learningdisability.ppt

7/27/2019 learningdisability.ppt

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Learning Disability Issues

Objective at CAPS

1. To assist students with disability through psychologicaltesting or reviewing previous psychological testing

2. To provide the student with accommodations needed to

help them academically.3. To provide support services such as time management.

organizational skills, stress management

4. Additional Information

http://www.ets.org/disability/ldpolicy.html#ration
http://www.ets.org/disability/ldpolicy.htmlhttp://www.ets.org/disability/ldpolicy.html


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Learning Disability

Learning Disabilities Association of America

http://www.ldanatl.org

If you have a learning disability you are not

alone.

Typical learning difficulties include Dyslexia,

Dyscalculia, and

Dysgraphia

often complicated by associated disorders such as attention

deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
http://www.ldanatl.org/http://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dyslexia.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dyscalculia.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dysgraphia.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/teachers/understanding/adhd.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/teachers/understanding/adhd.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/teachers/understanding/adhd.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/teachers/understanding/adhd.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dysgraphia.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dyscalculia.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dyslexia.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/


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Dyslexia

Dyslexia is an impairment in the brain's ability to translate writtenimages received from the eyes into meaningful language. Also calledspecific reading disability, dyslexia is the most common learningdisability in children.

A learning disability is a condition that produces a gap betweensomeone's ability and his or her performance. Most people withdyslexia are of average or above-average intelligence, but read atlevels significantly lower than expected. Other types of learningdisabilities include attention difficulties, an inability to perform well atwriting skills and an inability to perform well at math skills.

Learning disabilities affect about 5 percent of all school-age childrenin public schools in the United States. The majority of schoolchildrenwho receive special education services have deficits in reading, anddyslexia is the most common cause.
http://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dyslexia.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dyslexia.asp


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Dyslexia

Dyslexia occurs in Individuals with normal visionand normal intelligence. Such individuals usuallyhave normal speech but often have difficultyinterpreting spoken language and writing.

Dyslexia seems to be caused by a malfunction incertain areas of the brain concerned with language.The condition frequently runs in families.

Treatment may involve a multisensory educationprogram. Emotional support of your child on yourpart also plays an important role.


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Dyslexia

Signs and Symptoms of Dyslexia

Dyslexia can be difficult to recognize, but someearly clues may indicate a problem.

If you have a problem with new words,

and add them slowly and have difficulty rhyming, you may be at increased risk of

dyslexia.

signs and symptoms of dyslexia may becomemore apparent as children go through school,

including: The inability to recognize words and letters on a printed page

A reading ability level much below the expected level for theage of your child


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Dyslexia

Individuals with dyslexia commonly have problems Processing and understanding what they hear.

They may have difficulty comprehending rapid instructions,

following more than one command at a time or

Remembering the sequence of things.

Reversals of letters (b for d) and a

Reversal of words (saw for was) are typical among individuals whohave dyslexia.

Individuals with dyslexia may also try to read from right to left,

May fail to see (and occasionally to hear) similarities and

differences in letters and words, may not recognize the spacing that organizes letters into separate

words,

and may be unable to sound out the pronunciation of an unfamiliarword.


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Dyslexia

Screening and diagnosis

There's no single test for dyslexia. Diagnosis involves an evaluation of medical,

cognitive,

sensory processing,

educational and psychological factors.

Its is usual to undergo vision, hearing and neurologic examinations to seewhether another disorder may be causing or contributing to your poorreading ability

Other evaluation include

Receive a psychological assessment to determine whether social problems, anxiety ordepression may be limiting his or her abilities

Take a set of educational tests and have the process and quality of yourreading skills analyzed by an expert


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Dyslexia

Treatment

There's no known way to correct the underlying brain malfunction that causes dyslexia.

Treatment is by remedial education.

Psychological testing will help you identify the areas you need to work on.

You may use techniques involving hearing, vision and touch to improve reading skills. Helping anindividual to use several senses to learn for example, by listening to a taped lesson and tracingwith a finger the shape of the words spoken can help you process the information. The mostimportant teaching approach may be frequent instruction by a reading specialist who uses thesemultisensory methods of teaching.

If you have a severe reading disability, tutoring may involve several individual or small-groupsessions each week, and progress may be slow. An individual with severe dyslexia may never beable to read well and may need training for vocations that don't require strong reading skills.

People with milder forms of dyslexia often eventually learn to read well enough to succeed inschool.


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Dyslexia Additional Resources

(by clicking on these once should be directed to the site)

International Dyslexia Associationhttp://www.interdys.org/

Learning Disabilities Association of America

http://www.ldanatl.org/

National Center for Learning Disabilitieshttp://www.ld.org/

National Institute of Mental Health http://www.nimh.nih.gov/

http://www.disabilityresources.org/LD.html

http://www.ldresources.org/index.php?cat=23

Statistical data

http://www.ncld.org/advocacy/pdf/FLData.pdf
http://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dyslexia.asphttp://www.interdys.org/http://www.ldanatl.org/http://www.ld.org/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/http://www.disabilityresources.org/LD.htmlhttp://www.ldresources.org/index.php?cat=23http://www.ncld.org/advocacy/pdf/FLData.pdfhttp://www.ncld.org/advocacy/pdf/FLData.pdfhttp://www.ldresources.org/index.php?cat=23http://www.disabilityresources.org/LD.htmlhttp://www.nimh.nih.gov/http://www.ld.org/http://www.ldanatl.org/http://www.interdys.org/http://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dyslexia.asp


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Dyscalculia

Resources: http://www.dyscalculia.org/

The word "dyscalculia" means difficulty performing math calculations. Inother words, it just means "math difficulty". And specifically, it means alearning disability which affects math. Sometimes confusion arises when westart dealing with the term "dyscalculia" as it relates to "special education

services".

There are very strict criteria (which can differ quite a bit from State to State)which determine if a student has a learning disability as it is defined byspecial education rules.

When a student's math difficulties are severe enough to meet this criteria,special education services are indicated. On the other hand, "dyscalculia"has no clearly defined criteria. A student with any degree of math difficultymay be considered to have "dyscalculia" by some educational specialists.This frequently occurs when a student receives an educational evaluationoutside of the public school system.
http://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dyscalculia.asphttp://www.dyscalculia.org/http://www.dyscalculia.org/http://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dyscalculia.asp


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Dyscalculia

Info taken from:

http://www.hopkins.k12.mn.us/pages/north

/ld_research/dyscalculia.htm
http://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dyscalculia.asphttp://www.hopkins.k12.mn.us/pages/north/ld_research/dyscalculia.htmhttp://www.hopkins.k12.mn.us/pages/north/ld_research/dyscalculia.htmhttp://www.hopkins.k12.mn.us/pages/north/ld_research/dyscalculia.htmhttp://www.hopkins.k12.mn.us/pages/north/ld_research/dyscalculia.htmhttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dyscalculia.asp


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Dyscalculia

Strategies for students with dyscalculia:

Work extra hard to "visualize" math problems. Maybe even drawyourself a picture to help understand the problem.

Take extra time to look at any visual information that may beprovided (picture, chart, graph, etc.).

Read the problem out loud and listen very carefully. This allows youto use your auditory skills (which may be a strength).

Ask to see an example.

Ask for or try to think of a real-life situation that would involve thistype of problem.

Do math problems on graph paper to keep the numbers in line.

Ask for uncluttered worksheets so that you are not overwhelmed bytoo much visual information.

Spend extra time memorizing math facts. Use rhythm or music tohelp memorize
http://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dyscalculia.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dyscalculia.asp


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Dysgraphia

"Dysgraphia" is a learning disability resulting from the difficulty in expressing thoughtsin writing and graphing. It generally refers to extremely poor handwriting.

Each State has its own criteria which determine if a student has a learning disabilityas it is defined by special education guidelines. When a student's writing or graphingdifficulties are severe enough to meet these criteria, special education services areindicated.

Problems arise because "dysgraphia" has no clearly defined criteria. A student withany degree of handwriting difficulty may be labeled "dysgraphic" by some educationalspecialists, but may or may not need special education services.

Most learning disabled students experience difficulty with handwriting and probablycould be considered "dysgraphic". However, the term is seldom used within public

schools because of the lack of any generally recognized or measurable criteria.

(everything on Dysgraphia is from)

http://www.as.wvu.edu/~scidis/dysgraphia.html
http://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dysgraphia.asphttp://www.as.wvu.edu/~scidis/dysgraphia.htmlhttp://www.as.wvu.edu/~scidis/dysgraphia.htmlhttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dysgraphia.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dysgraphia.asp


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Dysgraphia

Underlying Causes

Students with dysgraphia often have sequencing problems.

Studies indicate that what usually appears to be a perceptual problem(reversing letters/numbers, writing words backwards, writing letters out oforder, and very sloppy handwriting) usually seems to be directly related to

sequential/rational information processing.

These students often have difficulty with the sequence of letters and wordsas they write. As a result, the student either needs to slow down in order towrite accurately, or experiences extreme difficulty with the "mechanics" ofwriting (spelling, punctuation, etc.).

They also tend to intermix letters and numbers in formulas. Usually theyhave difficulty even when they do their work more slowly. And by slowingdown or getting "stuck" with the details of writing they often lose thethoughts that they are trying to write about.
http://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dysgraphia.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dysgraphia.asp


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Dysgraphia

Students with an attention deficit disorder (especially with hyperactivity)often experience rather significant difficulty with writing and formulas ingeneral and handwriting in particular. This is because ADHD students alsohave difficulty organizing and sequencing detailed information. In addition,ADHD students are often processing information at a very rapid rate andsimply don't have the fine-motor coordination needed to "keep up" with theirthoughts.

Some students can also experience writing difficulty because of a generalauditory or language processing weakness. Because of their difficultylearning and understanding language in general, they obviously havedifficulty with language expression. Recall that written language is the mostdifficult form of language expression.

Although most students with dysgraphia do not have visual or perceptualprocessing problems, some students with a visual processing weakness willexperience difficulty with writing speed and clarity simply because theyaren't able to fully process the visual information as they are placing it onthe page.
http://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dysgraphia.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dysgraphia.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dysgraphia.asp


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Dysgraphia

SYMPTOMS

Students may exhibit strong verbal but particularly poor writing skills .

Random (or non-existent) punctuation. Spelling errors (sometimes same word spelleddifferently); reversals; phonic approximations; syllable omissions; errors in commonsuffixes. Clumsiness and disordering of syntax; an impression of illiteracy.Misinterpretation of questions and questionnaire items. Disordered numbering andwritten number reversals.

Generally illegible writing (despite appropriate time and attention given the task). Inconsistencies : mixtures of print and cursive, upper and lower case, or irregular

sizes, shapes, or slant of letters.

Unfinished words or letters, omitted words.

Inconsistent position on page with respect to lines and margins and inconsistentspaces between words and letters.

Cramped or unusual grip, especially holding the writing instrument very close to the

paper, or holding thumb over two fingers and writing from the wrist. Talking to self while writing, or carefully watching the hand that is writing.

Slow or labored copying or writing - even if it is neat and legible


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Dysgraphia

STRATEGIES

Encourage students to outline their thoughts. It is important to get the main ideas down onpaper without having to struggle with the details of spelling, punctuation, etc

Have students draw a picture of a thought for each paragraph.

Have students dictate their ideas into a tape recorder and then listen and write them downlater.

Have them practice keyboarding skills. It may be difficult at first, but after they have learnedthe pattern of the keys, typing will be faster and clearer than handwriting.

Have a computer available for them to organize information and check spelling. Even if theirkeyboarding skills aren't great, a computer can help with the details.

Have them continue practicing handwriting. There will be times throughout a student's life thatthey will need to be able to write things down and maybe even share their handwriting withothers. It will continue to improve as long as the student keeps working at it.

Encourage student to talk aloud as they write. This may provide valuable auditory feedback.

Allow more time for written tasks including note-taking, copying, and tests.

Outline the particular demands of the course assignments/continuous assessment; exams,computer literacy etc. so that likely problems can be foreseen.

Give and allow students to begin projects or assignments early.


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Dysgraphia

Include time in the student's schedule for being a 'library assistant' or 'office assistant' that could also be usedfor catching up or getting ahead on written work, or doing alternative activities related to the material beinglearned.

Instead of having the student write a complete set of notes, provide a partially completed outline so thestudent can fill in the details under major headings (or provide the details and have the student provide theheadings).

Allow the student to dictate some assignments or tests (or parts thereof) a 'scribe'. Train the 'scribe' to writewhat the student says verbatim and then allow the student to make changes, without assistance from thescribe.

Remove 'neatness' or 'spelling' (or both) as grading criteria for some assignments, or design assignments tobe evaluated on specific parts of the writing process.

With the students, allow abbreviations in some writing (such as b/c for because). Have the student develop arepertoire of abbreviations in a notebook. These will come in handy in future note-taking situations.

Reduce copying aspects of work; for example, in Math, provide a worksheet with the problems already on itinstead of having the student copy the problems.

Separate the writing into stages and then teach students to do the same. Teach the stages of the writingprocess (brainstorming, drafting, editing, and proofreading, etc.). Consider grading these stages even on some'one-sitting' written exercises, so that points are awarded on a short essay for brainstorming and a rough draft,as well as the final product.

On a computer, the student can produce a rough draft, copy it, and then revise the copy, so that both therough draft and final product can be evaluated without extra typing.

Encourage the student to use a spellchecker and, if possible, have someone else proofread his work, too.Speaking spellcheckers are recommended, especially if the student may not be able to recognize the correctword (headphones are usually included).

Allow the student to use cursive or manuscript, whichever is most legible


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Dysgraphia

Encourage primary students to use paper with the raised lines to keep writing on the line.

Allow older students to use the line width of their choice. Keep in mind that some students usesmall writing to disguise its messiness or spelling.

Allow students to use paper or writing instruments of different colors.

Allow student to use graph paper for math, or to turn lined paper sideways, to help with liningup columns of numbers.

Allow the student to use the writing instrument that is most comfortable for them.

If copying is laborious, allow the student to make some editing marks rather than recopying thewhole thing.

Consider whether use of speech recognition software will be helpful. If the student and teacherare willing to invest time and effort in 'training' the software to the student's voice and learningto use it, the student can be freed from the motor processes of writing or keyboarding.

Develop cooperative writing projects where different students can take on roles such as the'brainstormer,' 'organizer of information,' 'writer,' 'proofreader,' and 'illustrator.'

Provide extra structure and use intermittent deadlines for long-term assignments. Discuss withthe student and parents the possibility of enforcing the due dates by working after school with

the teacher in the event a deadline arrives and the work is not up-to-date. Build handwriting instruction into the student's schedule. The details and degree of

independence will depend on the student's age and attitude, but many students would like tohave better handwriting.


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Dysgraphia

Keep in mind that handwriting habits are entrenched early. Before engaging in a battle over astudent's grip or whether they should be writing in cursive or print, consider whether enforcinga change in habits will eventually make the writing task a lot easier for the student, or whetherthis is a chance for the student to make his or her own choices. Beware of overload, thestudent has other tasks and courses.

Teach alternative handwriting methods such as "Handwriting Without Tears."

Writing just one key word or phrase for each paragraph, and then going back later to fill in the

details may be effective. Multisensory techniques should be utilized for teaching both manuscript and cursive writing.

The techniques need to be practiced substantially so that the letters are fairly automatic beforethe student is asked to use these skills to communicate ideas.

Have the students use visual graphic organizers. For example, you can create a mind map sothat the main idea is placed in a circle in the center of the page and supporting facts are writtenon lines coming out of the main circle, similar to the arms of a spider or spokes on a wheel.

Do papers and assignments in a logical step-wise sequence. An easy way to remember thesesteps is to think of the word POWER.

P - plan your paper O - organize your thoughts and ideas

W - write your draft

E - edit your work

R - revise your work, producing a final draft


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Dysgraphia

If a student becomes fatigued have them try the following:

* Shake hands fast, but not violently.

* Rub hands together and focus on the feeling of warmth.

* Rub hands on the carpet in circles (or, if wearing clothing with somemild texture, rub hands on thighs, close to knees)

* Use the thumb of the dominant hand to click the top of a ballpoint

pen while holding it in that hand. Repeat using the index finger. * Perform s i tt ing pushupsby placing each palm on the chair with

fingers facing forward. Students push down on their hands, liftingtheir body slightly off the chair.

Allow student to tape record important assignments and/or take oraltests.

Prioritize certain task components during a complex activity. Forexample, students can focus on using descriptive words in oneassignment, and in another, focus on using compound sentences.

Reinforce the positive aspects of student's efforts.

Be patient with yourself


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Attention deficit/hyperactivity

disorder. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a group of chronic

disorders that begin in childhood and sometimes last into adult life.

Problems generally associated with ADHD include inattention,hyperactivity and impulsive behavior. They can affect nearly everyaspect of life. Children and adults with ADHD often struggle with lowself-esteem, troubled personal relationships and poor performancein school or at work.

The best treatment for ADHD is a matter of debate. Currently,psychostimulant drugs are the most common treatment. Butalthough these drugs can relieve many symptoms, they don't cure

ADHD. Counseling, special accommodations in the classroom, andfamily and community support are other key parts of treatment.
http://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/teachers/understanding/adhd.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/teachers/understanding/adhd.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/teachers/understanding/adhd.asphttp://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/teachers/understanding/adhd.asp


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ADHD

Signs and Symptoms

At various times, ADHD has been called attention-deficit disorder(ADD), hyperactivity, and even minimal brain dysfunction. But ADHDis the preferred term because it more accurately describes allaspects of the condition. Yet changing the name hasn't made ADHDless controversial.

For some time, experts disagreed on how ADHD should bediagnosed and even on whether it was a real disorder. But in1998, the National Institute of Mental Health decided that ADHD is alegitimate condition. In addition, most doctors believe that a childshouldn't receive a diagnosis of ADHD unless the core symptoms of

ADHD appear early in life before age 7 and create significantproblems at home and at school on an ongoing basis.


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ADHD

The symptoms of ADHD fall into two broad categories:

Inattention

Hyperactivity-impulsive behavior

In general, individuals are said to have ADHD if they show six or

more symptoms from each category for at least six months.

These symptoms must significantly affect a persons ability tofunction in at least two areas of life typically at home and atschool.

This helps ensure that the problem isn't with a particular teacher oronly with parents. Children who have problems in school but getalong well at home are not considered to have ADHD. The same istrue of children who are hyperactive or inattentive but whoseschoolwork and friendships aren't affected by their behavior.


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ADHD

In most children diagnosed with ADHD, signs and symptoms appearbetween 4 and 6 years of age, although they sometimes may occur evenearlier. They include the following:

Inattention

Often fails to pay close attention to details or makes careless mistakes inschoolwork or other activities

Often has trouble sustaining attention during tasks or play

Often doesn't seem to listen when spoken to directly

Often doesn't follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork,chores or other tasks

Often has difficulty organizing tasks or activities

Often avoids or dislikes tasks that require sustained mental effort, such as

schoolwork or homework Often loses things needed for tasks or activities, such as books, pencils,

toys or tools

Is often easily distracted

Is often forgetful


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ADHD

Hyperactivity-impulsive behavior

Often fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat

Often leaves seat in the classroom or in other situationswhere remaining seated is expected

Often runs or climbs excessively when it's notappropriate, or, if an adolescent might constantly feelrestless

Often has difficulty playing quietly

Is often "on the go" or acts as if "driven by a motor"

Often talks excessively


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ADHD

Often blurts out the answers before questions have been completelyasked

Often has difficulty waiting his or her turn

Often interrupts or intrudes on others by butting into conversationsor games

Most healthy children exhibit many of these behaviors at one time oranother. For instance, parents may worry that a 3-year-old who can'tlisten to a story from beginning to end or finish a drawing may have

ADHD. But preschoolers normally have a short attention span andaren't able to stick with one activity for long. This doesn't meanthey're inattentive it simply means they're normal preschoolers.

Even in older children and adolescents, attention span oftendepends on the level of interest in a particular activity. Mostteenagers can listen to music or talk to their friends for hours butmay be a lot less focused about homework.


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ADHD

Being different isn't ADHDThe same is true of hyperactivity. Young children are naturallyenergetic they often wear their parents out long before they'reworn out themselves. And they may become even more active whenthey're tired, hungry, anxious or in a new environment. In addition,some children just naturally have a higher activity level than others.

Every child is unique, with a distinct personality and temperament.Children should never be classified as having ADHD just becausethey're different from their friends or siblings.

Most children with ADHD don't have all the signs and symptoms ofthe disorder.


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ADHD

Furthermore, symptoms may be different in boys and girls.

Boys are more likely to be hyperactive,

and girls tend to be inattentive. In addition, girls who have trouble payingattention often daydream, but inattentive boys are more likely to play orfiddle aimlessly. Boys also tend to be less compliant with teachers and otheradults, so their behavior is often more conspicuous.

At the same time, children diagnosed with ADHD may have somethings in common.

They tend to be especially sensitive to stimuli such as sights, sounds andtouch, for instance. And when overstimulated, they can quickly get out ofcontrol, becoming giddy and sometimes aggressive or even physically or

verbally abusive. Children with the inattentive form of ADHD may seem to drift away into their

own thoughts or lose track of what's going on around them.


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ADHD

Symptoms of ADHD in adults

ADHD always begins in childhood, but it may persist into adult life.

The core symptoms of : distractibility,

hyperactivity and

Impulsive behavior are the same for adults as for children, but they oftenmanifest differently and far more subtly in adults.

Hyperactivity, in particular, is generally less overt in adults. Children mayrace around madly; adults are more likely to be restless and to have troublerelaxing.

On the other hand, problems with organization and concentrationoften increase as people get older and their lives become morecomplicated and demanding.

Adults diagnosed with ADHD often say that their biggest frustrationis their inability to focus and to prioritize, leading not only to misseddeadlines but also to forgotten meetings and social engagements.


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ADHD

As difficult as this is, the impulsive behavior of some adults withADHD can be even more problematic. The inability to controlimpulses, which some experts say may be the defining characteristicof ADHD, can range from impatience waiting in line or driving inheavy traffic to mood swings, intense outbursts of anger andtroubled relationships.

One set of guidelines used to diagnose adult ADHD, called the Utahcriteria, lists the following as characteristic of adults with thedisorder:

A childhood history of ADHD

Hyperactivity and poor concentration

Inability to complete tasks Mood swings

Hot temper

Inability to deal with stress

Impulsivity


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ADHD

Treatment

Optimal treatment for ADHD is a matter of intense debate. Current treatmentstypically involve therapy, medication or both.

TherapyChildren and adults with ADHD often greatly benefit from counseling or behaviortherapy, which may be provided by a psychiatrist, psychologist, social worker or other

mental health care professional. Some people with ADHD may also have otherconditions such as anxiety disorder or depression. In these cases, counseling mayhelp both ADHD and the coexisting problem.

Counseling therapies may include:

Psychotherapy. This allows older children and adults with ADHD to talk about issuesthat bother them, explore negative behavioral patterns and learn ways to deal withtheir symptoms.

Behavior therapy. This type of therapy helps teachers and parents learn strategies(contingency management procedures) for dealing with children's behavior. Thesestrategies may include token reward systems and timeouts. Behavior modificationusing contingency management techniques has proved especially beneficial forpeople with ADHD.


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ADHD

Family therapy. Family therapy can help parents and siblings deal with thestress of living with a child who has ADHD.

Social skills training. This can help children learn appropriate socialbehaviors.

Support groups.Support groups can offer adults and children with ADHDand their parents a network of social support, information and education.

Parenting skills training. This can help parents develop ways tounderstand and guide their child's behavior.

The best results usually occur when a team approach is used, withteachers, parents, and therapists or physicians working together. You canhelp by making every effort to work with your child's teachers and byreferring them to reliable sources of information to support their efforts in theclassroom.


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ADHD

MedicationsDrugs known as psychostimulants are the most commonly prescribedmedications for treating ADHD in children and adults. Sometimesantidepressants may also be used especially for adults and for childrenwho don't respond to stimulants or who are depressed or have otherproblems.

Although scientists don't understand exactly why these drugs work,stimulants appear to boost and balance levels of the brain chemicalsdopamine, which is associated with activity, and serotonin, which isassociated with a sense of well-being. Methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta),the primary medication used to treat ADHD, seems to increase levels ofdopamine in the brain by blocking the activity of dopamine transporters,which remove dopamine after it has been released.

Besides methylphenidate, ADHD medications include d- and l-amphetamineracemic mixture (Adderall), dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine) and thenonstimulant drug atomoxetine (Strattera).


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ADHD

All these medications may help alleviate the core symptoms ofinattention and hyperactivity sometimes dramatically. But drugsdon't address other problems, such as lack of academicachievement, poor social skills or conflict at home. In addition, somedoctors question giving stimulants to young children, especiallywhen no studies have been done to determine the long-term safety

of these drugs.

The number of children treated with psychostimulants has increaseddramatically in recent years. Many of those children are very young between 2 and 4 years of age. Yet studies have shown thatwithout behavior therapy and educational services, medication alone

isn't likely to be effective in improving a child's long-term outcome.


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ADHD

Side effects in adultsIn general, psychostimulant side effects in adults are similar to thosein children. But ADHD drugs are also more likely to cause certainproblems specifically in adults, including mild increases in bloodpressure that may be significant for people who already havehypertension, and the liver disease hepatitis. In addition, because

adults usually require higher dosages of these medications thanchildren do, the risk of abuse or addiction may be greater.

Adults diagnosed with ADHD are far more likely to be givenantidepressants than children are. Side effects may include drymouth, urinary retention, weight gain, drowsiness and sexual

dysfunction

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