and divine the future and both may

administer herbs. In the hands of these healers lie the solutions to all life’s riddles and

challenges, and a troubled person may get new strength by eating or drinking potions

obtained from the traditional healers.

6 UNDERSTANDING CULTURES

Most of South African Black groups originate from the Nguni, Sotho, Tsonga and Venda (the

last two being single groups of people, while the first two can be divided in to a number of

sub-groups).

5.1 AfrikanersDuring the 17th Century groups of Protestants from mostly Dutch, but also German, Swedish,

Danish and French descent, fled religious persecution in Europe and came to South Africa.

These early settlers were bound by religious beliefs and a common language, Afrikaans,

developed out of the need for a dynamic, easily understood, colloquial language. Although

the first basic book in Afrikaans was published in 1856, it was only recognised as an official

language in 1925.


NGUNI

ZULU XHOSACele, Xesib

Fingo, Pondo Bhaca, Hlubu

SWAZINgwane

NDEBELESouthern Ndebele:

Ndzumda and ManalaNorthern Ndebele:

Moletlane and GaMasashane

SOTHO

NORTHERN SOTHO

Bapedi, BalobeduBatlokwa, BantwaneBantoane, Bakopa,

Bakone

SOUTHERN SOTHOBahlakoana, Batlokwa

Bakwena, Batuang

TSWANABarolong BakokengBtlukoabantwane, Batuang, Bakwena, Bahlaping, Bakgatla

Characteristics: The Afrikaner then, and still today is fiercely independent, self-reliant

and intent on maintaining their own identity. They have a passion for strong

nationalism and stubbornly cling to their Afro-European culture.

Concentrating on agriculture, as many still do, the Afrikaners, termed “boers”, started to

develop a life for themselves in this corner of Africa. Those of prominence became teachers

and ministers, instilling in the youth the importance of their unity. By the 1800’s their hope of

independence started to crumble with Britain extending the Empire to South Africa. To

escape the forced Anglicisation orders of Lord Somerset, the Afrikaners embarked on The

Great Trek. With ox wagons they set off to find a haven where they could live independently

of British rule. Independent Boer republics were founded in the north only to be attacked by

the British. The bitter Anglo-Boer war left the Afrikaner dispossessed and impoverished, and

this defeat still rankles among the faithful.

Many Afrikaners have doggedly clung to their own status, shouldering aside hardships in

their efforts for stability. In 1918 the secretive Afrikaner Broederbond was formed. Initially

established as a cultural organisation it rapidly developed into furthering the aims of the

Afrikaner nation. By ingenious political and economic means this organisation sought

Afrikaner dominance in South Africa. Although Afrikaners played a lesser role than English-

speakers in the economy of the country, they were able to secure positions of power in

companies that were able to swing considerable influence in national money matters under

the Nationalist Government regime.

Church: A great deal of Afrikaner philosophy and current direction is a result of the teaching

of the church and educational bodies supporting causes that encourage the aspirations of

the Nation. The religious influence is arguably the major factor governing the ethos of the

Afrikaner people. Three main churches have emerged: Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk,

Gereformeerde Kerk and Hervormde Kerk. When pressure from the boers upon these

churches to implement separate churches for whites, coloureds, and blacks was not

immediately forthcoming, the politically conservative Afrikaanse Protestante Kerk was

formed. But today these churches are officially open to all.

5.2 EnglishIn South Africa the influence of the English is unchallenged. Less than 8% of the population

are English-speaking and their culture is despised by some local societies. Their dominance,

while being weak in the political arena since 1948, has undoubtedly been supreme in the

spheres of commerce, business, media, industry and banking.


South African history is inextricably aligned to the English, not only with regards to the

almost 45 000 British soldiers who fought in the Anglo-Boer Wars, Frontier Wars and Zulu

Wars, but also in terms of the banning of slavery and being among the most outspoken white

critics of the apartheid regime.

In 1820 the first 4 000 English settlers brought what they considered correct civilisation to

Africa. They introduced a system of commercial free trade, increased economic

development, agricultural production, and the development of infrastructure. In the present

South Africa English speakers still dominate the economy. That is not too surprising since

English is one of the World languages. The selection of English as the official language of

government and economy is an indication of the importance of English globally.

Manners: English politeness, thinking and manners are still considered to be important. Here

are some traditional guidelines.

Unusual hair-dos are regarded with suspicion. Keep hair under control – generally

follow the no-facial-hair rule

Do not look sexy, rather dress conservatively

Keep it clean. – the look is fresh, scrubbed and effortless

English behaviour is based upon not making unnecessary demands on others. So the

most important words in the culture are “Please” and “Thank you”

Turning up unexpectedly at an English home may be considered impolite

Direct personal questions are considered rude

Eating in public, apart from picnics, fun fairs and informal situations, is considered

inappropriate

The basics of eating with English people are do not:

scratch at table

eat greedily

criticise the meal

offer others left over food

take someone else’s allotted place

lick your fingers

pick the best bits, and

certainly chew with your mouth shut and never talk with your mouth full

5.3 IndiansSouth Africa has the largest number of Indians outside of India – over 1 million - with most of

them resident in KwaZulu-Natal. The history of South Africa’s Indians began in 1860


when the British shipped over 150 000 indentured labourers to harvest sugar cane,

cut timber and lay railroad tracks. At the end of a five year contract these mostly Hindu workers had the option of signing up for another five year term, remaining in the

country as freemen, or taking a paid passage back to their homes. Most chose to stay,

working as traders, farmers and on the lucrative diamond and goldfields of the interior.

In 1911 a contingent of mostly Muslim Indians arrived in South Africa. They came as

businessmen to South Africa out of their own free will.

The Indians have been subjected to many discriminatory practices for example:

In 1907 government ruled that Indians could only trade in demarcated areas

Indians were not allowed to live in the Free State for more than two months, and were

not allowed to own or rent any fixed property

Mohandas Ghandi arrived in South Africa and launched the ‘Force for Truth’

(satyagraha), a peaceful resistance campaign. By 1927 some 40 000 Indians had fled

the oppression. Those that remained faced many other restrictive laws.

In 1949 and 1985 violence broke out between Indians and Zulus in Natal. Despite all these

happenings the Indians have demonstrated an amazing ability to adapt.

Religion: Most of the Indians living in KwaZulu-Natal are Hindus; those in other provinces

tend to be Muslim. Hinduism is the oldest religion on earth. Its motto is ‘All things to all men’.

It is founded on a belief that all of us go through a series of rebirths or reincarnations that

eventually lead to spiritual salvation that frees us from the cycles of rebirth. Hinduism has

many gods, each a representation of the many attributes of a single god. The holiest day on

the Hindu calendar is Diwali (Festival of Lights). Islam, whose disciples are known as

Muslims, is one of the fastest growing World religions. Founded by the prophet Mohammed,

Islam and Hinduism have clashed throughout the centuries. The holiest of all Muslim books

is the Koran, and Friday is the Muslim holy day. The aim of every Muslim is to ultimately

make a pilgrimage to Mecca.

Indians are naturally friendly, hospitable, kind and compassionate, and regard correct

behaviour as important

Social guidelines: When visiting a home, temple or mosque, shoes must be removed as a sign of

respect


Upon entering a Hindu home the custom is to press the palms of the hands together

in a prayer-like manner and bow slightly

With Muslim families shaking of hands with the men is accepted, but not the women

Never touch artefacts and objects in temples or offerings at shrines. Always circulate

in a clockwise direction

Leather articles like handbags should be left outside sacred places as Hindus believe

that cows are holy creatures

Muslims are forbidden from consuming pork and alcohol

Hindus do not eat beef

Dress conservatively and be well covered when visiting an Indian home as a guest

(long pants are essential for men)

In traditional Indian homes eating utensils are often not present. Use only your fingers

from your right hand to scoop up your food.

5.4 PediFound in the Northern Province and Mpumalanga the Pedi are one of the most hospitable

and migrant of all South Africa’s ethnic groups.

Following clashes with both the Boers and British the Pedi in 1879, under their best-known

chief Sekhukhuni, were crushed by the British. They never recovered from that war and

became a marginalised, dispossessed people, increasingly dependent on becoming migrant

labourers. Despite their lack of tribal cohesion today, and minority status in the eyes of other

tribes, the Pedi have managed to retain some of their traditional ways.

Taboos: A few of the more important behavioural codes that apply to people visiting Pedi

include the following:

No woman menstruating, nor any man, may enter a hut where a birth has just taken

place

It is a sin against the ancestors to kill or eat a family’s totem- always ask what the

totem is of your particular host

While crops are growing no reeds or grasses may be cut for bedding or roofing

material

No trees large enough to provide shade to animals or humans may be cut prior to

consultation with the medicine man or village chief

Secretary birds, storks, hammerkops and red spider mites are never to be killed, for

they are the guardian creatures of the Pedi.


5.5 San (Bushmen) and the Khoe-khoe – Khoisan peoplesNo cultural perspective on South Africa is complete without mention of the Khoisan peoples.

The San (Bushmen) were hunter-gatherers, whilst the Khoe-khoe (Hottentots) were

pastoralists who tended their flocks and were semi-nomadic.

The SanThe San (Bushmen) roamed the seashores, mountains and plains of the subcontinent, living

in the open or in shallow caves. They were nomadic hunter-gatherer people who moved

frequently in search of food, water and shelter. Their clothing and carrying-bags were made

from the skins of animals sewn together using bone needles and sinews. They made a wide

range of tools from stone and other available items such as ostrich eggshells. Possessions

were limited to those that were easily carried, bows and arrows, quiver and a bag for the

men; digging-stick and bag for the women. They lived in small clans and were reputed to

only fight over honey – a delicacy.

It is generally considered that their rock paintings were related to the trance ritual and were

the visual expression of their hallucinations. Some academics are of the opinion that the rock

art was purely a recording of significant events in daily life. Southern African rock art is

known to be extremely old (extending some 26 000 years), and modern interpretations do

not necessarily reflect the full range of beliefs/concepts that existed in prehistory.

The Natal Drakensberg San were annihilated from the mid- to late 1800s by the Nguni,

boers, and finally the British, who were called to assist the farmers to protect their livestock

from the marauding Bushmen who had resorted to hunting cattle once the herds of wild

game had been decimated by the very people who complained of cattle rustling and

slaughter.

The Khoe-khoeThe Khoe-khoe herders (Hottentots) with their flocks of sheep and herds of cattle introduced

a new way of life into southern Africa about 2000 years ago. They were a semi-nomadic

people who resembled the San in appearance but whose movement was governed by the

need to ensure adequate water and grazing for their animals. In addition to their livestock

they brought a new skill with them, that of making pottery and the concept of ownership of

animals.


The Khoe-khoe inhabited the coastal regions between the Orange River in the north and the

Kei River in the southeast, areas that provided adequate grazing for their stock. Their

shelters were portable structures of woven-grass mates and skins spread over a framework

of branches, and the cattle and sheep were protected in kraals of branches. They used pack-

oxen and were able to move with more belongings than the San, whom they displaced in

some areas.

5.6 SothoIn about 1500 the Sotho people left their ancestral Tswana root-tribe behind, crossed the

Vaal River and settled in the Free State and Lesotho. They were scattered into clans by

attacks from the Zulus and sought refuge in the Maluti Mountains. Here they lived a hand-to-

mouth existence.

Chief Moshweshwe managed to unite the wandering clans into a cohesive tribe of well

armed, disciplined warriors. Their consequent clashes with the Boer farmers in the Free

State led to Moshweshwe calling in the help of the British. This unfortunately led to the

Mountain Kingdom of Lesotho being annexed by England. Independence was only granted in

1966.

Today most Sotho outside Lesotho work on Free State farms, the mines, and in South

African cities.

Homes and Villages: As in early days there are two main kinds of Sotho houses; wood and

reeds, and stone and thatch. The actual village is divided into two areas, separate

dwellings/areas for male and female, which include the kraal and stockades. Entering a kraal

or village must be done only after applying to the local chief.

Intricate designs are often drawn on the inner walls of Sotho homes. The circles symbolise

wholeness, life, and fertility, while the lines and zigzags indicate the opposition features of

life.

Taboos and Beliefs:

All women are strictly forbidden from entering the kraal and the livestock pens of the

village. The eldest daughter must milk the cows and goats, but this must be done with

the animals tied up outside the walled kraal

In the homes of villagers permission must be asked of the wife before entering a

house. Should a child have been born no man may visit that home for the first three

months, not even the husband is allowed


It is considered an unforgivable sin to disgrace or damage burial sites. The results of

this include misfortune and incurable illness, which will not only affect the offender but

also the entire community

The Sotho believe that each plant, animal and mineral have spiritual powers

associated with it

Their circular homes represent the cosmos. When entering a traditional Sotho home,

tap three times before crossing the threshold and three times once inside, to open

and close the sacred circle.

Death is never actually mentioned, but is referred to as ‘That place where people go’. People

are buried with their faces to the sun. There are no speeches or wailing at the funeral, though

relatives of the deceased cut off all their hair and wear woven grass cords around their

necks.

5.7 Tswana

These quiet, wise, tranquil people comprising over 50 tribes are found over a vast part of

South Africa. The Tswana live from the Limpopo River in the north to the Maluti Mountains in

the south, and from the Kalahari Desert in the west to Mozambique in the east.

The Tswana structure is based on settlement and agricultural lifestyles, with harmonious

communities being their goal, rather than empire building. The Tswana have a strong,

binding and practical system of tribalism.

Tribal Law, Religion and Behaviour are still ardently practised. They are a conservative

nation and very superstitious. Their views and codes of conduct have remained virtually the

same since the 15th Century.

Ancestors: Each family is under the direct guidance and protection of its ancestors, and each

clan also has its own mascot and totem. Ancestors are not considered to be dead, but have

simply passed into another stage of existence. To make sure that the spirit of a deceased is

released the person must be buried in a crouching position, be facing the correct direction,

and have an adequate supply of mohla grass. The ground must be made firm so that the

spirit can quickly travel to the tribal home of the ancestors.

Social Structure: The social structure of the Tswana is based on a hierarchy of nobles,

commoners and servants, each playing specific roles in maintaining the community. The

Tswana are experts at negotiating and are not prone to violence. The breaking of taboos is

greeted with vocal outbursts and the offender ejected.


Greetings: The older person should initiate the greeting, which is followed by a limp

handshake of the right hand, the right forearm cradled by the left hand. One should never

make eye contact with someone older or sit where the head of the house does.

Food and Drink: Always accept the offer of food and drink. Prior to eating wait until the head

of the house, or eldest person, invites you to start eating. Should a Tswana family visit make

certain to offer the husband, or eldest male in the group, food and drink first and the

youngest child last.

Taboos: Three very important taboos never to be broken include:

Never sit in the doorway when the maize is tasselling – this impedes the process

Never burn anything green during summer- the family on whose property this is done

will inevitably have a death

Never lie flat on your back when there is lightning – the house will be struck due to

your obvious challenge.

5.8 VendaThe Venda are one of the smallest and most traditional black population groups in South

Africa. They inhabit the eastern part of the Soutpansberg in Limpopo Province. Their culture

includes elements of the Zimbabwean Shona culture including stone structures similar to

those in Zimbabwe. Mining and metalworking have long been important elements of the

Venda culture and economy.

It is believed that they are descendants of chiefs who travelled south from Central Africa and

arrived in South Africa at the beginning of the 18th Century. They eventually reached the

Nzhelele River in the Soutpansberg Mountains and named the place Venda (a pleasant

place). The soil was fertile and there was also a lake (Lake Fundudzi) formed by an ancient

landslide, which blocked the exit from a valley of the Mutale River.

Lake Fundudzi dominates the worship of the Venda. It is said that there is a village

submerged beneath the waters and when conditions are favourable you can see the

activities at the huts and the cattle grazing in the murky depths. The giant python god of

fertility is said to live in this lake. This god demands the sacrifice of a maiden each year.

Nowadays periodic offerings of beer and grain are cast into the lake.

No one washes or swims in the lake. Permission is required to visit it. On the approach to the

lake visitors may only travel through the Venda Holy Forest by car. According to Venda belief

hikers disturb the ancestral spirits.


Gomba: Another remarkable ceremony is the Gomba or python dance that is performed

every night somewhere in Venda. The Gomba dance, with rows of bare-breasted girls

imitating the movements of the python, is a beautiful spectacle. Drums throb out a symphony

in praise of sexual love and the ancient mysteries of the people. The drum is central to

traditional Venda belief.

Domba is an initiation school for girls. It is held when the headman’s daughter reaches

marriageable age she is attended by maidens of her age group. Schooling lasts for nine

months, symbolising the human gestation period. The initiates learn the facts of life and the

secrets of the tribe. Each night the python dance is performed.

5.9 Xhosa

This group, who inhabit the Eastern Cape, were once a great warrior nation whose soldiers

challenged the Dutch, British, Boer and even occasionally Shaka. The name Xhosa is a

Khoe-khoe word that means ‘angry man’.

The Dutch in 1736 mistakenly grouped all the black people encountered East of the

Bushman’s River together as one tribe. The Xhosa speaking people in fact include distinctly

different peoples with separate social structures, politics, lifestyles, beliefs and even dialects.

They include the Bhaca (who were known for eating raw meat), Bomvana, Mfengi (who

pierce their ears), Mpondomise (People of the Snake), Thembu (who circumcise), Xesibe

and Xhosa (who cut off the first joint of their little fingers). Nowadays these tribes accept their

lot as being classified as Xhosa, but loathe accepting the Xhosa King as being paramount to

their own chiefs.

Religion: Animism and animal sacrifices is commonly followed and practised alongside

Christian worship. Worship of the ancestors is central to amaXhosa families and an elaborate

series of rituals are followed.

Death: Details of death and an impending funeral are broadcast by word-of mouth and

anyone may attend. The funeral ceremony starts with ash and water being smeared over the

windows of the dead person’s home. An all-night vigil is held around the body at which all the

grief and loss is expressed. The day after the vigil burial takes place. An indication of

mourning is a patch of black cloth pinned to the sleeve of a person. On a prescribed day in

the weeks that follow, an animal is slaughtered and the implements used to dig the grave are


washed with the blood. The animal is cooked and eaten with ground millet by all who

originally attended the funeral.

Food and Drink: It is considered good Xhosa etiquette to simply invite your guest in

and supply them with food and drink. One should never ask for food because it might

embarrass the person who may not have much to give, but water may be requested.

Greetings: It is always the person arriving who greets the person already there. Men

shake hands – the palm clenches first, then the reverse grip- with the left hand

cradling the right forearm. Women also shake hands, the arm cradled and palm kept

limp and flat, facing downwards, so that no sign of threatening strength is ever

demonstrated.

Taboos: Both in tribal and urban environments there are many subjects that

amaXhosa may not speak about to the opposite sex. These include pregnancies,

sexually related topics, spiritual matters and childbirth. It is forbidden for anyone

other than the girl’s mother and her husband to see a newborn baby for ten days

after the birth. During menstruation, women are not allowed to touch any food to be

consumed by others, and sex is forbidden.

The amaXhosa are a gentle people known for their easy laughter, casual attitude to

the hardships of life and a fatalistic belief that the ancestors will guide their path.

5.10 Zulu

They are the most famous of all the sub-Saharan tribes. Known for their bravery,

pride and unity that struck terror into the hearts of everyone who ever challenged

them. They are ‘The People of Heaven’ - the amaZulu.

They are the warrior tribe drilled as such by their visionary leader Shaka. While other

tribes have largely forsaken tradition and adopted Western lifestyles the Zulu

manage to straddle cultures and retain many traditions.

Ancestor Worship is central to the Zulu belief. They believe that the ancestral spirits

are able to direct and protect much of what happens in the human world. Anyone

attending a Zulu gathering should take along a gift for offering to the ancestors of the


family. The amaZulu consider nothing to be a coincidence – it is the work of happy or

displeased spirits.

Sangomas play an important role in Zulu culture. They are the mediums between the

living and the dead, can travel between the different levels of existence and

prophesy, curse and provide medication for healing or destruction.

Greetings: It is respectful for the older of the people meeting to greet first. They can

then decide whether you are worth greeting or not. A woman never greets a man

first, nor a child an adult. In rural areas it is necessary to ask about the relatives and

ancestors first before speaking about the weather, crops and cattle. Males usually

shake hands, the right hand extended and the left cradling the forearm of the right.

Women do the same, but add a slight curtsey if the other person is of higher rank.

Eye Contact is never made with someone older – it is considered as an act of

defiance.

Entering a Kraal: Kraals must never be entered directly. The visitor simply stands and

waits and does not call for attention. Someone must fetch you and take you to the

chief or elder. In rural communities once seated do not stand up when anyone enters

as that is interpreted as a threat.

6 TRADITIONAL CULTURE VERSUS THE NEW DEVELOPING SOUTH AFRICAN CULTURE

From the above you will realise that our cultural identity and diversity is important.

We need to respect all cultures and endeavour to understand as many people as

possible especially if we are to be involved in Ecotourism that embraces all cultures

in South Africa. What concerns Ecotourists coming to South Africa is safety. Our

crime statistics are not good, being rated as 50% higher than the most violent

countries in the world. It is unpredictable when and where criminality will rear its ugly

head, thus it is advisable to thoroughly check the current state of crime in any area

beforehand. Unfortunately the media, directly affecting tourism, can magnify any

relatively small issue of crime.

Cultural Villages


Tour operators are happy to use these venues for international visitors to view the

different African Cultures, as they are considered safer than the townships or rural

communities. The cultural villages are usually licensed and provide a traditional meal

of the tribe or culture being visited; plus a western meal, if so desired. These facilities

are well used and are often the only close contact that the overseas Ecotourist has

with South African cultural groups. However, the spin-offs for local communities are

usually minimal.

If monetary remuneration is given to local communities this may act as a strong

incentive for that community to police any local criminal elements. This is one

solution to safe access to community areas.

Ecotourist VenturesA recent development is the emergence of smaller entrepreneurs who offer guided

tours into local communities.


REVISION EXERCISES


1. Match the options below with question number 1.1-1.4To which groups do the following descriptions refer?a) Angry Man

b) People of Heaven

c) Boers

d) A pleasant place

1.1 The Afrikaners

1.2 The Zulu

1.3 The Venda

1.4 The Xhosa

2. With which group is Lake Fundudzi associated?a) Zulu

b) Tswana

c) Venda

d) Pedi

3. Which of the following statements are FALSE?a) A visit to a cultural village is normally

safer than a township tour.

b) True Ecotourism is where the local

community are the hosts.

d) Cultural villages are well used by

Ecotourists


4. Culture is best observed:a) In cities

b) In towns

c) In villages

d) In people’s houses

e) In the countryside

5. Which of the following cultures is not one of the major SA cultures:a) Zulu

b) Rainbow nation

c) Afrikandom

d) Swazi Nation

e) Indians

6. It is considered polite in African cultures to:a) Look at some one directly when talking

to them

b) Keep seated when an important person

enters the room

c) Walk hand in hand as a couple in towns

d) For men to go through the door first



LEARNING UNIT 9PARTNERSHIPS



give guidelines for all parties contemplating an Ecotourism partnership

explain the different types of Ecotourism partnerships

evaluate what local communities expect from Ecotourism

explain capacity building and the role of Non-Governmental Organisations.

1 INTRODUCTION

Progressive private sector and state conservation agencies have introduced several

innovative integrated conservation community development initiatives that provide tangible

benefits to communities living in and alongside Ecotourism areas.

Dedication and patience are two key ingredients that are vital in establishing sustainable

community-based Ecotourism ventures. Experience gained both in South Africa and abroad

show that there is great deal of frustration over the length of time from the birth of the

concept, through the planning phase and finally to implementation. This lack of progress

often results in would-be investors losing interest and is a real problem to which tailor-made

innovative solutions need to be found.

Community-based partnerships are important for the following reasons:

They benefit the whole community socio-economically

They demonstrate the value of biodiversity as a key resource

They engender local ownership of the resource, thus enabling the communities to

accept responsibility.

2 DEVELOPING TOURISM PARTNERSHIPS

Ecotourism has facilitated a major change in the relationship between host communities and

developers. Ecotourism and other alternative forms of tourism have recognised that


partnerships between local people, the private sector, and government have opened up a

wide range of new opportunities. Most of these partnerships are recent and are gaining

acceptance because they make good economic sense, benefit all partners and conservation

begins to take on a new meaning.

Some partnerships are born of necessity: for example, the need for local communities to

market their destination to a wider audience. Other linkages may result from a need for

greater flexibility in management where areas are closed off to Ecotourism because of

international conservation guidelines that have no relevance to the local community. These

sorts of conflicts have led to the development of partnerships between government and

NGOs where management is delegated to the NGO who can often better act with the

community’s best interests as a key goal.

New ways of looking at partnerships between the government and the private sector have

allowed the private sector to mange operations and run concessions in places where the

government lacked the resources, capacity and/or investment, such as accommodation in

National Parks.

New mechanisms and arrangement are constantly being devised with an increasing number

of partners, including many often not considered by more mainstream tourism organisations.

However, while bringing many partners to the table offers strengths of the combined

organisations, it can make co-ordination and decision making cumbersome. In such cases,

Ecotourism development may seem akin to a large integrated development project, with

many of the difficulties that these projects face. Projects with fewer partners may be more

manageable but may require high levels of co-ordination with other agencies. Ecotourism

then provides the catalyst for the development to improve the decision-making processes,

while giving an initial framework that may allow attempts to reach sustainable partnerships

agreements based on a shared vision.

New developments are dependent on equity to be established in National Parks and other

conservation areas that are used extensively for Ecotourism. There needs to be trust and

respect between the traditional custodians of the land, the new management agencies, the

local people and the Ecotourism users. For this to happen all parties must understand the

others’ culture, in order to come to terms with each other’s interpretation and perceptions of

any given situation. This understanding requires facilitation across a significant cultural divide

– thus excellent communication and networks are vital.


Ecotourism can offer a clearly defined philosophical approach to partnerships and in so doing

has expanded tourism beyond an economic rationale. Ecotourism is able to achieve

environmental sustainability and its associated social goals. These goals include

minimisation of damage to natural resources, education of Ecotourists to conservation and

cultural values, access of the Ecotourism experience once only available to the elite, and the

distribution of the rewards and a shift in responsibility to local communities. Ecotourism

generates many and diverse benefits for biodiversity conservation, and can often succeed in

meeting conditions that cannot be met by other activities. It often allows partnerships to grow

where destinations can become competitive, and protected area authorities have the

capacity and jurisdictional mandates to design, develop, manage and implement sustainable

Ecotourism destinations consistent with their protected area objectives. In this the cost

reflects the true cost of Ecotourism and site protection. Thus clear guidelines need to be

followed by ALL parties involved in Ecotourism ventures, from a national level down to

individual entrepreneurs. Partnerships obviously involve local rural communities and revenue

sharing, not only as jobs, but real profit sharing.

3 SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENTS

Before beginning any ventures they should be supported by both Social, and Environmental

Impact Assessments (SIAs and EIAs). These will ensure sustainability both economically and

ecologically. Research into the society itself and the local politics can help identify and dispel

negativity. These procedures should not be long, drawn-out affairs, but in proportion to the

size of the proposed development - as limited finances have to carry the project through this

information gathering period. The involvement of conservation agencies may further slow

down the procedures.

Basic Components to Include

Be realistic, any Ecotourism venture needs three basic components:

Attractions

Amenities (e.g. accommodation)

Infrastructure (e.g. roads)

An Ecotourism venture should be developed together with, or even after, other economic

activities.

Training for Communities

Communities need basic training that is essential for community participation and

management of Ecotourism facilities:


Management skills training

Training in basic hospitality techniques

Business skills.

Theme Routes

A community-based tourism product should be included on your Ecotourism route. Include

this destination in all electronic reservation systems. Existing ‘well known’ routes such as the

Garden Route, Wine Route and Banana Route should still be explored, but add to these

major tours a side tour to participate in community-based Ecotourism products.

Land Claims

Joint venture operations, where land redistribution brings more equity to the community

concerned, should be seen as an opportunity rather than a threat. Tourism developments

wholly owned by local people can help with reconstruction and development.

Assistance to Communities

Once the ownership of land is restored to a community assistance is then essential to enable

that community to make well informed decisions about how to best use their land, especially

if they are going into an Ecotourism partnership or venture. It has been shown that an

Ecotourism venture is a preferred form of land-use in an arid or semi-arid country such as

South Africa. The Regional Development Forum (RDF) should be able to provide sound

development and planning advice.

The Risk Factor

At the end of the day it is the initiative and responsibility shown by the community that will

determine the success or failure of an Ecotourism venture. There are no guarantees. All

parties involved have to risk failure and all parties must know this risk of possible failure from

the start.

4 PARTNERSHIP ARRANGEMENTS


There are FOUR main arrangements that can take place:

4.1 Between the State and/or the Provincial Conservation Agencies, and Local Communities

Conservation departments/agencies usually facilitate these initiatives. It has become

increasingly clear that most protected areas are located in very poor rural areas, with low

agricultural potential, high human populations, and very little if any economic development.

State/Provincial conservation agencies realise that to sustain these vulnerable areas

neighbourly goodwill is essential. This realisation has prompted conservation/community

development initiatives that actually give some economic returns to the community on an on-

going basis.

Although fresh meat from the hunting and cropping in the neighbouring conservation areas

may provide some economic opportunities, Ecotourism development can (in the long term)

be more financially, ecologically and socially acceptable.

An example of a partnership between the state and the local community is the Pilanesberg

National Park, managed by the North-West Province’s Parks and Conservation Authority. It

consists of 30 000ha in a dormant volcanic crater. Local communities receive 10% of gate

revenues and a range of eco-development projects have been initiated in surrounding

villages. The conservation agency has also helped the local community to establish a

community reserve, Lebatlane. A recent survey conducted in the area surrounding the park

indicated that over 70% of local people supported the continued existence of the park.

Another example is the Richtersveld National Park, managed by the National Parks Board as

a contractual park. Local pastoralists were allowed to remain in the reserve after it became a

National Park, and members of the local communities sit on a joint management committee

and are planning new Ecotourism lodges.

Last, but not least, is the Mkuze Game Reserve, run by KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife. There are

plans to build a Zulu cultural village and education centre, in partnership with local

communities, and revenues will go towards social development programmes. Many similar

initiatives are currently being developed elsewhere in the country.

4.2 Between Private Sector and Community Programmes

In this type of partnership transparency is a problem. Generally private sector developers are

not known for transparency. This situation can provide jobs and certainly revenue that is an


excellent start. However, to be sustainable the community must eventually be uplifted to

manage part of this partnership by being given equity, otherwise it is not a partnership.

Kagga Kamma “Place of Bushmen”, a private Game Reserve in the Cedarberg mountains of

the Western Cape, could be considered a partnership between the community and Kagga

Kamma ownership. It is not clear, however, whether or not equity does exist for the local

Bushman community, or whether they are in fact still ‘invited guests’ on the land, with cultural

and educational benefits only.

The same questions may be asked of the Conservation Corporation’s Africa Collection of

‘elitist’ lodges such as Mala-Mala, Sabi-Sabi, Londolozi, Matetsi (in the Sabi Sands Game

Reserve), Phinda Resource reserve at Rocktail Bay in KwaZulu-Natal, Ngala in the

Timbavati, and their tour operation called Wilderness Safaris. Some social development in

nearby villages is enhanced and jobs created, but as to partnership and equity this is

carefully taken care of by the Rural Investment Fund. Clinics, classrooms and water

provision have been facilitated by funds raised through direct appeal to clients and high

profile donors mainly abroad. But genuine community partnerships are apparently lacking

and the major profit share of these ventures is not ploughed back into the local areas.

4.3 Community-driven Projects

These would certainly qualify as ‘true” Ecotourism ventures. The Community benefits by

managing the venture themselves, and remuneration if primarily received by the Community.

However, in the tourism industry monies are often ‘leaked’. This is tourist revenue that is not

earned in South Africa but is siphoned off by overseas operators or guides, or to major

shareholders who are city dwellers. The result is that there is very little money left for the

people providing the actual service; they simply receive the ‘crumbs’.

At Kosi Bay, the Community Resource Optimisation Programme (CROP), a non-government

organisation assists a local committee to run a rustic tented camp. No other camp owned

and run purely by local communities is yet in operation, although others, such as the

Lebatlane game farm (NW Province) owned by the Bakgatla people is being planned.

4.4 Tripartite Alliance – Government, Local Communities and Private Sector

A good example is the Pongola “Biosphere” Reserve in Northern KwaZulu-Natal. The

biosphere started as a private sector initiative, joined by the Government, KwaZulu-Natal

Wildlife and local communities. All parties are equal shareholders. Ecotourism is the

mainstay of the region’s economy. This project showed the local communities and private

sector businessmen that Ecotourism could provide more income than farming. Ecotourism is


the driving force of the regional economy. This is one of the success stories where local

people share all the benefits that Ecotourism can offer.

5 PLANNING APPROACHES

There are several basic Ecotourism planning approaches, applied in combination, which

underlie the Ecotourism planning process.

Continuous and flexible approachThe plan should be responsive to changing circumstances, but any modifications needed

should be made within the framework of achieving the development objectives and concepts

of sustainable Ecotourism.

Comprehensive approachAll aspects of Ecotourism development must be considered in the planning process. These

are the components described in the Ecotourism system: Ecotourist attractions and activities,

accommodation, other Ecotourist facilities and services, transportation, other infrastructure

and the institutional elements.

Integrated approachEcotourism is integrated as a system in itself, and the Ecotourism sector is integrated into the

overall development policies and plans of the area and local plans are integrated into the

national and regional Ecotourism policies and plans.

Environmental and sustainable approachEcotourism is planned in an environmentally sensitive manner so that its natural and cultural

resources are conserved, Ecotourism development does not generate serious adverse

environmental or sociological impacts, the overall quality of the environment is maintained or

improved, the benefits of Ecotourism are widely spread in the society and Ecotourism

satisfaction levels are maintained.

Community based approachTo the extent possible, there should be maximum involvement of local communities in the

planning and development of Ecotourism, with benefits accruing to the local communities

including minority and disadvantaged groups.

Implemental approach


Ecotourism is planned so that the development can realistically be implemented and

implementation techniques are considered throughout the planning process. Planning must

also apply contemporary and creative concepts of development. Political realities must be

considered but long term development objectives and policies should not be compromised.

The strategic planning approachIs sometimes appropriate. Strategic planning focuses more on identification and resolution of

immediate issues. It is typically used in a rapidly changing situation, is action orientated and

emphasises how to cope with changes organisationally. It is less comprehensive than the

long-term planning described above, but can be effectively used within the framework of

long-term policy and planning.

6 LOCAL COMMUNITY EXPECTATIONS FROM ECOTOURISM

Local Communities have the following legitimate expectations from Ecotourism:

Local communities must be equity partners and their share of Ecotourism revenue

must be contractually guaranteed over and above the creation of jobs

Local communities should be clearly identified

Local communities should receive priority in terms of jobs

Their legal access to the resource, through their legal tenure, should be recognised

and acknowledged

The distribution of revenues to local people should be fair, transparent and

accountable

Capacity building for local people should be part of the scheme.


REVISION EXERCISES


1. Community based tourism needs:a) Patience

b) Dedication

c) Both of the above


2. Which of the following basic components need to be present in an Ecotourism venture?a) Amenities

b) Attractions

c) Infrastructure

d) All of the above

3. Communities need training in:a) Management skills

b) Basic hospitality techniques

c) Business skills

d) All of the Above

4. One of the major problems with a private sector – community partnership for Ecotourism is:a) Time

b) Funding

c) Lack of transparency

d) Capacity Building

5. Capacity Building is:a) Investment by NGOs

b) Investment by Government

c) Education and training to ensure self-

sufficiency in a community

d) All of the above

6. Land claims are important to the future of SA Ecotourism because:a) They are a key to the future of rural

people

b) There is a perception that they will lead

to political instability

c) More land will become available to

Ecotourism

d) They will lead to better economic

stability



LEARNING UNIT 10ECOTOURISM PRINCIPLES AND LOCAL COMMUNITIES

KEY OUTPUTS FOR THIS UNIT___________________________________________________________________


identify limiting factors of a ‘new’ Ecotourism venture

know the mainstream role-players in an Ecotourism venture

give guidelines to various role-players in an Ecotourism partnership

facilitate an Ecotourism partnership.

1 INTRODUCTION

Ecotourism ventures are not only for the big and powerful. Even the small enthusiastic

entrepreneur can “connect” with a rural community and through careful planning and protocol

can make an Ecotourism venture work. This is a venture in its simplest form. From this

humble beginning “Biosphere Reserves” have grown.

Ecotourism should be a total experience combining four elements:

The natural and cultural attractions of the environment

The professionalism of the Ecotourism operator

The resources and hospitality of the local community

The responsible and conducive behaviour of the Ecotourist.

2 INVOLVING LOCAL COMMUNITIES IN TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

It is essential to involve local communities in the Ecotourism development process. By

involving local communities they will understand Ecotourism, be better able to cope with this

new development in their area, and participate in its benefits and, therefore, be more likely to

support Ecotourism. Also, local communities know their areas and societies best and may

have good ideas on Ecotourism development and how they can participate in it.


General approaches of including the local population should: give priority to employment in the Ecotourism enterprises being developed for local

residents

assist local entrepreneurs to establish small-scale Ecotourism enterprises through

technical assistance and small business loans

improve basic infrastructure, such as roads, water supply, electric power and waste

management for the communities, as part of the infrastructure development

programme for Ecotourism development

apply techniques for some of the revenue from Ecotourism, such as admission fees

to parks and archaeological/historical sites, to be used for improving general

community facilities and services such as schools and medical facilities

if local crafts are produced in the communities, organise the craftsmen to produce

and sell items to Ecotourists. This may require special training and development of

sales outlets, and guidance on maintaining a good quality level of the crafts

if the local communities have traditional dance, music or drama, encourage them to

organise performances for Ecotourists, but still maintain the authenticity of the

performances

encourage the Ecotourism enterprises to use as many local products as possible in

the construction and furnishings of the Ecotourism facilities, without creating

environmental problems.

Ecotourism and local communities: Conflict, compromise or co-operation?

Local communities comprise groups with different and potentially conflicting interests. That is

not all groups want the same thing.

The tourism industry seeks a healthy business environment with: Financial security

A trained and responsible workforce

Attractions of sufficient quality to ensure a steady flow of visitors- who stay longer and

visit often

A significant return of investment.

Those interested in the natural environment and cultural heritage seek: protection of the environment through prevention, improvement, correction of

damage, and restoration

to motivate people to be more aware –and therefore “ care for” rather than “use up”

resources.


Community members seek a healthy place in which to live with: food, adequate and clean water, health care, rewarding work for equitable pay,

education and recreation

respect for cultural traditions

opportunities to make decisions about the future.

Some concerns that each might hold in common include: issues of access, such as when, where and how tourists visit and move from place to

place.

host and guest issues, such as cultural impact or common use of infrastructure;

land use issues, such as hunting/wildlife habitat, agriculture/recreation

preservation/development, etc.

Ecotourism and local communities

There are a number of reasons why local communities may consider Ecotourism as a local

development option because of:

a desire to be part of a strong growth in Ecotourism generally and see the potential of

catering for special interest tourism (niche markets)

an awareness of the high value of natural attractions to the locale

an empathy for conservation ideals and the need for sustainable Ecotourism

a desire for responsibility rejuvenates the local Ecotourist industry.

One of the main principle or elements of Ecotourism is its ability to maximise the benefits of

Ecotourism, not only with regards to income to a region but also as the preservation of social

infrastructure and biosphere conservation. Specifically, these benefits include: increased demand for accommodation houses and food and beverage outlets

additional revenue to local retail businesses and other services

increased market for local products

employment of local labour and expertise

source of funding for the protection and enhancement /maintenance of natural

attractions and symbols of cultural heritage

funding and/or volunteers for filed work associated with wildlife research and

archaeological studies

heightened community awareness of the value of local/indigenous culture and the

natural environment.


As these benefits suggest, Ecotourism is about attracting visitors for the “right” reasons, and

not simply the promotion of Ecotourism for the sake of the money at the expense of a

community’s natural and cultural attributes. However local communities are not immune from

Ecotourism impacts.

Issues and problems

The conflicting issues expressed by representatives of host communities to Ecotourism

development generally fall into a number of interrelated categories:

The lack of opportunities for involvement in decision-making relating to Ecotourism

Inadequate responses from government when administration or legislative

mechanisms have been established to involve them in such decision-making.

The lack of financial, social and vocational benefits flowing to these communities from

projects that commercially exploit what they regard as resources

The need to establish better tools for evaluating socio-economic impacts and

ensuring this is completed over the more emphasised environmental impacts on the

natural environments which are usually of more interest to the outside investors and

conservation groups

Impacts on community cohesion and structure

The rapidity of Ecotourism development that in many cases significantly accelerates

social change.

These concerns embrace a wide range of issues relating to the management of natural

resources adjacent to these communities. The central issue is the inadequate levels of

participation perceived by these communities in the management of what they regard as their

traditional domains.

Many organisations are now beginning to recognize the integral part that local indigenous

people play in Ecotourism by including cultural understanding and appreciation in their

definitions in Ecotourism. In this way ecologically sustainable Ecotourism is increasingly

becoming aligned to conservation, environmental and cultural understanding and

appreciation. Thus Ecotourism aims to promote and foster a respect and an increase in

awareness of other cultures, in fostering mutually beneficial relationships between hosts and

Ecotourists. Local communities must be in an empowered rather than be relegated to a

subordinate position – these communities must have autonomy over their culture, its

artefacts and rituals, and its very direction, while engaging in and with cultures that interact

with them but do not exploit them. By developing an appreciation of local communities and


their customs and traditions “A process of mutual understanding and respect between

societies can be greatly enhanced”.

Local communities can benefit from Ecotourism economically if they play a greater

participatory roll in Ecotourism process.

Employment

One of the most obvious and immediate benefits of Ecotourism associated with local

communities is the increase in employment opportunities and income generated for the host

region.

Direct employment

Indirect employment (as a result of increased industry inputs such as employment at

a souvenir outlet)

Induced employment. (As a result of increased spending capacity of local residents

due to increased receipts of Ecotourism)

The do’s and don’ts of involvement of local communities

Local communities need to be involved in all level of Ecotourism development from

planning through to management. The planning process must take into account

community involvement with an understanding of how local communities can be best

approached, understood and integrated. Only then can Ecotourism provide a

sustainable economic base fro-rural development, but where local people have

traditional means of sustainable self-sufficiency, Ecotourism should only act as a

supplement source of income.

The appropriateness of foreign ownership and operation of facilities should be

carefully investigated in order to reduce conflict and resentment local people and

foreign operators. If there are likely to be limited long-term benefits to the local

people, then this must be brought to the attention of these people and the operators.

Ecotourism views the natural resources as home in a broad sense to all humans, but

more so to the local inhabitants. Ecotourism itself is concerned with low impact

tourism experiences that are purposely designed to have the least impact possible on

both the physical environment and the local inhabitants.

Ecotourists and Ecotourism operators should be involved in the management of the

natural resource, as well as positives devotees to the relationship between its

management and the local inhabitants. This would incorporate supplying locals with

some of the positive financial and other advantages of the Ecotourism activity, and


providing an avenue for local people to participate in the planning and tourism

development decision-making.

Ecotourism raises the consciousness of hosts about wilderness protection and

sustainable development. It provides both the locals and visitors with genuine non-

forced interaction, which does not intrude thoughtlessly on the local lifestyle.

Ecotourism provides the local community opportunity to expand its economic

resource base as a replacement or complement to traditional economic bases such

as agriculture.

Ecotourism does not restrict the benefits of education and access of the natural

resource to the local community, in providing avenues for employment, education and

enjoyment within the natural environment.

3 UNITING FACTORS OF A ‘NEW’ ECOTOURISM VENTURE

The Time Factor

An Ecotourism venture involves a large cross-section of people, as it is a joint operation. It

can involve people from the highest Government level, to provincial and local levels, and

conservation bodies. These role-players are called “The Authority”. To make contact with

these “bodies” and to get “something” passed can take years. To set up an Ecotourism

venture from scratch with a local community also takes time, as the “legitimate” Tribal

Authority of the area has to be identified and consulted.

Expense in terms of the involved Role Players

The more role players and the higher the level of authority the more money will be used

up in terms of time and effort in the start up phase. Hence it is better to start small at the

grass-roots level and to remain personally involved. Operating in a shorter time-span, with

“reachable” goals and a few key role-players is more cost-effective.

Cash-strapped Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs)

Finance for many new Ecotourism activities is usually a major problem. If you approach an

NGO bear in mind that they are not subsidised by Government and rely on membership fees

to augment the salaries of necessary key people and scientists. However if you are intent on

becoming involved specifically in Ecotourism it will be in your best interests to consider

involving key NGOs.

The local regional council may have a tourism division, who may assist – not with handouts

but with the promotion of an Ecotourism venture.


4 THE ROLE PLAYERS IN AN ECOTOURISM VENTURE

There are four basic role-players in an Ecotourism venture: The Authority The Tour Operator The Community The Ecotourist

The “Authority”

This is the provincial, local or conservation body in charge of the Ecotourism area or

natural or cultural environment. The authority has the responsibility of creating a suitable

environment within which Ecotourism can take place.

The Tour Operator

He/she is the business link between the Ecotourism area or attraction and the other three

groups as well as the accommodation provider. The tour operator can mean a tour organiser

who sits behind a desk and never sees the Ecotourist, or more commonly in South Africa it

can mean the tour guide with “wheels”. This is a very important part of the operation, as it

must be reliable, informative and friendly. There are specific legal requirements as

discussed earlier.

The Community

There are urban communities and rural communities, which can number between twenty

to thousands. The community you approach should want to be committed to environmentally sustainable practices, e.g. not slash and burn, and move on, with regard

to forest settlements. Despite the community’s deprivation, they should show an interest in

learning to care for conservation areas.

The Ecotourist

South African or foreign Ecotourists should be treated with the same respect and given the

same service. They are guests and as such should also be responsible to behave in an

environmentally and culturally sensitive manner. Tourists may travel with an organised tour

or make their own arrangements.


5 GUIDELINES

Guidelines involving “The Authority” in Ecotourism ventures

Access

Private Ecotourism operators, which include accommodation providers and tour organisers,

should be assured access to Ecotourism areas to operate efficiently. Appropriate

development by tour operators can also be encouraged.

Opportunities for Service

Create opportunities for local people to become partners in Ecotourism ventures, wherever circumstances permit. If your Authority has control over an Ecotourism area, a

local Ecotourism forum should be established, to discuss matters with a view to

developing these opportunities further. For example, landowners should assist in decision-

making on the planning of development and utilisation of land and local people should

provide Ecotourism services to the tour operator.

Land Owners and Land Use

Consult with landowners to set aside land to include Ecotourism. There should be balanced and sustained Ecotourism land use. This should preferably be on the periphery of the area

to avoid disturbance of the environment and the community.

Red-Tape Removal

User-friendly systems should make it easier for Ecotourism developers to obtain operating

permits and other official documentation. Remove unnecessary red tape to encourage

Ecotourism development.

Environmentally Sustainable Procedures

Aspire to this, and encourage the community to do likewise.

Integrated Environmental Management Procedures

Apply integrated environmental management procedures to ensure the natural environment

is well managed and conserved.


Guidelines involving the “Operator” in Ecotourism Ventures

Target your Market Make sure you have the right market for the right product. Establish exactly what your

client is looking for with regards his/her African experience. If he/she expects to see large

herds of game then organise to visit such a place. Tour planning should be carefully thought

out to give maximum exposure whilst still trying to give the best experiences.

Local Community Involvement This could include transport, tour guiding, laundry, curios, vegetable gardens and even

clothing shops, etc. This sector of the community could be entrepreneurs who can become partners in Ecotourism. They can act as a feeder group giving employment to local rural communities, thus bringing economic relief to entire families. The business

people of the area should be consulted and included. Ideally the rural people should not only

get jobs, but should be empowered whereby the community can turn the service provided into a small business allowing them sustainable opportunities which they can continue with

pride.

Staff Integrity Staff should be familiar with the environmental and other standards required of them and

competent in every way. They should be motivated by ongoing training, for their self-esteem

and the team spirit of your company. This is called capacity building, where the focus is on

business skills training. Bookkeeping is basic to any business and an individual with this

training will be valuable to his/her community. Staff interact directly with the Ecotourist so

should not be overworked and tired.

Operating Practices Use environmentally sustainable operating practices. For example, develop a

programme of environmentally friendly waste management, sustainable water utilisation,

make use of non-toxic cleaning materials and bio-degradable operating materials, and take

advantage of natural energy sources.

Environmental and Social Impact Assessments (EIAs and SIAs) When planning a new development like a hutted camp or even a tour operation, EIAs and

SIAs will save time and money if done initially. It is better to clear all possible stumbling

blocks before going ahead with any development.


Environmentally Sensitive Practices When developing an area, ensure that minimal damage is done to natural and social resources. Try to make the development fit into the environment. Developers or their

contractors often destroy indigenous trees and entire ecosystems whilst also contaminating

streams.

Environmental Audits Regular environmental audits should be conducted to evaluate the performance of the environment. This process is usually undertaken by professional consulting firms, and

overseen by the administrative bodies involved. It provides the firm in question with

recommendations on how it can improve its environmental management practices.

Environmental compliance is good business practice, which will probably save money in the

long run.

Educational Opportunity Ecotourism programmes should include educational opportunities. “True” Ecotourism is

undertaken by people wanting to expand the horizons of the visitor, allowing them to gain a

first-hand knowledge of the environment and the community. An interface between the

community and the visitor, could see the visitor assisting in community brick making,

charcoal making or drawing of water from the local pump; if only for half an hour. This

‘educates’ the Ecotourist to the community’s needs.

Guidelines for the local community involved in Ecotourism Ventures

The following are ways that local communities can contribute towards successful Ecotourism

ventures:

Approach an “Authority” If a community owns or manages environmentally rich rural land, they should investigate the

possibility of developing this land for Ecotourism purposes, with:

the local authority

the conservation authority (National Parks Board, KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife)

private business

non-governmental organisations.

Despite a lack of funds and resources, the NGOs are less bureaucratic and more innovative

than the State or profit-drive private sector.


Investigate their land rights If one owns or has control over land, you are in a good position to become a shareholder in an Ecotourism venture. Investigate your land rights. Many rural

communities who have lodged land claims on the grounds of ancestral rights – this will hold

up the process, but must be carried through to fruition so that all parties are satisfied that

there has been transparency and fairness.

Seek Training with Private Sector Approach the local Ecotourism business to employ or preferably train local community members.

Local Craft or Culture At present South Africa is inundated with other African countries’ curio arts and crafts. These

are imported from Kenya, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It would be of great benefit to local people

to produce craftwork, but this must be saleable. Research traditional handicrafts and cultural traditions by asking Ecotourism companies and marketing authorities which items

would be best sellers with the Ecotourists.

Friendly attitude Smile, this is the beginning of friendship. Treat tourists in a friendly and hospitable way and

they will always wish to come back and recommend your area to their friends.

Offensive Attitude If there is Ecotourist behaviour or habits that are offensive to a local community or damaging

to the environment, one should be honest and make Ecotourists aware in a nice way. The

area belongs to the local community and visitors should respect their rights.

Tour Guiding Train the local guides with a good knowledge of the environment and history and good

people skills. The South African Tourism Board (SATOUR) can offer information regarding

being trained as a Registered Tour Guide.

Guidelines for The Ecotourist in an Ecotourism venture

Research your destination An Ecotourist should read up on his destination - its natural history, cultures and peculiarities.

There are excellent books available on South Africa, covering fauna and flora and our

cultural heritage.


Behaviour Ecotourists should try not to offend and behave in an environmentally sensitive manner. Use water with discretion, do not litter under any circumstances and do not pollute quiet

places with noise. People value wide open spaces for their silence. Respect this.

Local Communities Ecotourists should show respect to local communities, by being sensitive to their culture and

privacy.

Protect Yourself Ecotourists should make sure they wear sunscreen and appropriate clothing, a hat and

sunglasses in the harsh African sun. Preventative medication should also be taken in malaria

areas.

Guidelines for the Presentation of an Ecotourism Venture

The presentation to prospective Business Partners should be professionally done.The following information needs to be included:

An introduction of committee members, tribal authorities and facilitators

The day’s programme of events

The aims of the project

The existing infrastructure An indication of the attitudes of the community

Future plans and meetings.



1. Government officials, conservation bodies, provincial and local Government are most accurately described as:a) The Authority

b) The Tour Operator

c) The Community

d) The Ecotourist.

2. This person is often the accommodation provider and link

between other role players:

a) The Authority

b) The Tour Operator

c) The Community

d) The Ecotourist.

3. Opportunities for ‘service’ as a guideline for Authorities refers to:a) Development of Access roads

b) Staff should be familiar with the

standards required of them

c) Environmentally sustainable

practices

d) Creating opportunities for local

people to become partners in eco-

tourism ventures.

4. The Ecotourist shoulda) Research his destination

b) Show respect for local communities

c) Not offend local communities

d) All of the above.

5. Investigating the local communities’ land rights will most probably:a) Delay the development process

b) Lead to a transparent and fair decision

c) A and B above

d) Ensure a friendly attitude.

6. Community members seek a healthy place in which to live with:a) Respect for cultural tradition

b) Opportunities to make decisions about

the future

c) Pollution free air

d) A & B


APPENDIX I: TOUR GUIDING AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

The Legalities

The following text has been adapted directly from the Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) in the

amended tourism guide manual by The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism

(DEAT) as forming the legal requirements by someone wanting to be a guide in the tourism

industry, this applies to all aspects of tour-guiding and is always subject to periodical change.

In a nutshell all guides and potential guides must register with THETA (Tourism Hospitality and

Sport Education Training) and attain a NQF (National Qualification Framework) rating, which

may be directly tied with a learnership qualification or if previous experience is taken in account

then a recognition of prior learning process (RPL) is put into place.

The following is based on the relevant requirements needed in the legalities of guides.

What is the National Qualifications Framework (NQF)?

The NQF is a means of transforming education and training in South Africa. It has been designed to:Combine education and training into a single framework, and bring together separate education and training systems into a single, national system; Make it easier for learners to enter the education and training system and to progress within it; Improve the quality of education and training in South Africa; Open up learning and work opportunities for those who were treated unfairly in the past because of their race or gender; and Enable learners to develop to their full potential and thereby support the social and economic development of the country as a whole.

What are National Qualifications?

National Qualifications (NQ’s), which are available to everyone, are based on national standards which are recognised by industry throughout SA. NQ’s are designed to provide (1) individuals with a clear path in terms of career development, which is not tied to a specific route of learning, and (2) employers with a means of recruiting qualified and competent staff, as well as managing their performance.

What are Unit Standards? Unit standards are the building blocks of national qualifications. They are registered

statements of desired education and training outcomes together with their associated assessment criteria.

Why do I need to convert my present training into national qualifications?

In 1995 the South African Qualifications Authority Act (1995) stipulated that National Qualifications would be developed for all components of the education and training system in South Africa. This effectively meant that tourist guiding would also need to develop a set of national qualifications and tourist guides would be expected to achieve them. Following an instruction from Minister Mohamed Valli Moosa, THETA established a Guiding Standards Generating Body in order to do this.

The Parliamentary Portfolio Committee insisted on a revision of the Tourism Act of 1993 and stipulated that future registration of tourist guides be linked to the achievement of national qualifications. This was borne out in the Second Tourism Amendment Act of 2000. What does this mean? It means that national guiding qualifications will be linked to the various existing categories of tourist guides (being reviewed to fit the national qualifications) and the guide will have to obtain the national qualification in order to guide legally in the future.

When will the National Guiding Qualifications be registered?

The first sets of national qualifications for Tourist Guiding were registered on 13 June 2001. Not all the guiding categories’ qualifications have been developed. The initial focus has been on cultural and nature guiding, as well as tracking. Workgroups are in the process of developing qualifications for the various aspects of adventure guiding. This will not prevent adventure guides from converting certain parts of their training and experience into those national qualifications and unit standards that have been registered by the end of June 2001.

How do I upgrade my present qualification(s) into national qualifications or unit standards using Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)?

Recognition of Prior Learning or RPL Assessment is the process of defining, documenting, measuring, evaluating and granting credit for learning gained through experience or previous training / learning. This means that the existing knowledge and experience of a guide will be assessed and evaluated against the relevant unit standards of the relevant national qualification by a THETA licensed assessor. This evidence can take many forms, e.g. a curriculum vitae, a logbook, demonstration of guiding expertise in a real or simulated scenario, letters of recommendation about the person’s guiding quality by people who have been on guiding trips with them, etc.

If the person is not competent, then they do NOT fail. The assessor gives guidance / coaches the person with regard to the areas that need attention, or in which they are lacking. The assessor and the person being assessed, then agree on a date when those specific deficiencies will be assessed.

In this context, RPL is be used to assess previously registered South African Tourism guides against the SAQA registered guiding standards, as required by the Tourism Amendment Act.

THETA needs to develop a national network of assessors to assist with the task or assessing existing guides in the conversion of their qualifications to the new national requirements.

THETA’s RPL process consists of nine basic steps. The steps are as follows: -

Step 1. The applicant (the tourist guide) must identify the learning he / she wants to have evaluated.

Step 2. The assessor and the applicant must differentiate between learning and experience. Learning must be expressed in specific outcomes that are relevant and appropriate for the credits required.

Step 3.The applicant will collect a portfolio of evidence that includes as much evidence as possible of experiences and learning that are relevant to the RPL process.

Step 4.The assessor will evaluate the evidence produced as well as the learner’s competence. This may be done in a variety of ways, which could include practical assessment, simulation, written tests and/ or questioning.

Step 5. The assessor/s will make a recommendation about the learning and the amount of credit that should be given based on their evaluation and the evidence that was produced.

Step 6.The assessor will write a report (a copy of which is kept by the applicant for quality assurance purposes) recommending whether the learner should be given the credits / qualifications. The report must include sufficient supporting evidence for the decision. The report must be based on the evidence produced by the learner as well as any assessments that may have been done.

Step 7.Based on the assessment decision, the assessor will complete the Declaration of Competence Form and submit it for external quality assurance.

Step 8.Once the Declaration of Competence has been signed off by a Quality Assurer, the Assessor and the Learner, it should be submitted to THETA.

Step 9.If the applicant was assessed as competent, a certificate is issued.

Step 10If not, the assessor will not fail the learner but will advise and give guidance on areas of incompetence for the learner to go back and improve.

Do I have to repeat training to achieve national qualifications if I am presently a South African Tourism registered guide?

No, you can request the recognition of your prior learning (training courses) and experience (practical experience in the field) via a process of assessment.

How will tourist guides be identified in the future?

The National Registrar of Tourist Guides will issue badges and I.D. cards. The I.D. cards will indicate which provinces a tourist guide can operate in and the badges will indicate the province of registration.

What happens if we do not comply with the Act?

Acts of misconduct can be reported to the Provincial Registrars, who will take steps against the guide. This could range from a letter of warning to suspension / revoking of the licence to guide (in cases of gross misconduct).

There is an Appeal process, which enables a guide to make representation to the National Registrar (currently Dr. J. Raputsoe “Director Tourism Quality Assurance”) if the case cannot be resolved at a provincial level. The regulations also make provision for a R10 000 fine for tour operators using unregistered (unqualified) tourist guides. It also makes provision for a R5000 fine for tourist guides who are guiding illegally.

Who trains guides?

Now that the national qualifications for Tourist Guides are registered, training providers are required to accredit themselves with THETA.

Who benefits?

Learners: benefit from the provision of qualifications that enjoy national recognition and where appropriate, enjoys international comparability.

Workers: benefit from clear learning paths in the qualification structure, to facilitate and support life-long learning and career advancement.

Employers: benefit from a work force, competent in the skills

6.1 Professional tourism guidelines

In addition to the above document a Tourist Guide Code of conduct was also issued in order have access to a framework of control and assessment

A professional tourist guide:

Shall uphold the principles of the South African Constitution, especially its chapters one

and two.

Shall at all times show willingness to provide optimum support and quality service to all

tourists, and will give tourists an opportunity to enjoy or visit a desired destination.

Shall in no way discriminate in rendering service to any tourist on any basis, e.g. colour,

gender, ethnicity, nationality, physical challenge, age, etc.

Shall be impartial, unbiased and positive, and represent South Africa objectively.

Shall be suitably dressed and presentable at all times.

Shall be punctual, reliable, honest, conscientious and tactful at all times.

Shall be a responsible driver, when driving as a guide.

Shall carry out the programme/itinerary of a tour to his/her best abilities and be loyal to

the company/organisation that he/she is representing.

Shall deal with conflict in a sensitive and responsible manner.

Shall report any incident of injury or death to a nearby tourist authority or police station.

Shall be knowledgeable and shall assist tourists and not provide them with misleading

information.

Shall in the event of not being familiar with, or being unable to provide information

requested by a tourist, consult with the appropriate authorities for assistance.

Shall at no time be under the influence of alcohol or a narcotic substance while on duty

and shall refrain from administering any medication to a client without proper medical

consultation.

Shall never solicit for clients or gratuities.

Shall be concerned at all times for the safety of the tourist.

Shall wear the appropriate tourist guide badge and will carry his/her registration card.

Shall treat all people, cultures and the environment with respect.

6.2 Categories of Field Guides

According to South Africa law, a fare–paying passenger who requires information on his/hers surroundings, whether in a vehicle or on a walk must be informed by a

Registered Tour Guide – registered with THETA. This person has to pass stringent exams on a particular area. You find three types of qualified guides:Local Guides: -may not accompany guests on an overnight excursion as their qualification only covers a town or ‘locality’.Regional Guides: -may accompany tourists overnight and is confined to a region, which is usually a province.National Guides: -who have passed exams on ALL provinces and may accompany tours nationwide. These latter guides often speak a foreign language.

6.3 The Field Guide Association of South Africa (FGASA)

FGASA promotes professional field guides based on a strong ethical, well-informed, safety

conscious approach. These guides provide the visitor to the African bush with a pleasant and

memorable experience. THETA has also recognised FGASA as an accredited body to

coordinate standards for field guiding and field guiding training.

Field guides may operate on foot, from a vehicle, on horseback or in a boat, in natural areas. A good field guide knows his subject and can answer a client’s observation questions.

6.4 Interpretation in the Bush

Teaching people about the bush and natural history is called ‘Interpretation’.In the African scenario, the Specialist Guide will for example answer a question about the white

underside of the tail of an alerted antelope. Other knowledge is then imparted to the visitors

who gain a deeper insight into the topic:

Animal’s Tails:

Most of the birds and animals in the bush have a tail of one sort or another, which will have a purpose and are not decorative. An elephant calf helpless against predators because of its small size at birth, will curl its trunk around its mother’s tail to maintain contact with her and gain assurance.

The waterbuck has a white circle around the tail, which serves as a clear following signal for others in the herd, as is the white underside of the tail of an alerted antelope. When wild dogs hunt, others can easily see the bushy white tips of their tails in the pack. The lion and leopard cubs learn to stalk and catch prey – an alertness gained by playing and pouncing on the lioness’s tail, which she twitches constantly.

A cheetah can only sprint 300 yards at 112 kph before rising temperature and a lack of oxygen forces it to quit. Thus the average speed during the chase is under 64kph. This requires balance, which lies in the ‘steering’ capacity of their long tail. Zebras

and other animals use their tails to swat flies, often observed when two animals stand nose to tail.

6.5 The ‘Romantic’ feeling of Africa

This is an element which stirs the soul. Remember that one of the prime reasons for an

Ecotourist wanting to come to Africa and brave the hot sun, mosquitoes and flying insects, is to

‘find’ him/herself spiritually. This is a world away from a highly technological workplace. This

is not to say that ‘things’ should not ‘work’ here in South Africa, on the contrary. The comfort of

guest in whatever situation is seriously important. Tourism is most definitely a service industry. When guiding a group be careful not to over-romanticise, but ‘marry’ the romantic with

reality.

APPENDIX II: NATIONAL RESPONSIBLE TOURISM GUIDELINES FOR SOUTH AFRICA

On the 13th May 2002 Minister Valli Moosa issued a document regarding the National Responsible Tourism guidelines for South Africa. It addresses the development of Tourism and the framework within that Tourism operates and what is required to ensure control and quality of Tourism. It applies to all aspects of Tourism and especially eco-tourism. The document is important across all spectrum of Tourism. It places special emphasis on eco-tourism concepts that serves to enforce the Ecotourism concept and provide an excellent platform for growth. In itself it can serve as an manual for this course Following is the document in its original form

1. GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR ECONOMIC RESPONSIBILITY

Tourism still plays a relatively small role in the South African economy and it has a long way to go if it is to fulfil its potential to significantly contribute to national income. Traditionally the main focus of governments has been on the growth in international arrivals and total foreign exchange earnings, and is now than on fostering entrepreneurial opportunities for the historically disadvantaged, poverty relief, employment and local economic development. Both domestic and international tourism can create employment; it is a relatively labour intensive industry and it employs a multiplicity of skills from accountants and hairdressers to tour guides and trackers. Tourism can provide very good skills development opportunities for local communities.

The White Paper concluded in 1996 that tourism development in South Africa had largely been a missed opportunity; and that the focus on a narrow market has reduced the potential of the industry to spawn entrepreneurship and to create new services, like local entertainment and handicrafts, and to drive local economic development. In fact formal tourism sector provides major opportunities for the informal sector. Tourists travel to the "factory" to consume the product; they travel to the destination to enjoy their holiday. Tourism is a "final good", all the final touches have to be provided in South Africa and so the value is captured here. The value of a taxi ride from the airport, wildlife viewing and restaurant meals all accrue to the local economy -- the challenge is to maximise it by reducing leakages and developing the multiplier effect. Tourist enterprises attract domestic and international tourists and create opportunities for small entrepreneurs and economic linkages, for example agriculture, hunting, handicraft production, and a wide range of service industries which tourists are likely to consume in the destination.

South Africa is now beginning to work on maximising the local economic benefits which tourism can bring to an area, there is much to be gained from creating a more diversified tourism product and marketing a wider range of experiences, activities and services to tourists. Established enterprises can gain by encouraging and assisting the development of complementary product -- the larger and more diversified the local tourism base, the more successful enterprises in the area will be. The White Paper identified a wide range of opportunities for historically disadvantaged groups ranging from small guesthouses, shebeens and restaurants with local cuisine, through community tour guiding, music, dance and story-telling, arts and crafts, traditional hunting and medicine to laundry, gardening and speciality agriculture. Tourism provides particular opportunities for local economic development in rural areas where it can provide people with an alternative to moving to urban areas. Tourism must be market related. If community-based and other tourism development processes are not planned, implemented and managed according to market demands then far too many South Africans, especially the poor, are facing not merely "missed" opportunities, but the hard realities of failed or under-performing products to which tourists simply do not come. The African cultural tourism experience needs to be woven into the fabric of the mainstream South African tourism product.

Domestic tourism plays an important part in the South African tourism sector and it is expected to continue to grow, as historically disadvantaged people become tourists and travellers themselves. Whether the tourists are domestic or international, their expenditure in local communities contributes to the economic development of the area. The greater the proportion of total tourism spending that stays in the local area, the stronger and more diverse the local economic base. The multiplier effect is greatest where the local linkages are strongest -- the imperative is clear, source the inputs for all tourism enterprises as locally as possible in order to maximise local economic benefit and to assist in diversifying the local economy. Reducing economic leakages from the local area and increasing linkages will bring significant local economic development and assist in local economic diversification. Similarly the development of complementary product will strengthen the local economy and local enterprises, groups of established enterprises working together can make a significant difference. Strong economic linkages at the local level were identified in the White Paper as a critical success factor in the local economy.

There is an increasing aspiration for Fair Trade in Tourism in several of the international originating markets; part of a trend towards increasing demand for equitably traded products. Increasing numbers of consumers are purchasing products that demonstrably benefit local communities more fairly than competitor products. The IUCN South Africa Fair Trade in Tourism marketing initiative has identified a set of principles that embody a strong commitment to responsible tourism. It is a good example of a responsible tourism marketing association with a vision of just, participatory and ethical tourism that provides meaningful benefits to hosts and visitors alike. The principles of Fair Trade should be part of the culture of responsible tourism.

1.1. Economic Objectives and Indicators

1.1.1. Assess economic impacts as a pre-requisite to developing tourism

0. Extend the season of enterprises by developing new products to create better employment conditions and to provide a stronger base for local economic development. Monitor occupancies or seasonality of employment over the year to show progress in extending the season.

a. The historically disadvantaged are a significant emerging domestic tourism market. Identify and encourage commercial responses to this opportunity.

b. Recognise that our cultural heritage should not only be assessed in economic terms, and that tourism can create revenue from cultural heritage, traditional ways of life and wildlife and habitats.

c. Encourage business relationships between foreign entrepreneurs and local and emerging entrepreneurs.

d. Always consider the opportunity costs of tourism for local communities and their livelihoods, and be prepared to accept that there may be more appropriate economic opportunities for the area. Maintain and encourage economic diversity, avoid over-dependency on tourism.

e. Plan initiatives and investment to contribute to the broader local economic development strategy (for example, Integrated Development Plans [IDPs] for the area).

f. Planning authorities need to consider how they can intervene to avoid tourism developments where they may cause adverse effects such as local land price inflation, loss of access to resources or undermining sustainable livelihoods.

g. Exercise a preference for business and land tenure arrangements that directly benefit local communities and/or conservation.

h. Conduct market and financial feasibility assessments before raising expectations and exposing the community or local entrepreneurs to risk.

1.1.2. Maximising local economic benefits -- increasing linkages and reducing leakages0. Encourage all establishments to upgrade their standards of service, particularly small,

medium and micro-enterprises and emerging entrepreneurs, and to maximise their revenue earning potential by adding value.

a. Encourage the informal sector to become part of the formal sector.

b. Buy locally made goods and use locally provided services from locally owned businesses wherever quality, quantity, and consistency permits. Monitor the proportion of goods and services the enterprise sourced from businesses with 50km and set 20% target for improvement over three years.

c. Help local communities or emergent entrepreneurs to develop their product so that it can be more easily used by others and marketed to tourists.

d. Cooperate with other formal sector businesses to maximise benefits for local community enterprises -- for example, a community laundry or tailoring business may only be viable if a group of enterprises commit to source supplies there. Showcase the initiative and be explicit about whether community projects are funded by tourism revenue to the enterprise, donations from tourists or tour operators, or funds from donor aid agencies.

e. Give customers the opportunity to purchase locally produced crafts and curios, set targets to increase the proportion of sales of goods sourced within 20km of the enterprise. Assist local craft workers to develop new products to meet market demand as evidenced in the enterprise.

1.1.3. Ensure communities are involved in and benefit from tourism0. Government and established businesses need to redress previous imbalances, and to

enable the historically disadvantaged to engage in the tourism sector. For example they should source 15% of services and 15% of products, increasing by 5% per year, for 3 years, from historically disadvantaged groups, and/or individuals, and report on purchasing activities.

a. Work closely with local communities, small, medium and micro-enterprises and emerging entrepreneurs to develop new products that provide complementary products for formal sector tourism enterprises.

b. Develop partnerships and joint ventures in which communities have a significant stake, and with appropriate capacity building, a substantial role in management. Communal land ownership can provide equity in enterprises.

c. Identify projects that the enterprise can support that will benefit the poor. Identify at least one project.

d. Assist the development of local communities and emergent entrepreneurs with visitor feedback on their products.

e. Consider guaranteeing loans for promising projects in communities or with emerging entrepreneurs, and providing marketing, training and managerial support.

f. Foster the development of community-based tourism products by providing marketing and mentoring support.

g. Encourage visitors to spend more money in the local economy, and to visit local bars and restaurants and participate in tours to local areas, bringing business to local communities. Where appropriate treat this as part of the business of the enterprise and charge a booking fee or commission, or sell craft and local food products through the mainstream enterprise.

h. Encourage tour operators be more innovative in their itineraries, by for example including shebeens, local museums, arts and craft shops and local ethnic restaurants in their tour itineraries, and by doing so encourage visitor spend.

i. Consider using local entrepreneurs (particularly emerging and historically disadvantaged entrepreneurs), experienced consultants and non-governmental organisations in developing community initiatives.

j. Be transparent when reporting community benefits distinguish between:

Benefits to employees. Benefits to emerging or community based entrepreneurs.

Community benefits, for example leasehold payments, that go to community projects (grinding mills or school books), or are distributed as household income in the local area.

a. Consider establishing targets to monitor progress in achieving objectives.

1.1.4. Marketing and product development0. Lack of market access is a major constraint on the growth of new enterprises.

Enterprises should provide information about local services and attractions provided in local communities, and encourage their clients (individuals and operators) to use them.

a. Consider cooperative advertising, marketing and the promotion of new and emerging products and attractions.

b. Ensure that the visual way in which the product is presented includes local cultural elements and emphasises the richness of the local complementary product.

c. Consider developing and marketing fairly traded tourism products. d. Foster the development of access opportunities for all visitors and potential visitors,

regardless of physical, or mental conditions of the visitor. Public authorities and enterprises need to understand and embrace financial incentives that enhanced accessibility will create, and the positive image such "access to all" will provide.

1.1.5. Equitable business0. Enterprises should pay fair prices for local services purchased or packaged as part of

mainstream itineraries. Beware of abusing market power and imposing unfair commissions or pushing down prices inequitably.

a. Develop transparent systems of sharing the benefits of tourism through equitable contracts (e.g. this can be applied through tendering processes).

b. When entering into agreements with local communities or emerging entrepreneurs ensure that the risk is equitably shared.

c. Recruit and employ staff in an equitable and transparent manner and maximise the proportion of staff employed from the local community. Set targets for increasing the proportion of staff and/or of the enterprise wage bill going to communities within 20km of the enterprise.

d. Develop a community labour agreement with targets for employment and for progression. Recognise that the enterprise can play a significant role in increasing the skills and capacity of the local community and that the enterprise benefits from that.

e. Go beyond the bare minimum wage rate and invest in local staff -- quality is dependent upon well-motivated staff.

2. GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITYBatho Pele: Putting People First -- One and all should get their fair share

Tourism and the travel industry "is essentially the renting out for short-term lets, of other people's environments, whether that is a coastline, a city, a mountain range or a rainforest". Tourism is dependent upon the social, cultural and natural environment within which it occurs, and its success is dependent upon the environment that it operates within. Good relationships with neighbours and with the historically disadvantaged make good business sense. These relationships need to be based on trust, empowerment, co-operation and partnerships. Too few of the benefits from tourism currently accrue to local communities whose environment is visited.As was pointed out in the White Paper, the majority of South Africans have never been meaningfully exposed to the tourism sector. In the new South Africa, the government's objective is to ensure that all citizens have equal access to tourism services as consumers and providers. Enterprises and communities need to identify ways in which they can provide a range of tourism experiences sufficiently wide to be accessible to the average South African. Programmes are being established to allow South Africans, and particularly front-line tourism employees, to become "tourists at home". To this end, the notion of Batho Pele is a guiding principle.The opportunity costs of the creation of national parks and subsequent reduced access to natural and cultural resources was often borne by local disadvantaged communities in the past. Such communities did not perceive or receive any significant direct benefits from the change in land use from conservation and tourism. Communities must be empowered to take part in the management of areas so that they can have a say in the distribution of the benefits and the sustainable use of their environment. Efforts are not being made to enable local communities to experience wildlife in the parks.One of the key challenges for business, local government and educators is to develop knowledge among the historically disadvantaged regarding what tourism is, and how it can benefit local communities. In the 1996 White Paper the involvement of local communities and historically disadvantaged groups was identified as a critical success factor. Communities need to be involved in the planning, decision-making and the development of tourism; and in all operational aspects of the industry as tourists, employees and entrepreneurs. Social exclusion has contributed to the historically narrow, myopic focus of the industry in South Africa. Responsible tourism is about enabling and encouraging historically disadvantaged local communities to access lucrative tourism markets. This is to overcome the problem of visitors being kept within the hotels and resorts and only venturing out to "sanitised" places of interest. For example local shebeens and craft vendors rarely see a tourist.One of the key challenges for the formal sector is to develop ways of engaging with community entrepreneurs and community groups to develop new products and diversify the industry. The success of township tours is one example of the product development opportunities that exist in the new South Africa. Much more effort needs to be made to improve the linkages between the formal and informal sectors of the tourism sector. The exclusion of the historically disadvantaged has contributed towards poverty and crime -- the "township tours" demonstrate that where local guides act as hosts, and where there are clear benefits both to communities and to historically disadvantaged entrepreneurs, tourists can have a good experience and be assured of their safety. In 1995, involving local communities in tourism, creating employment and training and awareness programmes were identified as solutions to the problem of security for tourists. There is much still to be done and this is a core challenge for responsible tourism. National priorities for action are described in 2.1. Social objectives and indicators.The meaningful involvement of historically disadvantaged communities as employees and as entrepreneurs in South Africa is a priority. This requires both market access and capacity building. Training at all levels is essential to the development of a more inclusive industry, able to demonstrate its social responsibility and to develop new products which meet the cultural and "meet the people" interests of tourists. The development and delivery of new quality products for the changing market place is of central importance to enable the historically disadvantaged to become part of mainstream tourism. It is also required for social justice and the avoidance of exploitation of local cultures and community groups. The value of the culture of historically disadvantaged people needs to be recognised and new tourism products developed. Their

awareness of the opportunities in tourism needs to be a key element in training and education, and it is important that these opportunities are presented in a realistic commercial framework.

2.1. Social Objectives and Indicators2.1.1. Involve the local community in planning and decision-making

0. Understand the historical, political and cultural context of local and host communities, and historical relationships with tourism development and protected areas.

a. Creating opportunities and eliminating barriers to access mainstream tourism markets for local communities, historically disadvantaged people and individuals.

b. Understand the local, safety and security, infrastructure, resource, educational, poverty, disability and health constraints (e.g. HIV-Aids), when designing, operating and marketing tourism.

c. Encourage proactive participation and involvement by all stakeholders -- including the private sector, government at all levels, labour, local communities (their leaders and structures) -- at all stages of the tourism life cycle.

d. Encourage formal and informal sector enterprises to develop effective structures, or join existing bodies, for marketing and tourism development. Create the environment to do so by providing resources, technical and management capacity.

e. Encourage successful entrepreneurs, particularly those from the emerging tourism fraternity, to mentor others.

f. Planning authorities should work to include stakeholders as part of a decision-making process at the destination level, to determine what constitutes sustainable levels of tourism in the social, natural, and economic context.

g. Programmes of education within school curricula, and public awareness within communities, are needed regarding the potential positive and negative aspects of tourism.

h. Post employment education and training programmes within the framework of the Skills Development Act and South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) are required to educate employees regarding the potential pros and cons of tourism, and comparative costs and benefits of alternative enterprises in order to aid decision-making.

i. Involve the local communities in growing the local tourism business by using existing facilities and by developing new activities and attractions. Individual enterprises and groups of enterprises need to develop complementary products (report number of new activities/ attractions; number of visitors).

j. Empower communities to market their cultural traditions and products as assets and enhance their economic opportunities.

k. Interpretation material and visitor information centres should be developed in consultation with local communities.

l. Integrate community development goals as identified in the Integrated Development Plan (and similar processes) into the enterprise's social and sustainability mission and objectives.

2.1.2. Assess social impacts as a prerequisite to developing tourism0. Identify and monitor potential adverse social impacts of tourism and minimise them in the

short and the long-term, and ensure that communities actively participate in the monitoring.

a. Larger enterprises should appoint a member of staff to take responsibility for developing better local relationships and partnerships. Implement social audits of tourism projects. These can be conducted in an inexpensive, rapid and participatory way.

b. Consider schemes to encourage local co-operation and civic pride like an "adopt a school" initiative or "adopt a street", or other local area near the enterprise. Work with local government and the local community to identify priority sites, and make them safe and attractive for tourists.

c. Enterprises should develop strategies to promote equality in terms of gender, ethnicity, age, and disability, and report progress on implementation.

2.1.3. Maintain and encourage social and cultural diversity0. Develop tourism with dignity, respect and nurture local cultures (including religion), so

that they enrich the tourism experience and build pride and confidence among local communities.

a. Use tourism as a catalyst for human development, focussing on gender equality, career development and the implementation of national labour standards (report on gender equality and career development).

b. Tourism development should not compromise respect for social and cultural and religious rights, or the essential human rights of people to food, a safe and clean environment, work, health, and education.

c. Support the development of sustainable local handicraft enterprise by assisting with improvement of design, marketing, production and packaging skills for craft workers in relation to market demand. Consider specifically what can be done to enhance the skills and earnings of women, particularly in rural areas.

d. Support visits by local school children to tourism sites that promote and display their heritage.

e. Consider what contributions the enterprise can make to scholarships, local youth sports teams and other community causes. Monitor and report increasing contributions with respect to the number of projects and level of investment.

f. Showcase local cultural artefacts in your enterprise and encourage the development and sale of traditional cultural products, crafts and folklore. Aim for 25% items for sale at enterprise from within 50km, with tours offered to local markets, and try to increase these by 25% over 3 years. Provide customer feedback in order to raise standards.

g. Be wary of the dangers of commodification, and encourage craft and other cultural workers to maintain the authenticity and cultural values of their products. Encourage craft workers to explain the cultural values and history of their crafts.

h. Give enterprises a local flavour by serving local dishes and source soft furnishings, arts and crafts locally. Monitor the proportion of local dishes on menu; and the proportion of furnishings and crafts locally made, and aim to increase these proportions by 25% over 3 years. Visitors expect to find at least one local dish their menus.

i. Identify cultural heritage resources in the local area and where there is sufficient demand from tourists and work with the local community to develop them as sustainable tourism attractions. Consider mission settlements, sites of slave occupation, festivals, struggle-related monuments and places, rock art sites, cultural monuments, food, drink, arts and crafts, music, dance and storytelling.

j. Encourage tourists to show respect by learning a few words of the local language, (and to use them when talking to local people!) and to learn about the host culture and traditions.

k. Share enterprise level knowledge regarding informal sector tourism skills and products. Draw the attention of ground handlers, the media and tour operators to complementary product opportunities in the local community.

2.1.4. Be sensitive to the host culture0. Respect, invest in and develop local cultures and protect them from over-

commercialisation and over-exploitation. Encourage workers and staff to observe their religious and cultural practices.

a. Respect indigenous intellectual property, especially when setting up contractual arrangements for the use of indigenous knowledge.

b. Use local guides, and encourage them to continually improve their quality, to ensure that the community speaks for itself and to increase the revenues going into the local community (by higher fees for quality tours). Monitor and report this economic contribution to the community and set targets to increase it annually.

c. Develop a local social contract for interactions and behaviour between the local community and tourists (including responsible bargaining), developed with the participation and contributions from the community, and display it prominently for visitors and publicly within the community.

d. Create opportunities for visitors to interact with locals in an unstructured, spontaneous manner (e.g. through sporting activities, visits to local schools, shebeens, taverns, restaurants in townships).

e. In accordance with the Batho Pele principle, provide visitors with inclusive, honest and reliable information about history and contemporary life in South Africa, local tourism attractions and facilities.

f. Promote a sound, proud, service ethic among all participants in the tourism sector.

g. Promote and ensure the respect and dignity of people in the development, marketing and promotion of tourism.

h. Ensure that tourism does not undermine the resource rights, traditional knowledge and skills of local communities.

i. Negative social and cultural impacts associated with tourism, such as increased crime, drug and alcohol abuse, prostitution, and crime should be monitored and be proactively addressed in cooperation with the community.

j. Educate tourists regarding local culture and where necessary make them aware of how they should behave to respect it.

k. The exploitation of human beings in any form, particularly sexual and when applied to women and children, should be energetically combated with the co-operation of all concerned.

3. GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBILITYResponsible tourism implies a proactive approach by the tourism sector to the environment through the promotion of balanced and sustainable tourism. This is particularly important where the focus of the tourism sector and of the activities of tourists is the natural environment, as is

the case with wildlife viewing, hunting and marine tourism. There are particular challenges in making nature-based tourism sustainable. Responsible tourism development has to be underpinned by sustainable environmental practices. In the environmental sphere only conservative decisions based on the precautionary principle can be considered responsible. Cultural heritage is also part of the environment, and the responsibility of the tourism sector towards the cultural environment was considered in the social responsibility guidelines.Central to environmental responsibility is thinking about the life cycle impact of an enterprise or product, and so these guidelines apply to the stages of design, planning, construction, operation and decommissioning. The process of managing the business should be fully integrated with environmental management, throughout the project's life cycle (from conceptualisation to decommissioning). In constructing concessions and leasehold developments it is particularly important to ensure that during decommissioning it will be possible to remove all structures and restore the area. Larger businesses should be using Environmental Management Systems to exercise environmental responsibility; for businesses above a defined size in each sector it would be irresponsible to operate without one.All tourism enterprises can make a contribution to environmental sustainability by exercising care in purchasing decisions -- by seeking out and supporting responsible producers of the products that are required to run the enterprise, and by making clients aware of the responsible purchasing policy.The practical guidelines and indicators that follow are organised around the key environmental elements of responsible tourism identified in the 1996 White Paper.

1. Environmental Objectives and Indicators3.1.1. Assess environmental impacts as a prerequisite to developing tourism

0. Plan new developments only in areas where the use of water and other natural resources for tourism will not conflict with local community needs, now or in the foreseeable future. Integrate environmental management into the project planning cycle.

a. Follow best practice guidelines on the design, planning and construction of buildings and associated infrastructure to minimise environmental impacts and to reduce energy requirements for lighting, cooling and heating.

b. Use local materials (where sustainable) and local architectural styles on a scale that does not create a negative aesthetic impact.

c. Avoid damaging the environmental quality of the enterprise's neighbourhood by noise or light pollution.

d. Design buildings with natural ventilation and actively plan to reduce resource use during the construction and operational phases. Tell visitors what has been done to make the enterprise more environmentally friendly. Quantify the resources "saved".

e. Plan new developments to have the lowest possible ecological impact, particularly in environmentally sensitive areas such as the coastal zone, indigenous forests, wildlife habitats and wetlands. Minimise the transformation of the environment around the enterprise.

f. When developing plans for a new enterprise include elements which contribute to the maintenance of biodiversity by planting local indigenous and non-invasive species which provide habitats for birds, bees, and butterflies.

3.1.2. Use local resources sustainably, avoid waste and over-consumption0. Measure the quantity of water consumed and manages consumption and leakage so as

to reduce water consumption by 5% per annum for 3 years, and report water consumption and performance in monitoring.

a. Measure electricity consumption and introduce energy saving measures to achieve 5% reduction in use per annum over three years. This can be done by for example dimming lights, using low energy appliances and light bulbs and enhancing the use of natural ventilation.

b. Monitor the use of diesel, paraffin and petrol and set targets to reduce consumption and switch to less polluting fuels.

c. Set targets to increase the proportion of energy used from renewable resources -- for example solar, wind, hydroelectric (increase by 10% over 3 years). Sustainable use of wood, from indigenous and plantation forests is complex, and great care needs to be taken.

d. Install and showcase appropriate technology to reduce consumption of natural resources, production of waste and incidences of pollution.

e. Monitor the sewage system and demonstrate how pure the outflow back into the environment is. If the enterprise has one, make the reed bed a valuable habitat feature.

f. Set percentage targets and time scales for the reduction of waste produced, levels of recycling and reuse of waste from the enterprise. Set appropriate targets for reduction and/or recycling of waste produced per year for paper (5%), plastics (5%) metal (5%) and glass (5%). Report on progress towards 15% targets over 3 years.

g. Work with suppliers to minimise the amount of packaging purchased with supplies, and therefore reduce the amount of waste that needs to be disposed of. It may be appropriate for trade associations to conduct these discussions on behalf of members.

h. Reduce "food miles" by using locally produced food. i. Enterprises should assist conservation by investing in sustainable trails, hides and

interpretation. Tell visitors what the enterprise is doing, and claim credit for activities. j. Encourage the use of environmentally friendly transport.

3.1.3. Maintain and encourage natural diversity0. Encourage visitor behaviour that respects natural heritage and has a low impact upon it.

a. Discourage the purchase of products that exploit wildlife unsustainably or contribute to the destruction of species or habitats (e.g. some handicrafts, bush meat).

b. Look for ways in which the enterprise and its guests can assist with the conservation of natural heritage, for example through removing litter.

c. Invest a percentage of profits or turnover in species conservation or habitat restoration and management. Report the investment, and try to increase this by 5% per year.

d. Avoid pollution by using environmentally friendly chemicals, and by using biodegradable soaps and detergents -- tell visitors and staff why the enterprise is doing this and how it benefits the environment.

e. Work with conservation authorities to ensure that visitors to natural heritage areas are aware of the impacts that they may have on the ecology of the area and how they should behave in order to minimise those impacts.

f. Ensure that relevant members of staff are familiar with the issues and ways of avoiding environmental impacts -- they should abide by the advice and communicate it to guests, and use the services of companies that abide by local environmental best practice.

g. Do not market tourism resources to encourage tourists into ecologically sensitive areas which are vulnerable to irresponsible tourism practices, particular sports or recreational uses -- discourage these activities (e.g. irresponsible 4x4 use, hunting, diving or sand boarding).

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