Marine Nitrogen Cycle Lecture 23:
Karen Casciotti
Overview
• Why study the nitrogen cycle?
• Nitrogen pools, fluxes, and distributions
• Biogeochemical transformations
• Open questions
• Human impacts on the nitrogen cycle
Life Needs Nitrogen
* *
*
C:N = 6.6N:P= 16:1
Overall Phytoplankton
C39H53O24N15P4
C:N = 2.6
C61H97O20N16
C:N = 3.8
30% chemical
70% H2O
% Wet Weight
Bacterial CellIons, small molecules (4%)
Phospholipids (2%)
DNA (1%)
RNA (6%)
Proteins (15%)
Polysaccharides (2%)
Mac
rom
olec
ules
Figure by MIT OCW.
Nitrogen transformations
Chemical species
Norg, NH4+
NH2OH
N2
N2O
NO
NO2-
NO3-
Oxidation state
-III
-I
0
I
II
III
V
Reduced
Oxidized
Marine Nitrogen Pools
• Nitrogen gas (N2) 95.2 % Nitrous oxide (N2O) Nitric oxide (NO)
• “Fixed” Nitrogen Inorganic nitrogen:
Nitrate (NO3-)
Nitrite (NO2-)
Ammonium (NH4+)
Organic nitrogen: Detritus and Living biomass Dissolved organic matter
• Proteins/Amino acids • Urea • Nucleic acids
2.5 %
2.3%
N2 Inorganic Organic
Sea Surface Chlorophyll a
Dugdale and Goering, 1967:the New Production paradigm
N2 fixation
Zooplankton
Bacteria Euphotic zone
Aphotic zone
NH4+
Export production NH4
+ Dead organic matterNO3 -
Nitrification
New Production Grazing
Phytoplankton
DON
Ammonification
Regenerated Production
Dugdale and Goering, 1967:the New Production paradigm
• Introduced the concept of balanced new andexport production
• Introduced the use of 15N-labeled compounds to measure rates of new andregenerated production.
• “Ammonium is an important nitrogensource… but nitrate and nitrogen fixationare the most important parameters withrespect to nitrogen limitation of primaryproductivity.”
Eppley and Peterson, 1979:Export Production and the “Biological Pump”
N2 fixation
Zooplankton
Bacteria Euphotic zone
Aphotic zone
NH4+
Export productionNH4
+ Dead organic matterNO3 -
New Production Phytoplankton
DON, DOC
Regenerated Production
CO2
+ CO2 + CO2
+ CO2
Atmosphericdeposition
Eppley and Peterson, 1979
• “Only the sinking flux due to newproduction associated with N2 fixation and atmospheric sources of N can beidentified as… transport ofatmospheric CO2 to the deep ocean.”
• Introduced “f ratio” as ratio of new/total production
Sea Surface Nitrate Map
Sea Surface Nitrate Map
‘HNLC’ regions(high nutrient, lowchlorophyll)
These regionsare typicallylimited byother factors: • Light • Temperature • Iron,micronutrients
Sea Surface Nitrate Map
Distribution of Nitrate in Atlantic Ocean
SOUTH NORTH
Nitrate section through the ETP
Redfield Ratios and Remineralization
“Redfield Ratio”: C106:N16:P1applies to both the average composition of
phytoplankton biomass and the ratio ofnitrate and phosphate generated from organic
matter remineralization under oxic conditions
Remineralization of generalized organicmatter: (CH2O)106(NH3)16(H3PO4) + 138 O2
106 CO2 + 16 HNO3 + H3PO4 + 122 H2O
(32 O2)(106 O2)
[µmol kg-1]
0.00.0
5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Nitrate [µmol kg-1]
Phos
phat
e [µ
mol
kg-1
]
Figure by MIT OCW.
Global Thermohaline Circulation
SAMW & LOIW
SLW
NIIWBIW & RSW
CDW NADW
NA
DW
AABW
NADWNADW
LOIW
UPIW
SAMW
CDW
CDW
NPDW
LOIW
UPIWSAMW
SAMW & LOIW
IODW
ACCS
AUSTR.
JAVAINDIAN SOUTHERN OCEAN
ATLANTIC
INDONESIA PACIFIC
NORTH
NORTH
NORTH
SOUTH
SLW
SAMW
RSW
AABW
NPDW
ACCSCDW
NADW
UPIW
LOIW
IODW
BIW
NIIW
Surface layer water
Subantarctic mode water
Red sea water
Antarctic bottom water
North pacific deep water
Antarctic circumpolar current system Circumpolar deep water
North atlantic deep water
Lower intermediate water, 27.2 < σθ < 27.5_ _Upper intermediate water, 26.8 < σθ < 27.2_ _
Indian ocean deep water
Banda intermediate water
Northwest Indian intermediate water
From Pacific
Antarctica
Figure by MIT OCW.
Distribution of Nitrate in Atlantic Ocean
SOUTH NORTH
NADW AAIW
AABW
Overview
Why study the nitrogen cycle?
Nitrogen pools, fluxes, and distributions
• Biogeochemical transformations
• Open questions
• Human impacts on the nitrogen cycle
Microbial Nitrogen Cycle
Denitrification
state
Org NH3
NH2OH
NO2 -
NO
N2ON2
Nitrification
Nitrogen fixation
Assimilation
Anammox
NO3-
Nitrite oxidation
Oxidation Ammonia oxidation (-III) (-I) (0) (I) (II) (III) (V)
Overview
Why study the nitrogen cycle?
Nitrogen pools, fluxes, and distributions
• Biogeochemical transformations
• Open questions
• Human impacts on the nitrogen cycle
Redfield Ratios and Remineralization
“Redfield Ratio”: C106:N16:P1applies to both the average composition of
phytoplankton biomass and the ratio ofnitrate and phosphate generated from organic
matter remineralization under oxic conditions
Remineralization of generalized organicmatter: (CH2O)106(NH3)16(H3PO4) + 138 O2
106 CO2 + 16 HNO3 + H3PO4 + 122 H2O
(32 O2)(106 O2)
[µmol kg-1]
0.00.0
5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Nitrate [µmol kg-1]
Phos
phat
e [µ
mol
kg-1
]
Figure by MIT OCW.
Sea Surface Nitrate Map
HOTS:N2 fixation may
account for 30-50% of export production
2Evidence for N Fixation
• Occurrence of nitrogen fixing species,such as Trichodesmium spp.
• Low δ15N of sinking organic mattersuggestive of significant N2 fixation
• Acetylene reduction or 15N2 incorporation rate estimates
Oceanic Diazotroph Diversity
Zehr, 2000Trends in Microbiology
Image removed due to copyright restrictions.
Water Column Denitrification Zones
Arabian Sea
Eastern TropicalNorth Pacific
Eastern TropicalSouth Pacific
Overview
Why study the nitrogen cycle?
Nitrogen pools, fluxes, and distributions
Biogeochemical transformations
• Open questions
• Human impacts on the nitrogen cycle
Major Questions inMarine N Cycling
• Is the nitrogen cycle in balance?
• How does the N cycle vary on glacial/interglacialtimescales?
• How is N2O produced in the ocean?
• By what mechanism is ‘extra excess N2’ formed?
Nitrogen Inputs to the Ocean
Nitrogen Atmospheric Continental
Fluxes in Tg N/yr
Fixation Deposition Runoff
Codispoti and 25 24 25Christensen [1985] Gruber and Sarmiento 125 ± 50 15 ± 5 41 ± 20[1997] (preindustrial) Gruber and Sarmiento 125 ± 50 30 ± 5 76 ± 20[1997] (postindustrial) Codispoti et al [2001] Same as G&S 86 Same as G&S
(includes DON)
Ocean Nitrogen Exports from the
Organic Sedimentary Water column Burial Denitrification Denitrification Anammox
Fluxes in Tg N/yr
Codispoti andChristensen [1985] 21 60 60 ? Gruber and Sarmiento [1997](preindustrial)
15 ± 5 85 ± 20 80 ± 20 ?
Gruber and Sarmiento [1997](postindustrial)
25 ± 10 95 ± 20 80 ± 20 ?
Codispoti et al[2001] 25 ± 10 300 150 ?
Nitrogen Budgets
Codispoti andChristensen
[1985]
Gruber and Sarmiento [1997]
Codispotiet al [2001]
Total sources 74 181 ±44 231 ±44 287
Total sinks 142 184 ±29 204 ±30 481
Residence time of N in the ocean
5,000 years 3,500 years 1,500 years
Is the N cycle in balance? Maybe not!Is it a moving target?
What are the consequences?
Major Questions inMarine N Cycling
• Is the nitrogen cycle in balance?
• How does the N cycle vary on glacial/interglacialtimescales?
• How is N2O produced in the ocean?
• By what mechanism is ‘extra excess N2’ formed?
Southern ocean nitrate utilization changes
Sigman et al., 1999
Higher δ15N in diatom-bound organic mattersuggests higherdegree of nitrateutilization in the Antarctic zone during glacialtimes.
00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
900 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 451050
15 20 25 30 35 40 451050
treated>63µmtraction
treateddiatoms
bulksediment
dept
h (c
m)
Depth profiles in gravity core All 107-22 (Antarctic Zone, Atlantic Sector, 55oS, 3oW, 2768 mi of (a) δ13N and (b) N content of bulkN (open circles), diatom N (solid circles), and the perchloric acid-treated >63 µm fraction (crosses). which is composed of large diatoms,radiolaria and some detrital gains, Replicate analyses are shown for the cleaned diatom and >63 µm fraction with solid line connecting the mean value of diatoms N analysis. The N content of the builk sediment is in some cases lower than that of diatorn fraction becauseof the presence of dense detrital grains in the bulk sediment the planktonic focaminiferal δ13 stratigraphy [from keigwin and Boyle, 1989]suggested that sediment from the last Glacial maximum is at 65 cm depth.
δ18o
N content (µmol N g-1 sediment)
δ18O (% vs. PDB)
δ15O (% vs. air)
Figure by MIT OCW.
Southern ocean nitrate utilization changes
Sigman and Boyle, 2000 Figure by MIT OCW.
Changes in Denitrification
Sedimentary δ15N changes from the ETNP
Chart removed due to copyright restrictions.Ganeshram, R., et al. "Glacial-interglacial Variability in Denitrification in the World’sOceans: Causes and Consequences." Paleoceanography 15, no. 4 (2000): 361–376.
Changes in Denitrification
Present LGM
N2 NO3 -
PN
High δ15N
High δ15N-PN
N2 NO3 -
PN
Lower δ15N
Lower δ15N-PN
Major Questions inMarine N Cycling
• Is the nitrogen cycle in balance?
• How does the N cycle vary on glacial/interglacialtimescales?
• How is N2O produced in the ocean?
• By what mechanism is ‘extra excess N2’ formed?
N2O vs. AOU
Yoshinari, 1976
Anticorrelation of N2O and O2 concentrations suggests N2O is producedduring organic matterremineralization (nitrification)
Figure by MIT OCW.
200
400600800
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
200
400600800
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
0
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 3 4 5 6 7
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 3 4 5 6 7
DEPTH (m)
DEPTH (m)
Vertical NO2 and O2 profiles at three different atations in the western North Atlantic, a, slope water of fNova Scotia (42o 18' N, 61o 24' W ); b, Gulf Stream (39o 07' N, 62o 21' W); c, Sargasso Sea (35o 52' N, 63o 44' W)
N2O µg/l
N2O µg/l O2 ml/l
O2 ml/l
October 1971July 1972
October 1971
July 1972May 1972
Nitrification
Ammonia-oxidizing nitrifiers:Nitrosomonas, Nitrosospira, Nitrosococcus
NH3 + 3/2 O2 NO2- + H2O + 2 H+
Nitrite-oxidizing nitrifiers:Nitrobacter, Nitrospira, Nitrospina
NO2- + 1/2 O2 NO3
-
NH3 + 2 O2 NO3- + H2O + 2 H+ Overall
Rates and Distributions
Chart removed due to copyright restrictions.Dore, J. E., B. N. Popp, D. M. Karl, and F. J. Sansone. "A Large Source of AtmosphericNitrous Oxide from Subtropical North Pacific Surface Waters." Nature 396, 63-66.
2Denitrification and N O
Chart removed due to copyright restrictions.Yoshinari, T., et al. "Nitrogen and Oxygen Isotopic Composition of N2O from Suboxic Watersof the Eastern Tropical North Pacific and the Arabian Sea—Measurement by Continuous-FlowIsotope-ratio Monitoring." Marine Chemistry 56 (1997): 253-264.
Major Questions inMarine N Cycling
• Is the nitrogen cycle in balance?
• How does the N cycle vary on glacial/interglacialtimescales?
• How is N2O produced in the ocean?
• By what mechanism is ‘extra excess N2’ formed?
Nitrate deficits
“N*” based on Redfield relationship of NO3- and PO4
3-: (CH2O)106(NH3)16(H3PO4) + 138 O2
106 CO2 + 16 HNO3 + H3PO4 + 119 H2O
N* = [NO3-] - 16 [PO4
3-] + constant
Denitrification: N* ↓ (lower [NO3-], unchanged [PO4
3-]) Also, higher N2/Ar because of N2 production from nitrate
production/accumulation of N2 yields “excess N2”
But, there’s more N2 than expected from nitrate deficits!!this phenomenon has been termed “extra excess N2”
“ ”Extra Excess N
What is it? • Discrepancy between N deficit based on N:P ratios andN2 excess from N2/Ar ratios
How could it be explained? • Remineralization of organic matter with high N:P ratio• Lateral mixing of N2 from sedimentary denitrification • Anammox
Anammox
NH4+ + NO2
- N2 + 2 H2O
Who: Bacteria in the order PlanctomycetalesWhat: anaerobically combine NH4
+ and NO2- to form N2
Where: anoxic sediments and watercolumns; Black Sea;Gulfo Dulce, Chile; Benguela Upwelling SystemWhen: ??Why: ??How: Anammoxosome; enzymology known incompletely,but genome sequencing is providing targets for biochemicalanalysis.
Measurement of Anammox
Anammox Isotopic tracers: 15N14NOrganic geochemistry: 15NH4
+ + 14NO2-
unique ladderane lipids
Molecular biology: Detection of anammox-type16S rRNA genes
Kuypers et al., Nature 2003
Isotopic Tracers of Anammox
MassesFor N2
14-14 14-15 15-15
15NH4+ 14NO3
- 14NH4+ 15NO3
-
Isotopic Tracers for Anammox
15N-NH4 addition
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1 2 3
anammox1
denitrif1
15N-NO3 addition
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1 2 3
anammox2
denitrif2
14-14
14-14
14-15
14-15
15-15
15-15
Overview
Why study the nitrogen cycle?
Nitrogen pools, fluxes, and distributions
Biogeochemical transformations
Open questions
• Human impacts on the nitrogen cycle
Human perturbation of the Ncycle
"Natural" biological N fixation
Lightning
Fossil Fuel Combustion250
200
150
100
50
1920 1940 1960 1980Year
Glo
bal N
itrog
en F
ixat
ion
(Tg/
y)
Synthetic NFertilizer
Legume Crops andGreen Manures
Background
Anthropogenic
Nitrogen fixation byhumans is now equivalentto natural terrestrial nitrogen fixation (~140 TgN/yr).
The amount of human-produced N entering theoceans is not well known,but is on the order of 20-40 Tg N/yr
Figure by MIT OCW.
Eutrophication and Anoxia
Mississippi River nitrate loadsand Gulf of Mexico Hypoxia
Sea Surface Chlorophyll a