Lecture 2 Powerpoints

8/7/2019 Lecture 2 Powerpoints

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Lecture 2

Perception and

IndividualDifferences



Perception and Individual Differences

Information-processing Model of Perception

Perceptual Biases and Errors

Stereotypes and Diversity

Causal Attribution

Attribution Biases



What Is Perception?

The process of interpreting the messages of

our senses to provide order and meaning to

the environment

People base their actions on the

interpretation of reality that their perceptual

system provides, rather than on reality itself



Information-processing Model of

Perception

Model explains how information is observed,

processed and stored in ones memory and

how this information is transformed into ones judgements and decisions



Stage 1: Selective Attention/

Comprehension

Attention Being consciously aware of

something or someone. This can be triggered

from the environment or ones memory Salient stimuli Stimuli that stands out from

its context



Stage 2: Encoding and Simplification

Interpreting raw information into mental

representation

Schema Mental picture of an event or object



Stage 2: Encoding and

Simplification(continued)Process will vary from person-person because:

We possess different information

Our affect influences us

We apply recently-used cognitive categories to

encode

Our individual differences



Stage 3: Storage and Retention

We store information in long-term memory:

Event memory information about specific

and general events Semantic memory general knowledge about

the world

Person memory information about anindividual or groups



Stage 4: Retrieval and Response

Information is retrieved from memory when

we make judgements and decisions





Workplace Implications

(continued) Build awareness

Training

Structured interviews

Accurate indicators of performance



Perceptual Biases and Errors

The impressions we form of others are

susceptible to a number of perceptual errors:

Primacy and Recency Effects Central tendency

Halo

Leniency

Contrast Effects



Primacy and Recency Effects

The reliance on early cues or first impressions

is known as the primacy effect

Primacy oftenh

as a lasting impact The tendency for a perceiver to rely on recent

cues or last impressions is known as the

recency effect



Central Tendency

The tendency to avoid all extreme judgements

and rate people and objects as average or

neutral



Halo

An overall impression of an object or person is

formed and then is applied when rating other

aspects of that individual or object



Leniency

Tendency to consistently rate people and

objects extremely positively



Contrast Effects

Evaluating people or objects by contrasting

them with qualities of other recently observed

people or objects



Stereotypes and Diversity

Stereotyping:

The tendency to generalize about people in a

social category and ignore variations amongthem



Stereotyping (continued)

There are three specific aspects to

stereotyping:

±We distinguis

hsome category of people

±We assume that the individuals in this

category have certain traits

±We perceive t

hat everyone in t

his categorypossesses these traits



Stereotyping (continued)

Stereotypes help us develop impressions of

ambiguous targets

Most stereotypes are inaccurate, especiallywhen we use them to develop perceptions of

specific individuals



Racial and Ethnic Stereotypes

Racial and ethnic stereotypes are pervasive,

persistent, frequently negative, and often

contradictory



Gender Stereotypes

One of the most problematic stereotypes for

organizations is the gender stereotype

Women are severely underrepresented inmanagerial and administrative jobs



Gender Stereotypes (continued)

Successful managers are perceived as

possessing traits and characteristics that are

predominantly masculine

Successful managers are seen as more similar

to men in qualities such as leadership ability,

competitiveness, self-confidence,

ambitiousness, and objectivity



Age Stereotypes

Older workers are viewed as less productive,

creative, logical, and capable of performing

under pressure, and as having less potential

for development

They are perceived as more rigid and

dogmatic, and less adaptable to new

corporate cultures than younger workers

Older workers are perceived as more honest,

dependable, and trustworthy



Age Stereotypes (continued)

These stereotypes are inaccurate.

Age seldom limits the capacity for

development until post-employment years Research has found that age and job

performance are not related



Age Stereotypes (continued)

Age stereotypes affect human resource

decisions regarding hiring, promotion, and

skills development

Older workers are often passed over for merit

pay and promotions and pressured to take

early retirement



Why Do Stereotypes Persist?

Even incorrect stereotypes help us process

information about others quickly and

efficiently

Inaccurate stereotypes are often reinforced by

selective perception



Person Perception andWorkforce

Diversity

Workforce diversity refers to differences

among recruits and employees in

characteristics, such as gender, race, age,religion, cultural background, physical ability,

and sexual orientation



Valuing Diversity

Diversity and its proper management can yield

strategic and competitive advantages:

±

Improved problem solving and creativity ± Improved recruiting and marketing

± Improved competitiveness in global markets

Organizations are adopting diversity as part of their corporate strategy



Managing Diversity

Select enoughminority members to get them

beyond token status

Encourage teamwork th

at brings minority andmajority members together

Ensure that those making career decisions

about employees have accurate information

about them

Train people to be aware of stereotypes



Causal Attribution

Attribution is the process by which we assign

causes or motives to explain peoples

behaviour.

An important goal is to determine whether

some behaviour is caused by dispositional or

situational factors.



Attribution: Perceiving Causes and

Motives (continued)

Dispositional attributions suggest that some

personality or intellectual characteristic

unique to the person is responsible for thebehaviour

Intelligence, greed, friendliness, or laziness



Attribution: Perceiving Causes and

Motives (continued)

Situational attributions suggest that the

external situation or environment in which the

target person exists was responsible for thebehaviour

Bad weather, good luck, proper tools, or poor

advice



Attribution Cues

We rely on external cues and make inferences

from these cues when making attributions

Th

ree implicit questions guide decisions as towhether one attributes some behaviour to

dispositional or situational causes



Consistency Cues

1. Does the person engage in the behaviour

regularly and consistently?

Attribution cues that reflect how consistently

a person engages in some behaviour over time

High consistency behaviour leads to

dispositional attributions



Consensus Cues

2. Do most people engage in the behaviour, or is

it unique to this person?

Attribution cues th

at reflecth

ow a personsbehaviour compares with that of others

Low consensus behaviour leads to

dispositional attributions



Distinctiveness Cues

3. Does the person engage in the behaviour in

many situations, or is it distinctive to one

situation?

Attribution cues that reflect the extent to

which a person engages in some behaviour

across a variety of situations

Low distinctiveness behaviour leads to a

dispositional attribution



Attribution Biases

Although observers often operate in a

rational, logical manner in forming

attributions about behaviour, this does not

mean that such attributions are always correct

Attribution biases include:

± Fundamental attribution error

± Actor-observer effect

± Self-serving bias



Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overemphasize dispositional

explanations for behaviour at the expense of

situational explanations

We often discount the strong effects that

social cues can have on behaviour

We fail to realize that observed behaviour is

distinctive to a particular situation



Actor-Observer Effect

The propensity for actors and observers to

view the causes of the actors behaviour

differently

Actors are prone to attribute much of their

own behaviour to situational factors while

observers are more likely to invoke

dispositional causes



Self-Serving Bias

The tendency for people to take credit and

responsibility for successful outcomes of their

behaviour and to deny credit and

responsibility for failures

People will explain the very same behaviour

differently on the basis of events that

happened after the behaviour occurred

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