Lecture Seven

Language ChangeLanguage Change

I. Introduction

Any language may change with time passing, but the change does not happen overnight.

Examples: old English, middle English and modern English; ancient Chinese and modern Chinese

The changes can be found in different aspects of the language.

II. Change in pronunciation

Examples of changes between old English and modern English

Old English Modern English

stan [sta:n] stone [st] ham [ha:m] home [hm]

wrat [ra:t] wrote [rt] rad [ra:d] rode [rd]

Examples of changes between middle English and modern English

Middle English Modern English

mice [m:s] mice [mais]

mouse [m:s] mouse [maus]

broke [br:k] broke [brk]

Changes in pronunciation between the 16th and 17th century standard English and the modern English. (Difference in pronunciation between British English and American English, see Zhou, 1995, pp. 61-68)

III. Morphological and syntactic change

1. Change in “agreement” rule Whan that Aprille with his shoures sooth …

(When that April with his showers sweet …)

2. Change in negative rule

I love thee not.

He saw you not.

3. Process of simplification

Changes reflected in case and gender. Old English Middle English Modern English ure / urum oure our

4. Loss of inflections

Old English Modern English stan / slanas stone / stones gear / gear year / years

IV. Vocabulary change

1. Addition of new words

A. Compounding

Example 1:

butter + fly = butterfly!

+ =

Example 2:

Dog + House = Doghouse!

+ =

(http://www.manatee.k12.fl.us/sites/elementary/palmasola/compoundwords.htm)

More examples: newspaper, pigtail, sandstorm, ladybug, thumbnail, handbag

B. Coinage

Zipper 让我联想到另外一个绝佳的生造词例子—“ Zippo”。 1932 年美国宾夕法尼亚州的 George Blaisdel 发明了这种又好看且好用的打火机，他为当时的另一项发明 zipper （拉链）所着迷，所以称他的新打火机叫作“ Zippo”。这种个人定义的生造词例子层出不穷，很多大公司商标的命名就沿用这一创造性的做法，这些在字典中查不到的英语单词在日常生活中却最为大众所熟知。字典永远收不尽词汇，这是字典的遗憾，却是人类的福音—语言的更新永无止境。

C. Clipped words gym — gymnasium expo — exposition memo — memorandum disco — discotheque burger — hamburger dozer — bulldozer quake — earthquake fridge — refrigerator script — prescriptionD. Blending smog — smoke + fog motel — motor + hotel brunch — breakfast + lunch camcorder — camera + recorder comsat — communication + satellite videophone — video + telephone

E. Acronyms CBS — Columbia Broadcasting System ISBN — International Standard Book Number IT — information technology CAD — computer assisted design WTO — World Trade Organization IDD — international direct dialing APEC [eipek] — Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation AIDS [eidz] — Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome UNESCO [ju:nesk] — United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization

SARS [sa:s] — Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome CELEA [si:li] — China English Language Education Association (web: elt-china.org) eftpos [eftps] — electronic funds transfer at the point of sale

F. Back-formation

edit editor

hawk hawker

beg beggar

baby-sit baby-sitter

butch butcher

G. Functional shift

noun — verb verb — noun adjective —verb

adjective — noun

to kneeto bugto tapeto brake

a holda flybya rejecta retreat

to coolto narrowto dimto slow

a dailya Christianthe richthe impossible

H. BorrowingOrigin examples

Latin bonus, education, exit

Greek tragedy, cycle, physics

Scandinavian skirt, scorch, scatter

French prince, question, coup d’etatsalmon, appetite, dinner, supper, beef, pork, sardine, mutton

Spanish ranch, guitar, barbecue

Italian balcony, balloon, opera

German beer, waltz, quarts

Dutch freight, pump, buoy

Chinese tea, kowtow, sampan (舢板 )

Russian sputnik, commissar, vodka

Arabic zero, algebra, alcohol

loan wordsWhose originspeople areunaware of

ceiling, judge, crime courtface, jury, money, royalstomach, piano, squash, gluetable orthography, cockroach, solarchair, yacht, awkward, esteem

loan words withsigns of theirorigin in theplural forms

fungus — fungimemorandum — memorandanebula — nebulaeradius — radii

loan wordswhich havetaken the English plural

stadium — stadiumscampus — campusesbandit — banditsopera — operasgymnasium — gymnasiums

2. Loss of words

Evidence of loss of words from Shakespeare’s works

beseem to be suitable

wot to know

gyve a fetter

wherefore why

Causes of loss of words: discontinuation of the objects. e.g. soap flakes, wash board, (in Chinese: 洋油 , 洋火 , 洋钉 )

3. Semantic changeA. Widening of meaning

Example words Original meaning Widened meaning

holiday holy day (religious significance any day we don’t work

tail the tail of a horse the tail of any animal

companion person with whom you share bread person who accompanies you

Quarantine forty days’ isolation isolation time

bird young bird any bird

sail boats with sails boats with or without sails

B. Narrowing of meaning

Example words Original meaning Narrowed meaning

hound general term for “dog” a special kind of dog

girl young person of either sex young people of female sex

deer any animal a particular kind of animal

meat food edible part of an animal

corn grain a particular grain

C. Meaning shiftingExample words

Original meaning Shifted meaning

inn a small hotel or pub can be a well-known large hotel(meaning elevated)

nice ignorant good, fine

lust pleasure with no negative or sexual overtones

a very strong desire either sexual or to possess something(meaning elevated)

immoral not customary living or lasting forever

silly happy / naive foolish

V. Some recent trends

1. Becoming more informal

This trend is welcomed by people.

2. Influence coming from American English

3. Influence from science and technology

Space travel

Computer and internet language

Ecology

VI. Causes of language change

1. Rapid development of science and technology

2. Social and political changes

3. Women’s liberation movements

4. Children’s grammar is never exactly like that of

the adult community.

5. Economy of memory, grammar simplification

plural of “cow” is “cows”, instead of “kine”

plural of “curriculum” is “curriculums”, instead of “curricula”

plural of “dwarf” is “dwarfs”, instead of “dwarves”

“cheap” used as an adverb

References

Dai, W. D & He, Z. X. (2002). A new concise course on linguistics for students of English. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Zhou, Q. J. (1995). Difference in pronunciation between GA & GB. The Publication of FLRASTAC, collective issue of 1995, 61-68.

Task

Do the following as written exercise:8. With examples, give some plausible explanations for linguistic change.