Lecture # 8: Medieval Period

Presented by Abul Kalam Azad

Lecturer, GEDNorthern University Bangladesh

E-mail: kalamadd@gmail.com

Defining Medieval/ Middle Age

The Middle Ages are a period in history which lasted for roughly a millennium, commonly dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century to the Early Modern Period in the 16th century (Actual time is between the dates 476 and 1500 AD), marked by the division of Western Christianity in the Reformation, the rise of humanism in the Italian Renaissance, and the beginnings of European overseas expansion.

Range Mediaeval Ages in Europe

Start Fall of Roman Empire (476)

End Division of Western Christianity in the Reformation Rise of humanism in the Italian Renaissance European overseas expansion

Fall of Roman Empire (start of Middle age) Roman Empire is an empire established by

Augustus in 27 BC and was divided in 395 AD into the Western Roman Empire and the eastern or Byzantine Empire renamed Constantinople (modern Istanbul) by Constantine (280-337), an Emperor of Rome, who made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire in 324 & in 330 moved his capital from Rome to Byzantium. Ultimately, Roman Empire was destroyed by the German Barbarian Odoacer in 476 AD.

The beginning of the Middle ages may be identified by the doctrines of Christianity (the Rise of the Papacy)& the political ideas of the Teutonic barbarians who overthrew the Roman Empire.

The Rise of the Papacy (The government of the Roman Catholic Church)

1. At the time of conversion of Constantine*, the process of transforming the church into a hierarchical organization had already begun.

2. The leading church official in a city became the bishop.

3. The bishops of the more important cities dominated over the other bishops of their provinces.

4. Finally, the bishop of the capital city founded a church monarchy (Papacy).

The Dark Ages

The "Dark Ages" is a concept invented in the early 14th Century by the poet Petrarch who used it to describe the preceding 900 years in Europe, beginning with the fall of the western Roman Empire. As an Italian, Petrarch saw the Roman Empire and the classical period as expressions of Italian greatness. Petrarch wrote that history had had two periods: the classic period of the Greeks and Romans, followed by a time of darkness, in which he saw himself as still living.

1. Learning was controlled by the clergy (a spiritual leader of the Christian Church);

2. speculation was centered about question of theology;

3. the basis of all knowledge was faith and mysticism developed and handed down by the organized church;

4. The relation of church to secular power was the issue in medieval political thought.

5. The general tendency from 9th to 13th century was the development of a well-rounded theory of church supremacy in the world politics.

6. Although Church and state formed one society, nevertheless that society had two govt.

The Nature of Medieval Political Thought

7. The existence of two systems and the strong contrast between things of the world and things of the spirit.

8. The theory of dual authority was unworkable in practice

9. Conflict between Church and State: In the early days of Roman Christianity, the emperor had been recognized as head of both state and church. The right of the church to impose spiritual penalties for immoral acts was acknowledged, however, and was exercised even upon the emperors. As the church grew in power and its authority gravitated into the hands of the pope.

Contribution of Thomas Aquinas When the medieval barbarism and the

conflict between Pope and King created an alarming situation, it was Thomas Aquinas who, in order to remove the chaos and conflict, appeared in the field of philosophy. The most important contribution of Thomas’s philosophies was Universal Synthesis of Law through which Aquinas tried to synthesize between Roman and Christian laws and Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies. Let’s discuss in detail. 9

Thomas Aquinas’s Universal Synthesis Biography: Saint Thomas Aquinas

(1225-1274) was indisputably the greatest of the medieval philosophers. He was born in his family’s castle of Roccasecca (central Italy) near the town of Aquino, about halfway between Rome and Naples (Forrest Baird, Philosophic Classics: St. Aquinas, Vol- II).

Main Objective: “It was the essence of Thomas’s philosophy that it essayed a universal synthesis, an all embracing system, the key-note of which was harmony and concilience.”

What is Universal Synthesis?

St. Thomas Aquinas’s idea of Universal Synthesis of Law may be characterized by the following assumptions:

1. God and nature are large enough to afford a place to all the continual diversity of finite existence;

2. All knowledge forms a single piece; each particular science with its special subject matter focuses on its part, but philosophy as the most rational discipline seeks to formulate universal principles of all the sciences- above reason and depending on Christian revelation- to consummate the system;

11

3. Faith is the fulfillment of reason, revelation is above reason but not contrary to it;

4. Law embodies the reason of God, regulating the relationships of all creatures, animate and inanimate, animal and human;

5. Law was a cosmic fact; thus, anyone who transgresses it, violates not only human rights and institutions, but also is a rebel against the whole divine system by which God rules the world, law.

Aquinas also defined law as ~ “ an ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated by him who has the care of a community.” [Dunning, W. A, A History of Political Theories: ancient and Medieval, 1930: 192]

Classification of LawHistorical Background: Socrates

examined key moral concepts such as the Good and Justice. His pupil, Plato, said that justice lies in integrating reason and wisdom in man’s life. However, Aristotle pointed out that there were some human laws which were common to all human States. The theory was further developed by the Stoic Philosophers. Later, the Roman lawyer, Cicero, said that ‘true law is right reason in agreement with nature, it is of universal application, unchanging and everlasting’.

13

The Medieval Period began around the 11th century and continued till the 13th century. It boasted mainly Christian theologians like Thomas Aquinas, Gregory and Ambrose. St Thomas Aquinas divided law into:

1. Eternal Law: The Law of God2. Natural Law: created by man’s reason –

the sole repository of mans’ social life – and governs human relations; his approach was empirical.

3. Divine law: The church (if the supreme authority to interpret divine law).

4. Human Law: must be based on natural law and aims to do good.

1. Eternal Law

“It is identical to the reason of God; it is the eternal plan of divine wisdom by which all creation is ordered.” [Summa Theologica, p-12]

“ It is above the physical nature of man and is beyond human comprehension, but it is not foreign or contrary to human reason. Good always act in accord with it; evil always act in opposition to it (Truth itself, p-13; None Can Judge, p-33). Man participates in the wisdom and goodness of God; they are reflected in man, but this nature is only a distorted image of divine perfection.” [Ibid, p- 2]

Aquinas believed that man can not acquire a perfect knowledge about such law since their knowledge is limited. However, God revels a limited knowledge of this law to the man in order that man can achieve the nearness of God and the reflection of this law is natural one. Aquinas spoke of Eternal Law which, for all practical purposes, was the same as natural law. He said that everything is governed by God’s eternal law but man can choose whether or not to follow the law.

16

2. Natural LawHis teaching can be summarized in

several key principles: First, the natural law is grounded in the

eternal law: Natural law is simply put a "participation of the eternal law in the rational creature."

Second, natural law is eminently reasonable: Rational creatures can and do grasp a portion of the eternal law and he calls this the "light of natural reason." He explains, "the light of natural reason, whereby we discern what is good and what is evil, 17

which is the function of the natural law, is nothing else than an imprint (impression) on us of the Divine light.”

Third, natural law is found in a graduated structure of general principles of action (moralia). It is, "by using our reason and reflecting on our nature as people," explains Brian Davies, that "we can come to formulate general principles of action.“

Fourth, natural law is universal moral law.

18

3. Divine law It is an expression at natural reason’s

boundaries, that is, divine revelation. So, It is a gift of God’s grace rather than a discovery of natural reason as in the rules given to the Jews or the teaching of Christian scripture. It adds to reason, but it never destroys it. [Summa Theologica, Aquinas, PP- 17-18]

Aquinas believes that divine law is needed~ to direct human conduct in view of a last end; to provide unequivocal (clear) guidance on how to act; to guide on interior (internal) motives we are in competent to judge; and to forbid all sins to man.

4. Human law Human law is the significant law to

Aquinas. He characterized this law as ~i. the laws of statutes (acts/ decrees) of

society that are derived from man’s understanding of natural law;

ii. the law specially designed in custom and practice for human beings, but it is not exclusively applicable to them or derived from human nature; and

iii.the law which must be promulgated as rule or measure those ruled/ measured must know it; this is its essential quality; like all law, it is an ordinance of reason for the common good, made by him who has care of the community and promulgated.

Rise of Christian Reformation

In its first two centuries Christianity remained a simple, spiritual religion. But when Christianity became fashionable, after its adoption by the state, many pagan (A person who follows a polytheistic or pre-Christian religion) ideas were introduced by those who became nominal Christians but had no conception of its spiritual truths. Ultimately, the rise of Protestantism was noted. The main theme of Protestant ethics was that the success in worldly life means that in hereafter life.

Rise of humanism in the Italian Renaissance

Probably the most basic of the secular attitudes that characterized the Renaissance was humanism.

The focusing of interest on human beings rather than God, changes to an emphasis on a philosophy centered on the nature and condition of human beings.

The people of the Renaissance, like Greek and Roman kin, glorified the human form as a thing of beauty and the human intellect as capable of discovering all truth worth knowing.

Individualism was another important facet of the secular spirit of the Renaissance.

European overseas expansion

Discovery of America in 1492 Discovery of India in 1498

23