Lecture 7Lecture 7

From Meaning to FunctionFrom Meaning to Function

Sign/symbol and meaningSign/symbol and meaning

^ _ ^^ _ ^ SmileSmile

SterlingSterling

Human Human tracetrace

Icon of peaceIcon of peace

Natural indexNatural index

1. The Symbolic System1. The Symbolic System

A. Natural Symbols. They are part A. Natural Symbols. They are part of natural phenomena, e.g. of natural phenomena, e.g. lightning in the thunderstorm. lightning in the thunderstorm.

B. Artificial Symbols. They are B. Artificial Symbols. They are mental representations of entities. mental representations of entities.

2. Language as a symbolic system

2. Language as a symbolic system

A. According to Saussure, the linguistic sign is a two-side psychological entity that can be represented by the drawing:

Concept

Soundimage

Saussurean arbitrarinessSaussurean arbitrariness

An association of concepts with abstract repreAn association of concepts with abstract repre

sentations of soundsentations of sound

arbor

concept=signified

sound-image=signifier

In any language the relation between sounds and meaning is arbitrary.

There are only a small number of words whose relation can be explained, but whose pronunciation still cannot be uniform among languages.

e.g. onomatopoeia (echo words): "cuckoo" (English), "coucou" (French), "Kuckuck" (German) "Kakuk" (Hungarian) "Kokkyx" (Greek) "bugu" (Chinese)

Language is a symbolic system in which the relation between signs (signified) and sounds (signifier) is arbitrary. Arbitrariness comes from having to code a whole universe of meanings.

Semantics Semantics 语义学语义学 The study of meaning The study of meaning communicated through communicated through language.language.

Ogden & Richards’ Semantic TriangleOgden & Richards’ Semantic Triangle

Semantic TriangleSemantic Triangle

Referent

Concept

Refers to

symbol

evokes

Stands for

There is not a direct link between the sound of the word dog and the object it refers to. What is called the signified is not actually what we have been shown but an abstract concept formed in our mind.

More widely, can anyone guarantee that a More widely, can anyone guarantee that a concept coming to his mind when he uses concept coming to his mind when he uses a word is going to be the same as the one a word is going to be the same as the one brought to his reader’s mind?brought to his reader’s mind?

Therefore, a concept so produced cannot Therefore, a concept so produced cannot be regarded simply as the word’s meaning.be regarded simply as the word’s meaning.

Pierce’sPierce’s Semiotic Triangle is also useful in Semiotic Triangle is also useful in analyzing semantic relationships. analyzing semantic relationships.

Semiotics Semiotics 符号学符号学 The study of the The study of the relationships between relationships between a sign and the object a sign and the object it represents.it represents.

Pierce’sPierce’s Semiotic Triangle Semiotic Triangle

A sign is a pattern of data which, when A sign is a pattern of data which, when perceived, brings to mind something other perceived, brings to mind something other than itself.than itself.

Although this definition appears simple on Although this definition appears simple on the surface, it has complex implications. the surface, it has complex implications. Please pause to look at the following Please pause to look at the following picture for a moment. picture for a moment.

Now, describe briefly to yourself the Now, describe briefly to yourself the thoughts that the picture brought to thoughts that the picture brought to your mind. your mind.

a semiotic system.a semiotic system.

At the beginning of the exercise, did At the beginning of the exercise, did this sign: , bring to your mind a this sign: , bring to your mind a large, African or Indian animal? large, African or Indian animal?

Or memories of a trip to the zoo? Or memories of a trip to the zoo? Or images recalled from a favorite Or images recalled from a favorite

book read as a child, or a television book read as a child, or a television show, or a movie...? show, or a movie...?

Variable signifiedVariable signified

Perhaps it brings to your mind an Perhaps it brings to your mind an American political party; or perhaps American political party; or perhaps the notion of memory (as in: "a large the notion of memory (as in: "a large animal with a trunk and big ears"). animal with a trunk and big ears"). Notice that whatever the sign brings Notice that whatever the sign brings to mind, the concept is related to the to mind, the concept is related to the reader's past experience with the reader's past experience with the object. object.

Pierce’s Semiotic Triangle

Each of the lines in the Semiotic Triangle Each of the lines in the Semiotic Triangle represents a two-way negotiation, i.e.represents a two-way negotiation, i.e.

PerceptionPerception -- the ongoing group of bodily -- the ongoing group of bodily processes by which human beings receive processes by which human beings receive data about their environments, data about their environments,

ExperienceExperience -- the memory of previous -- the memory of previous perceptions and concepts, which is perceptions and concepts, which is constantly being altered or "updated" by constantly being altered or "updated" by new experience, new experience,

ConventionConvention -- the constantly changing -- the constantly changing social "rules of meaning" that unify groups social "rules of meaning" that unify groups of people within their communication of people within their communication environments. environments.

Floating signifier

Male voice: Should I put more fire into my poems?

Female voice: You should put more of your poems into the fire.

Question: What does the man mean?

Break down meaning

Semantic features

Semantic features are defined as a class of theoretical constructs developed in analogy to the distinctive features of phonology – they are considered to be the smallest semantic units for the description of linguistic expressions and their semantic relations.

Matrix of semantic features for some nouns

man woman boy girl cow

HUMAN + + + + -

ADULT + + - - +

MALE + - + - -

Matrix of semantic features for some verbs

walk march run limp

NATURAL + - - -HURRIED - + + -FORWARD + + + +ONE FOOT ALWAYS ON GROUND

+ + - +

Criticism

To exhaust all the semantic features of a word is not an easy thing, and sometimes even impossible, because, in philosophical parlance, the whole is more than the sum of its parts, so how can the whole word be represented by its components?

SHE WAS THE ONLY MAN IN HER CABINET

Denotation vs. connotationDenotation vs. connotation

A concept in an A concept in an individual’s mind is individual’s mind is mostly the connotative mostly the connotative meaning, formed meaning, formed through one’s through one’s perception of some perception of some features of the object a features of the object a sign refers to. sign refers to.

The denotative meaning The denotative meaning is not necessarily generais not necessarily generated in such a process, buted in such a process, but has long been an agreet has long been an agreement among all the peoment among all the people in a community. ple in a community.

Chomsky on meaning (2000)

Suppose the library has two copies of Tolstoy’s War and Peace, Peter takes out one, and John the other.

Did Peter and John take out the same book, or different books?

If we attend to the material factor of the lexical item, they took out different books;

if we focus on its abstract component, they took out the same book.

The book that he is planning will weigh at least five pounds if he ever write it

We attend to both material and abstract factors simultaneously

Chomsky’s conclusionChomsky’s conclusion

The semantic properties of words are The semantic properties of words are used to think and talk about the world used to think and talk about the world in terms of the perspectives made in terms of the perspectives made available by the resources of the available by the resources of the mind...mind...

I-meaningI-meaning The relation of rhyme that holds The relation of rhyme that holds

between “chase” and “lace” is based between “chase” and “lace” is based on properties of I-sound;on properties of I-sound;

The relation of entailment that holds The relation of entailment that holds between “chase” and “follow” is between “chase” and “follow” is based on properties of I-meaning. based on properties of I-meaning.

I-meaning

He knocked at the window.

He jumped out of the window.

The morning light was stealing through the window.

The window is material.

The window is abstract.

The window can either be material or abstract.

Internal semantic knowledge

a) telling that the following sentences describe the same situation:

You can’t imagine how I miss you. You can imagine how I miss you.

synonymy

Internal semantic knowledge

b) noticing that the following sentences contradict each other:

My father has just come from Paris. My father has never been to Paris.

contradiction

Internal semantic knowledge

c) judging that of the following two sentences, the first entails the second:

The anarchist assassinated the emperor. The emperor is dead.

entailment

Internal semantic knowledge

d) deciding that of the following two sentences, the first presupposes the second:

The Mayor of London is a tall man. There is a Mayor of London.

presupposition

Internal semantic knowledge

e) finding that the sentence below has more than one possible meaning:

If I’m a priest, I’ll marry you.

ambiguity

Internal semantic knowledge

f) discovering that let’s is different from let us in the sentence below because the latter does not involve the addressee:

Let’s beg the monster to let us go.

inclusive-exclusive

distinction

Internal semantic knowledge

g) understanding the metaphoric expression in the sentence below:

He is a storehouse of repartee.

metaphorical interpretation

Internal semantic knowledge

h) feeling the sentence below infelicitous: I promise to forget my name.

infelicity

Meaning versus Function/ Use

That’ll be John. He calls everyday at this time.

You have been going all day. You must be tired.

He should be here somewhere. He said he was coming.

You’ll pick up your room now!

You must take better care of yourself.

He’s shy. You should ask him out.

from Dr. Diane Larsen-Freeman

The scope of semantics

The real meaning in communication is contextual meaning. Without context, a sentence conveys only literal information.

Researches related to context pertain to another discipline – pragmatics.

Semanticists tend to confine their work to an arena away from context. What they are interested in is the logic of meaning.