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AML 883 Properties and selection of engineering materials LECTURE 17. Electrical properties M P Gururajan Email: [email protected] Room No. MS 207/A-3 Phone: 1340
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Page 1: LECTURE 17. Electrical properties - Welcome to AML 883 - …aml883.wdfiles.com/local--files/notes/Lecture17.pdf ·  · 2012-09-17Dielectric loss factor: ... (energy appears as heat,

AML 883 Properties and selection of engineering materials

LECTURE 17. Electrical properties

M P GururajanEmail: [email protected]

Room No. MS 207/A­3 Phone: 1340

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    2

Types of electric behaviour

● Conduction● Insulation

● Dielectrics – insulators; what we are talking about is the behaviour in an electric field

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    3

Dipole moment

+ +

­

Permanent dipole moment of water molecule

Image courtesy: wiki

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    4

Dielectrics

● Dielectric constant – relative permittivity: how much does a material polarize (acquires dipole moment)

● Dielectric loss factor: Energy dissipated when radio­frequency waves pass through the material (energy appears as heat, of course)

● Dielectric breakdown potential: damage due to dielectric losing its insulating properties

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    5

Resistivity and conductivity

Current, i

Pot

entia

l diff

eren

ce, V

R=V/i

L

Area, A

Current, i+

­

V

Resistivity, = (A/L) R

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    6

Resistivity

● Electrical resistance: ohms ()● Ohm's law: Electrical resistance in a material is 

the potential drop V across it, divided by the current i passing through it

● Potential drop: volts● Current: amps● Material property: electrical resistivity (get rid of 

the effects of geometry)●Ohm­m

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    7

Georg Simon Ohm

Image courtesy: wiki

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    8

Count Alessandro Antanio Anastasio Volta

Image courtesy: wiki

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    9

Andre­Marie Ampere

Image courtesy: wiki

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    10

Electrical resistivity

● A quantity of immense range● Conductors: little more than

● Best insulators:

● Electrical conductivity: reciprocal of electrical resistivity!

● Units of conductivity: siemens per m  

10−8m

1016m

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    11

Ernest Werner von Siemens

Image courtesy: wiki

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    12

Dielectric properties

Potential difference, V

Cha

rge,

 Q

C=Q/V

t

Area, A

Current, i+

­

V

Dielectric constant, = 

Breakdown

Dielectric material

C (with dielectric)C (without dielectric)

Charge, Q

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    13

Field

● Region of space in which objects experience forces

● Provided of course they are of the right type● Electric field: field created by charges● Electric field strength between two oppositely 

charged plates separated by a distance t with potential difference V between them is                       E = V/t

● E is independent of position (except near the edges of the plate)

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    14

Capacitor

● Two conducting plates separated by a dielectric● Capacitors (or, condensers) store charge● Charge Q (coulombs) is directly proportional to 

the potential difference between the plates V (volts): Q = C V

● C – capacitance (farads)

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    15

Charles­Augustin de Coulomb

Image courtesy: wiki

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    16

Michael Faraday

Image courtesy: wiki

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    17

Permittivity

● The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor of area A, separated by empty space isc= A/t 

●   is the permittivity of free space (farad metre)● Replace the empty space by a dielectric, 

capacitance increases. Why?

0

0

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    18

Permittivity

● Dielectric polarizes● The field created by polarization opposes the 

field E● So, the voltage difference needed to support 

the charge is reduced● Thus, the capacity of the condenser is 

increased● C = A/t●  is the permittivity of the dielectric

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    19

Dielectric constant

● Relative permittivity – dielectric cosntant:●  = C(with dielectric)/C(without didlectric) = /● Ct● Dielectric constant is dimensionless (ratio)● Dielectric constant for air is unity (as well as 

gases, for all practical purposes); for most dielectrics it lies between 2 and 20; for ferroelectrics, it could be as high as 20,000

r 0

r 0

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    20

Capacitors

● Time constant for charging or discharging a capacitor in series with a resistor is  = RC; R is the resistance of the circuit

● When charged, the energy stored in a capacitor is (½) Q V = (½) C V

● The energy stored can be large; super­capactiors store enough energy to power a hybrid car

● Small capacitors are used in circuits to tune oscillations and give controlled time delays

2

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    21

Breakdown potential or dielectric strength

● Units V/m (Typically, MV/m)● The electrical gradient at which an insulator 

breaks down and a damaging surge of current flows through it

● Measured by increasing, at a uniform rate, a 60 Hz alternating potential applied across the faces of a plate of the material until breakdown occurs

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    22

Dielectric properties

Time 

Vol

tage

, V a

nd C

urre

nt, i

Oscillating Charge, +­ Qh

f

i

V

Dielectric loss tangent: tan 

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    23

Loss tangent or loss factor

● Polarization involves the small displacement of charge (either of electrons or of ions) or molecules that carry a dipole moment when an electric field is applied to the material

● Alternating field – drives the charge between two alternating configurations

● Charge motion – like an electric current which is out of phase with the voltage – by 90 degrees if there were no losses

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    24

Loss tangent● In real dielectric, current dissipates energy – 

giving it a small phase shift ● The loss tangent, tan  (or the dissipation factor, 

D) is the tangent of the loss angle● The power factor is the sine of the loss angle● When the angle is small, all three, namely, 

dissipation factor, power factor, and loss angle are the same

● Loss factor – loss tangent times the dielectric constant 

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    25

Loss factor● Loss factor – loss tangent times the dielectric 

constant● Measure of energy dissipated in a dielectric 

when in an oscillating field● Selection of materials that extremise dielectric 

loss – L =  tan  is the measure r

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    26

Power dissipation● Place a dielectric in a cycle of electric field of 

amplitude E and frequency f● A power P is dissipated and the field is 

correspondingly attenuated● Power dissipated per unit volume (P) is f E  L● This power appears as heat and is generated 

uniformly throughout the material● Higher the frequency or field strength, higher 

the heating● Radio­frequency welding of polymers

2

0

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    27

Electrostriction and piezo­electricity

● All dielectrics change shape in an electric field; consequence of the small shift in charge that allows them to polarize

● Electro­striction – one sided relationship between electric field and deformation

● Piezo­electric materials – two­sided: electric field causes deformation and deformation induces charge differences between its surfaces, thus creating a field

● Piezo­electric – a true, linear effect

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    28

Pyro­electric materials

● Contain molecules with permanent dipole moments that, in a single crystal, are aligned, giving the crystal permanent polarization

● With temperature, polarization changes – creating surface charges, or, if surfaces are connected, a pyor­electric current

● Principle of intruder detection systems and of thermal imaging

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    29

Ferro­electric materials

● Materials with natural dipole moment● Dipole moment align – like magnetic moments 

in a magnet● Direction of polarisation can be changed with 

the application of electric fields● This change leads to a change of shape!


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