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Electrical

energy supply

03

Power guide 2009 / book 03

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iNTroThe cnvegence f physcal means, establshed ules and shaed pcedues ensues

the pvsn f safe, abundant and hgh qualty electcty.Eveyne undestands the need t mpve ths level f sevce, but ts undelyng

cmplexty calls f seus cnsdeatn: dstbutn systems, equpment and

nfastuctues, neutal eathng systems, cntllng dstubance, pwe fact

cmpensatn, etc. ae just a few f the essental subjects.

Th proucton, transmsson, control an protcton o lctrcty (romstrbuton systms through to th trmnal conncton o rcvrs, annclung th transormaton, mtrng an strbuton stags) must b carrout n a totally sa way, takng car not to pollut t (whch s a nw aspct).

elctrcty s a shar commoty that must b protct just lk ar or watr.it s thror mportant to avo usng t nscrmnatly an schargngall typs o sturbanc onto th systm. dtroraton o th powr actor,harmoncs, transnts, tc. hav a harmul ct on th sgnal an savantagall usrs. Th qualty o nrgy s now controll by strct stanars, but thswll oubtlss hav to chang urthr to control aspcts o lctromagntccompatblty that ar constantly changng wth th ntroucton o nwproucton tchnologs (wn-powr, solar, tc.) or opratng tchnologs(powr lctroncs, dC, tc.)

Th solutons or by Lgran contrbut to mor ctv an morconomcal nrgy managmnt.

A knowlg o th phnomna nvolv s also on o th ky ponts that Book 3sts out to xplan usng a totally qualtatv approach that complmnts Book 2,whch monstrat ths sam n or nrgy fcncy by mans o th powranalyss opraton.

in accoranc wth ts polcy o contnuous mprovmnt, th Company rsrvs th rght to chang spccatonsan sgns wthout notc. All llustratons, scrptons, mnsons an wghts n ths catalogu ar or guancan cannot b hl bnng on th Company.

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01

Eneg dsttn cndtns

Geneal stcte o electicity netwoks 02

HV distibtion schematic diagams 08Schematic diagams o HV netaleathing systems 10

High voltage condctive pats bonding 11

Delivey point and connection to the HVnetwok 13

LV ationalized voltages 18

Eneg qlt nd dstnce the pwe sppl

Distbances descibed in standad

EN 50160 24Othe distbances 35

Netl ethng sstems

Netal eathing systems 48

Islanding 58

Netal eathing systems ogeneato sets 64

Selecting netal eathing systems 68

Netal eathing system and EMC 71

DC nstlltn les

Netal eathing systems inDC installations 75

Designing DC installations 78

Stcte the ptectn sstem 80

Pwe ct cmpenstn

Balancing systems 85

The need to compensate o eactive enegy 86Installation o capacitos 90

Installing capacitosand speciic installations 97

Stcte o HV capacitos 101

Composition o LV capacitobanks 105

Chaacteistics o capacitos 107

Tansient activation states 109

Electical esonance and enegy

compensation 114Hamonics and enegycompensation 119

Installation diagnostics 127

Capacitos potection 128

Chce pdcts

Apiva2 capacitos 136

Alpibloc capacitos with bilt-in CB 138

Alpimatic acks 139

Alpimatic atomatic capacito banks 140Alpistatic acks 142

Alpistatic atomatic capacito banks 143

Alptec powe acto contolles andpowe qality analyse 146

All ilm HV capacito 147

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E l E c t r i c a l E n E r g y s u p p l y

02

GENErA

LSTruCTurEOfELECTrICITyNETW

OrKS

Eneg

dsttncndtns

Electct s lexle, dptle m eneg, t t s dclt t ste, nd cnsmp-tn cstmes nd cncdentl demnd ecnstntl vng These eqements

necesstte pemnent tnsmssn ndpvsn eneg v dsttn sstem:- Hgh vltge hgh pwes nd lngdstnces- Lw vltge medm nd lw pwesnd sht dstnces

GENEraL STruCTurE of ELECTriCiTy NETWorKS

Large centresof consumption

Transformer substationson the distribution system

Production centres

Conurbations

Railway network

Towns, businesses,superstores,housing

Rural housing,craft industry

Private production

Transformer substations onthe local distribution system

Production centres

Industries

400 kV225 kV90 kV63 kV

20 kV400/230V

Althogh the tem netwok is oten sed in the singla to descibe the whole inastcte eqied to cayenegy om the podction centes to ses, it wold be moe accate to se the plal to cove all the dieentsystems which make p each level o the oveall system

Ee o ewok Dbo lo dbo

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03

GENErA


OrKS

The sstem s eglted mens eqements plced n pdces, n ptcl the eqement t keepthe cent eqenc t 50 Hz ( 60 Hz) T mch pwe eslts n n nwnted ncese n eqenc, whlenscent pwe cses dp n eqenc atmted sstems dscnnect pdces tht d nt cmpl wththe stndds, t the eglts the sstem ths tmtn eslts n ndm events tht e nt cntllednd m cse dmgein mn cntes thght the wld the sstem s nt ntecnnected, ethe ecse t s nt scentldvnced, ecse the cnt s t lge The cetn netwk sstems n Epe cnttes cnsdelt the ellt nd vllt thse sstems enlng exchnges enegNew eneg sces sch s wnd sl pwe nvlve new plems, de t the cnsdele vltnd ve ll the dclt cctel ecstng the pdctn sevel hs n dvnce The qestntheee ses the lnce etween ptentl cnsmptn nd the vlle pwe the new sces

the dve of eoeo

1 NaTioNaL aND iNTErNaTioNaLELECTriCiTy TraNSPorT NETWorKVoltages o 225 and 400 kV, in the VHV (Vey HighVoltage) ange, have histoically been sed in fance,bt othe voltages (see table 5 in standad IEC 60038)ae sed thoghot the wold These vey high volta-ges limit enegy loss ove long distancesPodction centes ae connected to one anothevia inteconnection stations which ae sed o disti-btion acoss the whole aea and also, i eqied,o exchanging enegy with bodeing conties,

as in Westen Eope, by the se o a single voltageo 400 kV

2 DiSTribuTioN NETWorKThis system caies the enegy to egional o localdistibtion centes (conbations) and to lage cons-mes sch as ailway netwoks, chemical o ion andsteel indsties, etc Switching stations incopoatetansomes which edce the voltage to vaioslevels, accoding to eqiements: 225 kV, 150 kV,90 kV, 63 kV o even diectly to 20 kV o shot distanceo limited powe ses

3 LoCaL DiSTribuTioN NETWorKusing tansome sbstations (HV/HV), the high vol-tage (90 kV, 63 kV) is edced to 20 kV o sometimeseven 15 kV (histoically medim voltage, MV) o diectlyto low voltage (230/400 V) which can be spplied toindividal ses (pivate hoses, shops, tadesmen,small companies, ams, etc) High voltage (gene-ally between 3 and 35 kV) is spplied to small towns,disticts o medim sized towns, villages, shoppingcentes, small and medim sized companies, etc Thesame pinciples o poviding and ensing the saetyo the high voltage spplies ae sed thoghot thewold That is, the distibtion pat o the high voltagesystem consists o a tansome sbstation, knownas the Soce sbstation This sbstation compisesone o moe tansomes which spply a system thatcan take a nmbe o oms, om the simplest (adialdistibtion) to the saest (doble tap-o, looped) Thepinciples o these systems ae shown on p08High voltage is geneally distibted between theephases, sally withot netal The HV netal pointis eathed by means o a netal point esisto o coilwhich limits the cent i thee is a phase/eath alt(see eathing diagams on p10)

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04

GENErA


OrKS

Enegy distibtionconditions (contined)

The enegy is deliveed om the localdistibtion system via an HV/HV(blk ses) o moe commonly anHV/LV soce sbstation An HV/LV

sbstation pimaily consists o:- One o moe incoming cabinets,depending on the type o spply- A potection and meteing cabinet(with HV main cicit beake)- One o moe tansome cabinets(one pe tansome)- The main LV distibtion boadbased on standad IEC 60364, whichcan be located in the same place asthe HV sbstation o in a dieentlocation

accdng t the EWEa (Epen Wnd Eneg assctn) the wnd-pweed pdctn se n Epe cld ech n nstlled pwe 180,000 MW n 2020, e ve the tmes the 2004 nstlled pwe, whch ws34,000 MW The pcedes cnnectng wnd-pweed nstlltnst the electct sstem e dened decees nd des instlltnswth mxmm pwe 12 MW e cnnected t the HV lcl dsttnsstem Ths sstem ws gnll set p t tke cnsmes (see dgmn p02) The gdl ntdctn pdctn nt the sstem m ledt n nvesn the pwe lws t HV sttnsinstlltns wth pwe me thn 12 MW e sll cnnected t thedsttn sstem (HV) The tend n the te wll e the develpment lnd-sed she wnd ms, genetng mch hghe pwes (tne hnded MW) whch cld e cnnected dectl nt the tnsmssnnetwk

coe wd-oweed odo oe

Production Local distribution

Railway

Heavy industry

Industry

20 kV

Interconnection station

400

kVi

nterconnection

Interconnection station

Switching station

Switching station

To

interconnection

To

interconnection

400 kV 225 or400 kV

125 or225 kV

20 kV

20 kV

Urban

distribution

230/400 V

Rural

distribution

230/400 V

Fom odo o e

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05

GENErA


OrKS

cfo of voe

fench decee n 88-1056 14 Nveme1988 dvdes vltges nt ve clssesThe ete tht dstngshes t m thententnl ppch s the dvsn LVnd HV nt s-clsses LVa, LVb, HVand HVb, whch e sed n mn cntes

Nmnl vltge un (V)

aC DC

Ext lw vltge ELV un 50 un 120

Lw vltge LVLVa 50 < un 500 120 < un 750

LVb 500 < un 1000 750 < un 1500

Hgh vltge HVHVa 1000 < un 50,000 1500 < un 75,000

HVb un > 50,000 un > 75,000

Stndd iEC 60038 denes set stndd vltges t e sed cetng aC nd DC pwe nd tctnsstems it ees t tw vltgenges, LV nd HV, wth segegtncespndng t the vs vltgessed thght the wldThe vs tles n ths stndde gven n the llwng pges

un (V) LV nge un (V) HV nge

aC pwesstems

100 Vto

1000 V(1)

1000 Vto

35 kV(1)

35 kVto

230 kV(1)>245 kV

DC tctnsstems

500 Vto

900 V(1)

1000 Vto

3600 V(1)- -

aC tctnsstems

-12,000 V

to27,500 V(1)

- -

(1) inclsive vale

National standards (1)

(1) In France, NF C 13100 (delivery substations) and NF C 13200 (high voltage installations)

MS1

MS2

HV line

IEC 60364

soe of he dd

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06

GENErA


OrKS


thee he ac em, wh om voeee h 1 kV d o exeed 35 kV

d oed eqme

Tw sets hghest vltges eqpment e gvenelw: ne 50 Hz nd 60 Hz sstems (sees i), thethe 60 Hz sstems (sees ii Nth amecnzne) it s ecmmended tht nl ne the twsees s sed n n ne cnt Sees i sstems egenell thee-we, whle thse n sees ii e -we

Sees i Sees ii

Hghestvltge

eqpment(kV)

Nmnl sstem

vltge (kV)

Hghestvltge

eqpment(kV)

Nmnlsstem

vltge(kV)

33 33 3 440 44677 66 6 12 11 10 133 1227 1337 133 1442 133

177(1) 15(1)

24 22 20 266 2444

36 33 366 344

400 35

(1) Vale not ecommended o new systems

ac em whoe om voe bewee 100 V d 1000 V ve

d oed eqme

Vles the phse-netl nd phse-t-phsevltges thee phse -we sstems twhch sngle phse thee phse eceves cne cnnected

Thee-phse -we thee-we sstems

Sngle-phsethee-we sstems

50 Hz 60 Hz 60 Hz

120/208 120/240

240(1)

230/400 277/480

400/690 480(1)

347/600

1000(1) 600(1)

(1) Thee-wie systems withot netal

The tem medm vltge, stll n l cmmn sge, eeed n fnce me less t the HVa nge (MV/LVtnsme) nd ppled t dsttn sppl sstems ndst in the cntes, the lmt cld e deentStndds aNSi/iEEE 1585 nd iEEE Std 1623 theee plce t etween 1 nd 35 kV (nge nd n stnddiEC 60038) f exmple, stndd NEMa 600 ees t medm vltge cles ted m 600 V t 69,000 VaCStndd EN 50160 n the chctestcs dsttn sstems (see p24) stll denes medm vltge (MV)s the vltge nge m 1 kV p t 35 kVit shld ls e nted tht the tems Ve hgh vltge (> 100 kV), Ext Hgh Vltge (> 300 kV) ndult Hgh Vltge (> 800 kV) e nt stnddsed ethe We shld theee centl nl ee t lw vltgend hgh vltge

che em ed

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07

GENErA


OrKS

thee he ac em, wh om voeee h 35 kV d o exeed 230 kV

d oed eqmeHghest vltge

eqpment (kV)Nmnl sstem vltge(1) (kV)

52(2) 45(2)

725 66 69

123 110 115

145 132 138

170(2) 150(2)

245 220 230

(1) Only se one o the ecommended sets o vales in any oneconty: 66/220 kV o 69/230 kV

(2) Vales not ecommended o new systems

thee he ac em fo whhhe hhe voe fo eqme

ee h 245 kVHghest vltge eqpment (kV)

300(1)

362

420

550

800

1050

1200


Eqme wh om voe beow120 V ac o 750 V Dc

DC aC

Nmnl vles Nmnl vles

Peeed(V)

Spplement(V)

Peeed(V)

Spplement(V)

- 22 - -

- 3 - -

- 4 - -

- 44 - -

- 5 - 5

6 - 6 -

- 77 - -

- 9 - -

12 - 12 -

- 15 - 15

24 - 24 -

- 30 - -

36 - - 36

- 40 - -

48 - 48 -

60 - - 60

72 - - -

- 80 - -

96 - - -

- - - 100

110 - 110 -

- 125 - -

220 - - -

- 250 - -

440 - - -- 600 - -

Dc d ac o em

Vltge rted eqenc aC sstems (Hz)Lwest (V) Nmnl (V) Hghest (V)

DC sstems

400(1) 600(1) 720(1) -

500 750 900 -

1000 1500 1800 -

2000 3000 3600 -

aC sngle-phse sstems

4750(1) 6250(1) 6900(1) 50 o 60

12,000 15,000 17,250 16 2/3

19,000 25,000 27,500 50 o 60


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08

HVDISTrIBuTIONSCHEMATICDIAGrAMS


HV DiSTribuTioN SCHEMaTiC DiaGraMS

d

HVA/LV HVA/LV

F

D

A

dF

A

Source substation

ae (o e -off) dbo em

Ths s mnl sed n l es, nvehed sstems i thee s ltn ne sectn cle n nessttn, the ses hve n spplwhle the ep s ced t

D: soe bo oo e

a: ae om e

d: Oo e o HVa/lV fome

F: tfome em oeo (HV fe)

A1

D1

D2 A2

d

Source substation

F

A1 A2

d

F

A1 A2

d

F

HVA/LV HVA/LV HVA/LV

r (ooed) dbo em

Ths s sed n n es lge ndstl stes nd hs thedvntge lmtng the tmedng whch ses n the lp hven sppl i thee s lt n nesectn cle n ne ssttn,the lt sectn s slted penng the tw devces n ethesde tht sectn, nd the lp se-sppled clsng the ccteke The lt s lcted vsll

n ndct lght n the tsde the tnsme ssttn

D1, D2: soe bo oo e

a1, a2: loo om/oo e

d: Oo e o HVa/lV fome

F: tfome em oeo

(HV fe)

A1 A2 A1 A2

HVA/LV HVA/LV

d

F

d

F

D1

D2

Source substation

Dobe -off (o dobe e) dbo em

Ths s sed t ense ptmmcntnt sevcei thee s lt n ne thelnes, the ssce's sppls swtched ve t the secndlne

D1, D2: soe bo oo e

a1, a2: iom e (wh meh ok)d: Oo e o HVa/lV fome

F: tfome em oeo (HV fe)

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09

HVDISTrIBuTIONSCHEMATICDIAGrAMS

The dsttn sstem tnsmes e cpled t the swtchng sttn ( sce ssttn) The hgh vltgelnes e dstted ccdng t the vs sstems, dependng n the ses' eqements nd sevce cndtnsnd the gegphcl tplg the lctns (dstnce t cnsmes) The dsttn ssttn cnstttes thend etween hgh vltge nd the lw vltge sed dectl cnsmes

Oo of he hh voe ewok

HV/HV transformers

HV/LV distribution

substations

HV/LV distribution

substations

Distribution

substation

(example HV/HV)

Ring

distribution

Radial

distribution

Double tap-off

distribution

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10

SCHEMA

TICDIAGrAMSOfHVNEuTrALEArT

HINGSySTEMS


SCHEMaTiC DiaGraMS of HV NEuTraL EarTHiNG SySTEMS

As with LV installations, it is advisable to locate the

high voltage system (netal point) in elation to theeath potential The dealt vales (cents, ove-voltages) will die accoding to the chaacteisticso this link (diect, esistive, indctive) and the eathconnection vale

Lw lt cent t vevltges nt dschgedused n ndst (< 15 kV)

ioed e

L1

N

ZL

L2

L3

ZL

ZL

Lmts lt cents nd vevltges, t eqesthe eth cnnectn vle t e cntlledused vehed nd ndegnd HVsstems

reve e

N

Zn

L1

L2

L3

ZL

ZL

ZL

The cmpenstn cl (ls clled c sppessn Petesen cl) cmpenstes the cpctnce the sstem C ts ndctnce Ln: edctn the lt cents Ln nd C mtchng, getesk vevltge, psslt pemnent ctvecmpenstn cmpteused n ndegnd HV sstems

imede ehed e

N

Ln

Cr

L1

L2

L3

ZL

ZL

ZL

Dect ethng elmntes vevltges t the ltcent s hghused n HV sstems cveng lng ve lngdstnces

Ehed e

N

L1

L2

L3

ZL

ZL

ZL

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11

HIGHVO

LTAGECONDuCTIVEPArTSBONDING

Independently o the netal eathing system speciic

to the high voltage netwok (which is the esponsibilityo the distibto), it is impotant to establish thepocedes o eathing the high voltage condctivepatsIn pactice, these ae the exposed condctive patso the HV delivey sbstation as against the eathingo the netal and exposed condctive pats o theLV systemThe connection o these HV condctive pats is deinedby an additional lette added to the sal designationsTT, TN and IT (see p48):- r, the HV condctive pats ae bonded to the eath othe netal and the eath o the LV condctive pats- N, the HV condctive pats ae bonded to the eath othe netal bt not to the LV condctive pats- S, the HV condctive pats ae sepaated om theeaths o the netal and LV condctive patsThis eslts in six possible combinations othe LV netal eathing system and the sitationo the HV condctive pats

1 TNr aND iTr SySTEMSIn these systems, the condcto o the HV condctivepats is electically connected to the single main eathteminal that is common to the whole installation

The main eath teminal is connected to the genealeqipotential bonding I othe neaby bildings aebeing spplied, the main eqipotential bonding o eachbilding will be connected to the geneal eqipotentialbonding (see p80)

PE orPEN

LV Cond. parts

Cond. parts of HV substationHV/LV

3

21

Rt

tnr em

LV Cond. parts

Cond. parts of HV substation

3N

Z

Rt

PE

21

HV/LV

itr em

HiGH VoLTaGE CoNDuCTiVE ParTS boNDiNG

an nsltn lt n the TNr sstem esltsn phse-netl sht cctThe mnmm cent mst e clclted tcheck tht the vecent ptectn devcese stleThe ptectve cndct mst n clset the lve cndcts

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12

HIGHVO

LTAGECONDuCTIVEPArTSBONDING


2 TTN aND iTN SySTEMSIn these systems, the HV condctive pats and the LVcondctive pats ae not electically connected to the

same eath connection The TTN system is ond inpblic LV distibtion systems o installations coveinglage aeas (bildings a long distance apat)

3 TTS aND iTS SySTEMSIn these systems, the eath connections o the HVcondctive pats, the netal point o the LV spply

and the LV condctive pats ae all sepaate Thissystem is needed o long-distance spply eqie-ments (montain esots o installations, etc)

PE

LV Cond. parts


3N

2

1

Rt1 Rt2

HV/LV

ttn em

PE

LV Cond. parts


3N

2

1

Rt1Rt0 Rt2

HV/LV

tts em

LV Cond. parts


3N

Z

Rt2Rt1

PE

2

1

HV/LV

itn em

LV Cond. parts


3N

Z

Rt2Rt1Rt0

PE

2

1

HV/LV

its em

in TTN nd TTS sstems, the lt cents e lmted nme ethng essts n sees cnnectednd the ntecnnectn the cndctve pts t these eths The sk s tht the lt cent vlecld e nscent t e detected Ths mst led t the se detects (esdl cent cl senstve thmpl cent) etween the netl pnt nd eth ledng t ekng n the 1st ltin iTN nd iTS sstems, nt ekng n the 1st lt s pemtted s lng s the lt cent s lmted(esstnce Z cpctve cplng the nstlltn n eltn t eth) Mntng nd ndctn pemnent nsltn mnt, nd ndng the lt qckl nd elmntng t e mndt nd eqe npppte sevce n hnd

in iTN nd iTS sstems, the 1

st

lt cent s nl lmted the cpctve mpednce t eth thenstlltn The nsetn n mpednce Z ths nceses the vle the lt t lmts tnsentvevltges in pctce, the vle the mpednce Z wll e tken t e ppxmtel hl tht the cpctve mpednce the nstlltn

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13

DELIVEr

yPOINTANDCONNECTIONTOHVNE

TWOrK

DELiVEry PoiNT aND CoNNECTioN To HV NETWorK

The delivey point constittes the bonday between the distibtion stctes and the cstome's pivate

installations This is also eeed to as the concession bonday

poe-moedbo

The dstt enses tht the stctes whch t hlds the cncessn pete nccdnce wth the specctnsf petnl esns the dstt mneed t c t wk n the cstme'sssttn The cstme s espnsle the pvte nstlltns tht t ses

HV connection to transformer

with or without transformer cabinet

Connection to system with or without cable

trough via single pole or three-pole cablesCable trough foroutgoing LV cables

2 incomingcabinetsIM

LV equipment

CT provided bythe energydistributor

ProtectioncabinetPM or QMIM

LV

connection

Exme of de of deve bo

^ HV devebo whoo d oeo

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14

DELIVEr


TWOrK


Switch Double tap-off incoming line

Hh voe be

Cnets mst cmpl wth the llwng stndds:- EDf HN 64 S 41 (mdl cnets) HN 64 S 42(ksk ssttn)

- Nf C 13-100,13-200 nd EN 62271-1 cnets, ndthe stndds specc t ech tem swtchge, nptcl EN 62271-200 pstve cntct ndctn

sdd d efobe Fe

1 SELECTioN of HiGH VoLTaGE CabiNETSThe cabinets mst meet positive contact indication,locking and opeation citeia and be sitable o the

chaacteistics o the spply system:opeating voltage, line intensity, shot-cicit powe(o intensity)A cabinet is chaacteised by:- Its ated voltage (accoding to the system voltage)- Its ated cent (to be calclated accodingto the nmbe o tansomes to be spplied)- Its shot-cicit cent withstand (accodingto the shot-cicit powe o the psteam system)- Its nction (switch, cicit beake, etc)

2 HV/LV TraNSforMErSZcchini dy-type HV/LV tansomes signiicantlyedce the installation stesses on deliveysbstations:

- No isk o leak- redction o ie isks- redction o electomagnetic adiationfo selection and ll chaacteistics pleaseee to Book 2: Powe balance and choiceo powe spply soltions

Zh >fome

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15

DELIVEr


TWOrK

Ee deve bo

HiGH VoLTaGE LoW VoLTaGE

Zh Hr d scp bb- Fo o d dbo of hh owe- sfe, fexbe d f o em- Deed fo mmzed eeome emo- reded weh om o do o

Zh tfome- Fom 100 o 20 000 kVa- c e fome- cefed low Emo (clE)

Hh voe ee omeo d oweq moo- Ve hh ee o o ee fed- Ve ow owe oe, eb odebev fo hhowe o bk- re me owe q e : d,we, wvefom, owe q eo, fke,hmo

Xl eoe- Mod em fo fe dom o o 4000 a- Fom of eo, fom 2 o 4b

low voe ee omeoav2 d am e- Vm ehoo o- aom o bk

Legnd hs pdct e eneg delve ssttns hgh nd lw vltge cmpenstn, tnsmtn,eneg tnsmssn, mesement nd pwe nlss nctns

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16


Energy distributionconditions (continued)

DELIVER

YPOINTANDCONNECTIONTOHVNE

TWORK

3 Power factor comPensationImproving the power factor of an electrical installationconsists of giving it the means to produce a varying

proportion of the reactive energy that it consumesitself.Different systems are available to produce reactiveenergy, particularly phase advancers and shuntcapacitor banks.The capacitor is most frequently used thanks to:- its non-consumption of active energy,- its purchasing cost,- its easy use,- its service life,- its very low maintenance (static device).The capacitor is a receiver composed of twoconducting parts (electrodes) separated by an

insulator. When this receiver is subjected to asinusoidal voltage, it shifts its current, and there-fore its (capacitive reactive) power, by 90 in advancethe voltage. Conversely, all other receivers (motors,transformers, etc.) shift their reactive component(inductive reactive power or current) by 90 delay thevoltage. The vectorial composition of these (induc-tive or capacitive) reactive powers or currents gives aresulting reactive power or current below the existingvalue before the installation of capacitors. In otherwords, inductive receivers (motors, transformers, etc.)consume reactive energy, while capacitors (capacitive-receivers) produce reactive energy.

4 filtering harmonicsFor installations with a high level of harmonic pollu-tion, the user may be confronted with two

requirements:- compensating for reactive energy and protectingthe capacitors- reducing the voltage distortion rate to acceptablevalues compatible with the correct operation of mostsensitive receivers (programmable logic controller,industrial computer hardware, capacitors, etc.). Forthis application, Legrand is able to offer passive typeharmonic filters. A passive type harmonic filter is aserial combination of a capacitor and an inductive coilfor which each combined frequency corresponds tothe frequency of an interfering harmonic voltage to beeliminated.

For this type of installation, Legrand products offerservices like:- analysis of the supply on which the equipment is tobe installed with measurements of harmonic currentsand voltages- computer simulation of the compatibility of theharmonic impedances of the supply and the differentfilters- calculation and definition of the different componentsof the filter- supply of capacitors, inductive coils, etc.- measurement of system efficiency after installationon site.

a d p ( 1) ( 0).a d p p d pvd dv:- b v y,- d ubbd p kVa,- v y b k d u vyd ,- pv v v d ,- dd p vb p p pd dyd.t d d p dv xpd p 90.

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17

DELIVER

YPOINTANDCONNECTIONTOHVNE

TWORK

5 meteringMetering is an important element in an electrical dis-tribution system. It provides information on the active

power consumed on the installation as well as thereactive power, which is non-productive for the user,but necessary for creating the magnetic field in thewindings of motors and transformers, without whichthey would not be able to operate.In many countries the electrical energy distributors billfor this reactive energy, which can be eliminated byincorporating a capacitor bank in the customer's ins-tallation, hence the importance of metering, in order todetermine whether this value needs to be improved.Metering is normally used, but there are still installa-tions that do not have this function, leading to difficultyin optimising the energy consumption of these instal-

lations.

The opening up of markets and the diversity of offershas led to there being a plethora of metering and bil-ling arrangements today.But as a general rule the metering principles are stilllinked to the terms of supply.A distinction is therefore made between controlledpower connections and monitored power connections.In the former, the limit of available energy is set by adetection device that trips if there is an overcurrent.

Different tariffs can be applied according to the time ofday (peak times/off-peak times), the day (peak days) orother rules.In the latter, protection is of course provided against

overcurrents, but it does not have a limiting role inrelation to a supply contract. The energy is billedaccording to more or less complex concepts: peaktimes, summer, winter, moving peak, adjustable peak,etc. and additional billing if the contractual values areexceeded.

n ub dvp qu d v pp d pvdb pby x y db u d pdu.t bud uu b b pdud u d b b, pb,pb (pv y) u dpdu (, d-pd, .).

t u b -y bu , p y .

iee mee

t y upp u d b v p up d yp

d ubbd dd.i , v bd, y dd vu v p d p , qud, p ( p. 90).i , y dvb ku u , ppp p d u.

a b p k pb vd v y bd.t y v qud pp bvu dv d p , ddd dy byduv d d py by d d

(). s Bk 2.

reve ee meeme

< Fh-moede mee

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18



LVRATIO

NALIZEDVOLTAGES

lV rationalizeD Voltages

Although a great deal of harmonisation work has beencarried out internationally in order to adopt identicalvoltage values and electricity system characteris-tics, there are still a great many variants (see tablesof countries' characteristics) which could hamperexchanges of products and above all risk creating dan-gerous situations.

To this end, standard IEC 60664-1 has establishedthe concept of rationalized voltage which enablesa number of nominal supply voltages to be linked toa reference value, referred to as rationalized. Thisvalue can then be used for designing devices or inproduct standards. The insulation value of a device Uishould normally refer to a voltage of this type, whichimplies that the device can be used on all electricalsupply systems that are included in that value.

se-he hee o wo-we ac o Dc em

n v uppy y (V)

rd v

f u -- f u --

a y (V) 3- y d d-p (V)

12.5 12.5 -

24 25 -

25 25 -

30 32 -

42 50 -

48 50 -

50 50 -

60 63 -

30-60 63 32

100 100 -

110 125 -

120 125 -

150 160 -

200 200 -

100-200 200 100

220 250 -

110-220 250 125

120-240 250 125

300 320 -

220-440 500 250

600 630 -

480-960 1000 500

1000 1000 -

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19

LVRATIO

NALIZEDVOLTAGES

thee-he fo o hee-we ac em

n v uppy y (V)

rd v

f u -- f u --

a y (V)

t-p u-y u-d

t-p -y ud -d

60 63 32 63

110 125 80 125

120 125 80 125

127 125 80 125

150 160 - 160

200 200 - 200

208 200 125 200

220 250 160 250230 250 160 250

240 250 160 250

300 320 - 320

380 400 250 400

400 400 250 400

415 400 250 400

440 500 250 500

480 500 320 500

500 500 320 500

575 630 400 630

600 630 - 630

660 630 400 630

690 630 400 630

720 800 500 800830 800 500 800

960 1000 630 1000

1000 1000 - 1000

The phase/earth insulation level for systems that arenot earthed or are earthed via an impedance (IT neu-tral earthing system) must be considered as being thesame level as that between phases. An insulation faulton one phase may result in a rise in earth voltage andincrease the values of the other two phases in relationto the faulty phase to that of the phase-to-phase (orfull) voltage.

For equipment designed to be used on either Three-phase four or three-wire systems, insulation shouldbe considered necessary between phase and earthat the same level as between phases (read from the3-wire three phase system column). The design ofLegrand distribution blocks and busbars (see Book 12)incorporates this requirement by providing an identicalinsulation level for all phase and neutral poles.

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20



LVRATIO

NALIZEDVOLTAGES

coFeqe (Hz)d oee

(% )

Hoehodvoe (V)

comme voe (V)

id voe (V)

Voeoee

(% )ab 50 + 0.5 220/380 220/380 220/380 6 kV - 10 kV +5

a 50 1 220 380/220380/220 30 kV (rural)

10 kV (urban)10

ad 50 +1230400

230400

230 400 +6/-10

a 50 5 380/220 220 380/220 400/231 10

au d Bbud 60 400/230 120/208 400/230 120/208

a 50 2 220380/220

220380/220 8

a 50 0.4 380/220 220380/220 220 110 kV

35 kV/6 kV 10 kV

380/220 220 110 kV

35 kV/6 kV 10000 kV5

au 50 0.1 400/230 400/230 400/230 +10/-6

au 50 1 230 400/230 400/23010

(400/230)

abj 50 0.4 380/220 220380/220

220380/220 5

B 50 2415/240 240

400/230415/240 240

400/23011 kV 415/240

240 400/230 6Bd 50 2 400/230 400/230 11 kV 400/230 10

Bu 50 0.8380/220 220

220/127 127380/220 220 380/220

Normally 5Maxi 10

Bu 50 3 230 400/230 230 400/230 From 3 to 15.5 kV+6/-10

B 50 5 220 220 to 380 15 kV/380V 10

Bv 50 5 230 400/230 230 400/230 +5/-10

B hv 500.2 380/220 220 380/220 22010 kV 6.6 kV

380/22085

B 60 220/127 380/220 220-127 380/220 440/254 +5/-7.5

Bu 50 0.1 220/230 220/230 380 10

Buk 50 10 230 400 400 10

Buud 50 1 380/220 400/230400/230 66 kV/400-230

10 kV/400-23030 kV/400-230

10

cbd 50 0.5 220 380/220 380/220 5

cu 50 1 220-260 260-220 380/220 +5/-10

cd 60 2240/120

240347/600 416/240

208/120 600

46 kV 34.5 kV/20 kV

24.94 kV/14.4 kV13.8 kV/8 kV

12.47 kV/7.2 kV4.16 kV/2.4 kV 600/347

+4/-8.3

cy d 50 5 220 220/380 380/220 5

cp Vd 50 220 220/380380/400 20 kV 6 kV

15 kV 13 kV 10 kV5

c arpub

50 4 220/380 15 kV 220/380 15 kV 220/380 10

cd 50 1 220 220 380/220 Not available

c 50 0.2 220 38013.8 kV 13.2 kV12 kV 440 380

3.5

c 50 0.2 220380220

380220

7+7/-10

cb 60 0.2 240/120 208/120 240/120 208/12044 kV 34.5 kV 13.8 kV

(11.4 kV Bogota only) +5/-10c (Drpub)

50 220/240 380/220380/220 6.6 kV

20 kV 30 kV10

c r 60 240/120 240/120 208/120240/120 208/120

400/2775

c div 50 2 230/400 15 kV 19 kV 43 kV 15 kV 19 kV 43 kV +6/-10

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21

LVRATIO

NALIZEDVOLTAGES

coFeqe (Hz)d oee

(% )

Hoehodvoe (V)

commevoe (V)

id voe (V)

Voeoee

(% )c 50 400/230 230 400/230 230 400/230 10cub 60 1 115/230 230/400 230/400 10

cypu 50 2.5 230/400 230/400 22/11 kV 230/440 10

c pub 50 1 230/400230/400 500

690

400 kV 220 kV 110 kV

35 kV 22 kV 10 kV6 kV 3 kV

+6/-10

Dk 50 1 400/230 400/230 400/230 +6/-10

Djbu 50 220 400/230 400/230 20 kV 10

D pub 60 240 240/1207.2 kV 480 220/110

208 1153

eud 60 1 110 110 440/220 5

eyp 50 0.5 380/220 220 380/220 220132 kV 66 kV 33 kV20 kV 22 kV 11 kV

6.6 kV 380/22010

e 50 1 380/220 220 380/220 220 380/220 10

ep 50 2.5 220 380/23015 kV 45 kV 132 kV

230 kV 380/23010

fj 50 2 415/240 240 415/240 240 11 kV 415/240 6

fd 50 +/0.1 230 400 400/230400/230 690/400 690/400

10 kV 20 kV 110 kV+6/-10

f 50 1 400/230 230 400/230 690/400 20 kV 10 kV 400/230 +6/-10

f gu 50 220 230/ 400 15 kV 20 kV 30 kV 400 Not available

g 50 0.5 380/220 380/220 380 6 kV 10 kV 10

gy 50 0.5 400/230 230 400/230 23020 kV 10 kV 6 kV

690/400 400/230+6/-10

g 50 5 240-220 240-220 415-240 10

g 50 230 230/400 400 +6/-10

gd 50 230 400/230 400/230 +4/-8

gudup 50 and 60 220 380/220 20 kV 380/220 Not available

hdu 60 3 220/110480/277 240/120 69 kV 34.5 kV 13.8 kV

480/277 240/120+ ou-5

h K 50 2 380/220 380/220 11 kV 380/220 6

huy 50 1 230/400 230/440 230/400 10

id 50 0.1 230 400/230 400/230 +6/-10

id 50 3 440 230 400 230 11 kV 440/250 10

id 50 220 220/380 220/380 150 kV 70 kV 20 kV 5

i 50 5 220 380/220 20 kV 400/230 380/220 5

iq 50 220 380/22011 kV 6.6 kV

3 kV 380/2205

id 50 2 230 400/23010 kV 20 kV 38 kV

110 kV 400/230+6/-10

i 50 +0.5/-0.6 400/230 400/230For above 630 kVA:12.6 kV/22 kV/33 kV

/110 kV/161 kV10

iy 50 2 400/230 230 400/23020 kV 15 kV

10 kV 400/23010

Jp 50 (east) / 60 (west) 200/100200/100

(up to 50 kW)140 kV 60 kV 20 kV

6 kV 200/100

6V(101V)20V(202V)6-140 kV

Jd50 230 400/230

415/240 3.3 6.6 11 kV7Ky 50 2.5 240 415/240 415/240 6

K pub u

60 0.2 220 13 110 10 380 38V 220 1320.8 kV 23.8 kV

380 38V 380/220Not available

Ku 50 4 230 400/230 400/230 +10/-10

lv 50 0.4 380/220 220 380/220 220 380/220 +10/-15

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22



LVRATIO

NALIZEDVOLTAGES

coFeqe (Hz)d oee

(% )

Hoehodvoe (V)

commevoe (V)

id voe (V)

Voeoee

(% )lb 50 220 380/220 380/220 10

lyb 50 1 220 220/380380

11 kV10

lu 50 1 400/230 400/230 400/230 10luxbu 50 0.0 400/230 400/230 65 kV 20 kV +6/-10md 50 380/220 220 380/220 220 10 kV 6.6 kV 380/220 Not available

md 50 2 220/110 380/220 220/110 380/22063 kV 35 kV 30 kV

20 kV 15 kV5.5 kV 380/220

Low voltage: 7Hight voltage: 5

my 50 1240

415/240415/240 415/240 +5/-10

m 50220

380/220220 380/220 Not available Not available

m 50 2 230 400/230 11 kV 400/230 +10/-6mqu 50 230 230/400V 230 230/400 20 kV -10/+6mu 50 380/220 380/220 15 kV 380/220 10muu 50 1 230 400/230 400/230 6

mx 60 0.2 220/127 220 120 220/127 220 120 13.8 kV 13.2 kV480/277 220/127 10

m 50 5 380/220 380/220225 kV 150 kV

60 kV 22 kV10

nd 50 10 400/230 230 400/23025 kV 20 kV 12 kV

10 kV 230/40010

n zd 50 1.5 400/230 230 400/230 230 11 kV 400/230 6

n 50 1 230 220 400/230 380/22015 kV 11 kV

400/230 380/2205

ny 50 1 400/230 400/230 400/230 690 10Pk 50 230 400/230 230 400/230 5Puy 50 5 220 380/220 220 22 kV 380/220 5Pu 60 6 220 220 20 kV 10 kV 220 5

Pd50 +0.2/-0.550 +0.4/-1

230 400/2301 kV 690/400

400/230 6.3 kV+6/-10

Pu 50 1 400/230 23060 kV 30 kV 15 kV

10 kV 400/230 230

60 kV 30 kV 15 kV

10 kV 400/230 23060 10

Q 50 1 240 415/240 33 kV 66 kV 132 kV 5

r 50 0.5 230 440/230 660/380400/230

10

ru 50 0.2 380/220 220660/380/220380/220/127

660/380/220380/220/127

+10/-20

rd 50 1 220 380/220 15 kV 6.6 kV 380/220 5sud ab 60 0.3 220/127 220/127 13.8 kV 380/220 5s 50 5 220 380/220 220/127 90 kV 30 kV 6.6 kV 10

sb 50230/400

230230/440

23010 kV 6.6 kV 230/400 10

sp 50 1 400/230 230 400/230 22 kV 6.6 kV 400/230 6svk 50 0.5 230/030 230/400 230/400 10

sv 50 0.1 230/400 230/40035 kV 20 kV 10 kV 6 kV

3.3 kV 1000V 660V

500V 400/230

+6/-10 for400/230

s 50 230 220 110440/220 220/110

230440/220 220/110 10

su a 50 2.5

433/250 400/230

380/220 220

11 kV 6.6 kV 3.3 kV433/250 400/230

380/220

11 kV 6.6 kV 3.3 kV

500 380/220 10

sp 50 0.5380/220 220

220/127 127380/220 220/127

25 kV 20 kV 15 kV

11 kV 10 kV 6 kV

3 kV 380/2207

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23

LVRATIO

NALIZEDVOLTAGES

coFeqe (Hz)d oee

(% )

Hoehodvoe (V)

commevoe (V)

id voe (V)

Voeoee

(% )sud 50 240 415/240 240 415/240 Not available

sd 50 0.5 400/230 230 400/230 2306 kV 10 kV 20 kV

400/230+6/-10

sd 50 2 400/230 400/23020 kV 16 kV 10 kV 3 kV

1 kV 690/400 950/40010

sy ab rpub 50 380/220 220380/220 220

220/115380/220 5

td 50 5 220380/220

220380/220 Not available

tu 50 2380/220 231/400

242/420380/220 231/400

242/42030 kV 15 kV 10 kV 10

tuky 50 1 380/220 380/22036 kV 15 kV

6.3 kV 380/22010

Uk 50 +0.2/-0.4 380/220 220 380/220 220380/220

220+5/-10

Ud ab e(aDwea)

50 0.5 415/240 415/240 11 kV 415/240 5

Ud ab e(Dewa) 50 1 380/220 380/220 11 kV 6.6 kV 380/220 3

Ud ab e(sewa)

50 1 415/240 415/240 11 kV 6.6 kV 415/240 5

Ud ab e(fewa)

501 415/240 415/240 11 kV 415/240 5

Ud Kdexud nid

501 230 400/23022 kV 11 kV 6.6 kV

3.3 kV 400/230+10/-6

UK n id 500.4 230 220 400/230 380/220 400/230 380/220 6

(Usa) n c 60 0.06240/120 208/120

10%240 480/277

460/265 240/120

208/120

10%24 kV 14.4 kV 7.2 kV

2.4 kV 575 460 240

460/265 240/120 208/120

+5/-2.5

(Usa) m 60 0.2 240/120 208/120480 240/120

208/12013.2 kV 4.8 kV 4.16 kV

480 240/120 208/120+4/-6.6

(Usa) c 60 0.2 240/120 4.8 kV 240/120 4.8 kV 240/120 5

(Usa) m 60 0.3 240/120 208/120 240/120 208/12013.2 kV 2.4 kV

480/277 240/120 5

(Usa) n Yk 60 240/120 208/120240/120 208/120

24027.6 kV 13.8 kV 12.47 kV

4.16 kV 480/277 480Not available

(Usa) Pbu 60 0.3 240/120460/265 240/120

208/120 460 230

13.2 kV 11.5 kV 2.4 kV

460/265 208/120

460 230

5 (ligthning)10 (power)

(Usa) Pd 60 240/120480/277 240/120

208/120 480 240

19.9 kV 12 kV 7.2 kV

2.4 kV 480/277208/120 480 240

Not available

(Usa) s f 60 0.08 240/120 208/120480/277 240/120 20.8 kV 12 kV 4.16 kV

480 480/277 240/1205

(Usa) o 60 0.08 240/120 208/120480/277 240/120

208/120

12.47 kV 7.2 kV 4.8 kV

4.16 kV 480480/277 208/120

5

Uuuy 50 1 220 220 3x220/38015 kV 6 kV 220

3x220/3806

Vu 60 120 480/277 208/12013.8 kV 12.47 kV

4.8 kV 2.4 kVNot available

V 50 0.1 220 380/220 500 kV 220 kV 110 kV35 kV 22 kV 15 kV10 kV 6 kV 3 kV

5

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DISTURB

ANCESDESCRIBEDINSTANDARDEN

50160

ey quy d

dub p uppy

t quy y y b -d by v u dbuy (, , .) by ud y xp v v uup ( ) v().

DistUrBances DescriBeD in stanDarD en 50160

It is therefore important to set clear rules between the distributor and the consumer under a supply contract.

This can specify stricter provisions than standard EN 50-160 (see below) but by default in Europe it constitutesthe binding reference document in the absence of any specific regulations or other undertaking by thedistributor.

The quality of the electricity supply is the subject ofa European standard, EN 50160, which stipulates thepermissible limits of 14 values or phenomena charac-terising or affecting the 50 Hz sinusoidal signal. Based

on a statistical approach, it is designed to ensure acertain level of quality during normal operation.

1 signal freQUencYThe nominal voltage frequency is 50 Hz with a tole-rance of +/-1% (i.e. 49.5 to 50.5 Hz) for 99.5% of eachone-year period and +4 to -6% (i.e. 47 to 52 Hz) for thewhole period.

U

t

Frequency (Hz): f = 1/T

at 50 Hz, T = 20 ms

T : period (s)

Feqe d eod

Model 7100

350.0 V

Three Phase Delta

165.0 A

-350.0 V -165.0 A

0.0 A0.0 V

Waveshape Disturbance

2

4

6

Exme of eod how feqedf d doo

This type of fluctuation is virtually nonexistent onpublic distribution systems in industrialised countries.In installations supplied by standalone sources(generator sets, inverters, etc.), different tolerancelimits can be set, or regulation devices may even be

necessary.The same applies to systems that are not interconnec-ted (for example, islands) where wider tolerances arepermitted: +/- 2% for 99.5% of each week and +/-15%for 100% of the time.

2 amPlitUDe of the sUPPlYVoltageThe supply voltage represents the rms value measu-red at the delivery point. It is measured at a givenmoment and averaged over a time interval (typically10 minutes).

The nominal voltage Un which characterises thesystem can be distinguished from the stated voltageUc which would result from an agreement on valuesthat are different from those in standard EN 50160.

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25

DISTURB


50160

The standard voltage for low voltage public systems inEurope is:- 230 V between phases and neutral (400 V betweenphases) for three phase systems with neutral

- 230 V between phases for three phase systemswithout neutral

3 slow Voltage VariationsUnder normal operating conditions, the following slowvoltage fluctuations are permitted over a period of oneweek: +/- 10% of the reference value (230 or 400 V), i.e.

207 to 253 V or 360 to 440 V for 95% of measurements,and - 15% to +10% for 100% of measurements, i.e. 195to 253 V and 340 to 440 V.The supply voltage of the system can fluctuate daily,weekly or seasonally as a result of significant varia-tions in load on the system. Voltage regulation devicesinstalled in transformer substations can limit thesevariations. In addition, high power receivers such aswelding stations, large motors, furnaces and otherenergy-intensive installations may cause local voltagedrops while they are in operation.

Exme of eod how mdevo of he voe

MaxiMediumMini

Power limits are generally set for motors supplied by apublic distribution system.The solution may therefore be to increase the power ofthe source (reduction of its impedance and increase inits short-circuit power) or compensate for the reactiveenergy connected with one device in particular that iscausing disturbance (see page 99).

4 fast sUPPlY Voltage VariationsThese variations, which come mainly from currentsdrawn by high loads, should not exceed 5 to 10% of thenominal voltage. Recordings show that momentaryreductions of 30% are totally possible when receiverssuch as motors or transformers are switched on.These variations are non-periodic and occur at randommoments.When fast voltage variations become cyclical, this isreferred to as flicker, with reference to light variationswhich can be annoying above a certain level.

Exme of eod howow voe vo

400V

08/12/09

20h00

09/12/09

00h0

09/12/09

04h00

09/12/09

08h00

09/12/09

12h00

09/12/09

16h00

09/12/09

20h00

10/12/09

00h00

10/12/09

04h00

10/12/09

08h00

405V

410V

415V

Average data two hoursLine-to-line voltage

Line-to-line voltage: FACEL TR1U12 MoyU23 MoyU31 Moy

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DISTURB


50160

Model 7100

300.0 V

Three phase delta

50.0 A

0.0 V

0 sec

0.0 A

600.00 ms

25.0 A150.0 V

RMS values marker

30.00 ms/div

Exme of eod of voe d

5 flicKer seVeritYThe intensity of the annoyance caused by flicker isdefined by a UIE-CIE (International Union for

Electricity Applications - International Commissionon Illumination) measurement method.It is evaluated as follows: Short term severity (Pst) measured over a periodof ten minutes Long term severity (Plt) calculated based on asequence of 12 Pst values over a two-hour period,according to the following formula:

Plt = 3 Pst312

12

i = 1

Under normal operating conditions, for each one-week

period, it is recommended that the long term flickerseverity level Plt associated with voltage fluctuationsis less than or equal to 1 for 95% of the time.

08/12/09

20h00

09/12/09

00h0

09/12/09

04h00

09/12/09

08h00

09/12/09

12h00

09/12/09

16h00

09/12/09

20h00

10/12/09

00h00

10/12/09

04h00

10/12/09

08h00

0,8

0,6

0,4

0,2

1

Donnes moyennes 2 heuresFicker Plt

Ficker Plt : FACEL TR1Plt1 MoyPlt1 Max

Plt2 MoyPlt2 Max

Plt3 MoyPlt3 Max

Exme of eod howfke eve vo

6 Voltage DiPsThese can be due to faults occurring at usersinstallations, but they often result from troubles

on the public distribution system. The numbers ofthese vary considerably according to local conditions,and they generally only last up to one second.

Most voltage dips last less than 1 second with a depthof less then 60%. In other words, the residual voltageremains greater than 40%.There is a voltage dip as soon as the rms value of oneof the voltages, measured separately on each phase,falls below a set threshold.Standard EN 50160 does not specify the number, dura-tion or depth of voltage dips. This characteristic couldform the subject of a contractual agreement.

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DISTURB


50160

e d pu qup v v v. t , d by ppyd u, y u P Quy pb.t i ty iduy cu uv (itic uv), bd p b dd, v u (dp vv) b pb upb. P du v u v uppy v, uv d dv ud u p up d.

itic ve

100%

10s 100s 1ms 10ms

Duration

100s 1s 10s 100s

200%

300%

400%

500% Percent ofnominal

value

Prohibited region: 0

No damage region: 0

7 short Voltage interrUPtionsShort interruptions or microbreaks refer to whenthe value of the signal drops to 0 V or less than 1% of

the nominal voltage. These generally last less thana second, although a break of 1 minute may still beconsidered as being short. Microbreaks and voltagedips are phenomena that are often random and unpre-dictable, and they may occur irregularly over time. Itmay be important to define contractually the maxi-mum duration and threshold for a voltage dip to beconsidered as being a microbreak (for example a vol-tage < 40% of Un for less than 600 ms). In most cases,only recordings can enable a decision on the accuracyof the phenomena to be made with certainty.

Model 7100300.0 V

Three Phase Wye50.0 A

0.0 V

0 sec

0.0 A

600.00ms

25.0 A150.0 V

RMS Sag Disturbance

30.00 ms / div

1V

Exme of eod of ho voeeo

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Energy quality and disturbanceof the power supply (continued)

DISTURB


50160

8 long Voltage BreaKsThese values are not quantified as they depend ontotally chance elements.

The frequency with which they occur is very variableand is dependent on the architecture of the distributionsystem or the exposure to climatic hazards.Under normal operating conditions, the annual fre-quency of voltage interruptions of more than threeminutes may be less than 10 or can reach as many as50, depending on the region.

9 temPorarY oVerVoltagesThis type of fault can occur both on the distributionsystem and on the user's installation. It can be devas-tating as the voltage supplied may reach a level that isdangerous for equipment.The main risk is there being a phase-to-phase insteadof a phase-neutral voltage if, for example, the neutralfails. Faults on the high voltage system (fallen line) canalso generate overvoltages at the low voltage end.Standard EN 50-160 does not set limits for theseovervoltages. But on this point, it is essential, for thesafety of people and installations, to choose equip-ment sized according to the standards (harmonisedwith IEC 60064-1) and tested for withstand to lightningimpulses (see next section).

10 transient (or PUlse)oVerVoltagesThese phenomena are very variable. They are mainlydue to lighting and switching on the system. Their risetime ranges from a few microseconds to a few milli-seconds, so their frequency range is very wide, froma few kHz to several hundred kHz. Protection againstovervoltages requires the use of protection devicessuch as voltage surge protectors (see Book 7) and theinstallation of equipment that is appropriate for its

location in the installation.

rqu dd iec 60064-1:

Sturdy basic insulation and supplementary insulation

u d py vv:

- s du py vv, pud

U + 1200 V < 5

- l du py vv, pud

U + 250 V > 5

(U uppy y p-u

v )

Reinforced insulation must withstand values equal

dub vv vu

io oodo owvoe em wh ed

o emo ovevoe

U

tt

t : 5 ms

t wh ovevoe wve

0ms 500ms 1s 1s500ms

50V

100V

150V

200V

250V

300V

350V

400V

Date 17/09/2009 Heure:03:51:35:25Tension

Exme of eod of o voe bek

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50160

t d pu v vu (Up) qup d u b vupd vv y (i iV), d ( Bk 7 p.15).

f 230/400V y vv p uppy y dd xd 6 kV pk (en 50-160)

io oodo iEc 60664-1

P-uv ddud

ac Dc

v up dud

n v uy ud d v (V)rd pu v

qup

(V)

ovv y

4- p y

du

3- p y,

d

s py

2- ac Dc

s py

3- ac Dc

i ii iii iV

150 220/208 115, 120 100 100-200 800 1500 2500 4000

127/220 127 - - - - - -

- - 110, 120 110-220 - - - -

- - - 120-240 - - - -

300- 200, 220, 220 220-440 - - - -

220/380, 230/400 230, 240, 260, - - 1500 2500 4000 6000

240/415, 260/440 277, 347 - - - - - -

277/480 380, 400, 415 - - - - - -

- 440, 480 - - - - - -

600

347/600, 380/660 - - - - - - -

400/690, 417/720 500, 577, 600 480 480-960 2500 4000 6000 8000

480/830 - - - - - - -

Model 7100

600.0 V

Single phase

50.0 A

-600.0 V

0 sec

-50.0 A

20.00 ms

0.0 A0.0 V

Pulse

1000.00 us/div

1V261.6+

225.7-

reod of ovevoe de o h ke

l k y vv d u dp p dvd by dbu. Ukvd y, udud yy u k v.

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DDISTURBANCESDESCRIBEDINSTANDARDEN50160


11 Voltage UnBalanceVoltage unbalance is caused by high power singlephase loads.

It causes negative current components which can trig-ger braking torques and temperature rises in rotatingmachines.It is advisable to divide the loads over the three phasesas much as possible and to protect installations usingappropriate detectors.Under normal operating conditions, for each one-week period, 95% of the rms values of the negativesequence component of the supply voltage, averagedover ten minutes, must be between 0% and 2% of thepositive sequence component.

In some regions where parts of system users' installa-tions have single phase connections or are connectedbetween two phases, the unbalance can reach 3% atthe three phase point of supply.If i is the instantaneous unbalance value, the averagerate m is defined by the equation

m =1

0

i2(t)dt

where T = 10 minutes

Standard EN 50-160 only stipulates limits based on thenegative sequence components of the voltage.

08/12/09

20h00

09/12/09

00h0

09/12/09

04h00

09/12/09

08h00

09/12/09

12h00

09/12/09

16h00

09/12/09

20h00

10/12/09

00h00

10/12/09

04h00

10/12/09

08h00

1%

0,5%

1,5%

Donnes moyennes 2 heuresTension symtrique

Tension symtrique : FACEL TR1Dsquilibre MoyDsquilibre Max

Exme of eod of voe be

Satisfactory approximations can be made usingconventional measurements enabling the unbalanceratio between negative and positive components to beascertained.

voltage unbalance = 6 x (U212+ U

223+ U

231)

(U12 + U23 + U31)-2

where U12+ U23+ U31 are the three phase-phasevoltages

12 harmonic Voltages

When the characteristics of a distribution system aredescribed, the harmonic distortion of the distributedvoltage(s) is an important factor with regard to opera-

The symmetrical system corresponds to all the

p (pd, , bk d d)ud b y, .. d p. t u b ud b,

quy u d v. An unbalanced symmetrical three phase system can

b xpd bd p y(fu d). t dv b d uu d: pv, v, qu(p).i u, vv u y p ( u), y b -y d y b dbd by y, p V d i p, p pd.

u mme omoe

V3

V1

V2

V3d

V1dV2d

V2i V10

V20

V30V1iV3i

Unbalanced system

positive sequence negative sequence zero sequence

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DISTURB


50160

Mxmm hmo doo he oof , exeed eee

of he fdme voe u 1aod o iEc 61000-2-2

odd-d ev-dn up 3 mup 3

od rv

v (U)od

rvv (U)

od rv

v (U)

5 6% 3 5% 2 2%

7 5% 9 1.5% 4 1%11 3.5% 15 0.5% 6...24 0.5%

13 3% 21 0.5% - -

17 2% - - - -

19 1.5% - - - -

23 1.5% - - - -

25 1.5% - - - -

In addition, total harmonic distortion of the voltagesupplied (including all harmonics up to order 40) mustnot exceed 8% of the fundamental voltage (order 1).To limit the harmonics, it may initially be necessary torevise the structure of the installation:- Increase the cross-section of the neutral conductor- Regroup the polluting loads (if necessary with sourceseparation)- Use of transformers with special windings (couplingof the 3rd order harmonic and its multiples on theneutral)- Connection of sensitive equipment away from thepolluting loads- Connection of polluting loads to the source with thelowest impedance and as far upstream as possibleIt is also necessary to check that the capacitor banksfor compensating the power factor cannot start reso-nating (possible use of anti-harmonic inductancesconnected in series). See p.114.- The TN-C neutral earthing system must be avoided.

08/12/09

20h00

09/12/09

00h0

09/12/09

04h00

09/12/09

08h00

09/12/09

12h00

09/12/09

16h00

09/12/09

20h00

10/12/09

00h00

10/12/09

04h00

10/12/09

08h00

5%

10%

Average datas for 2 hoursTHD tension

THD tension : FACEL TR1V1 MoyV1 Max

V3 MoyV3 Max

V2 MoyV2 Max

Exme of eod of hmo voe

ting problems (sensitivity of electronic equipment) andreliability problems (ageing by heating of windings andconductors, breakdown of insulation of capacitors) thatthis type of disturbance can cause.

But it is important to know that the source of harmonicvoltages is in the first place harmonic currents.These currents can disturb equipment locally butabove all they perniciously increase the level of dis-tortion of the distributed voltage across the wholeinstallation and for other users via the public distribu-tion system.Harmonic currents are generated by devices whosesupply consumes non-sinusoidal currents. Electronic,computer and office equipment, some lighting fittings,industrial welding equipment, inverters, powerconverters and numerous machines are the maincauses (see Book 2).

Like harmonic currents, harmonic voltages can bebroken down into sinusoidal voltages than can bedescribed: Individually, according to their relative amplitude (Uh)in relation to the fundamental voltage Un, whereh represents the harmonic order As a whole, i.e. according to the value of the totalharmonic distortion THD, calculated using the fol-lowing formula:

THD =40

(Uh)2h=2

Under normal operating conditions 95% of the rmsvalues of each harmonic voltage averaged over tenminutes and measured over a week must not exceedthe values given in the table below.

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DISTUR

BANCES

DESCRIBEDI

NS

TANDARDE

N5

0160

13 InterharmonIc voltagesThis phenomenon refers to the frequencies locatedbetween the harmonics. These are caused by fre-

quency inverters, uninterruptible power supplies,controlled rotating machines or arc devices.Their interaction can cause flicker phenomena, but itis above all with regard to information signals trans-mitted on the system that they must be identified andcontrolled.

14 InormatIon sIgnalstransmItted on the systemIn some countries, the public distribution system maybe used by the distributor to transmit signals. Thevoltage value of the signals transmitted on the HV dis-

tribution system (1 to 35 kV), averaged over 3 s, mustnot exceed the values shown by the curve below overa period equal to 99% of one day.

The system is used by the distributor to transmitinformation signals which are superimposed over thevoltage supplied in order to transmit information tousers installations. However, the system must not beused to transmit information signals from private ins-tallations.

The frequencies of these signals vary from tens ofhertz to several kilohertz, according to their function: ci i: superimposed

sinusoidal voltage in the 110 Hz to 3000 Hz range Pw li ci i: superimposed sinusoi-dal voltage in the 3 kHz to 148.5 kHz range W i i: short-time pulses (tran-

sients) superimposed at selected moments in thevoltage wave.

Frequency in kHz

1 10 1000,1

10

1

Voltage level in percentage

a p i pibii(emc) i i i, iipi i ii p (B 7), piip bii ii pi iw qipii,ii pi bw ( B 8), i i i ( B 2) i i i--i emc( p. 73).

15 netWork analysIsThe devices in the Alptec ranges can be used toobtain full readings for the electrical characteristicsof networks, store them and transmit them remotelyfor use. The choice of reactive power compensation orconditioning solutions will then be totally appropriate.

t i l

i i qi iii pi p iib.t i i (- ii i i) i j w i , wi bi pi i q.ti p i b i q, i wb, ppii, wi pi pii qi. , i b i,ii wi ed, pip

i i wi iibi qip i ap .


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DESCRIBEDI

NS

TANDARDE

N5

0160

exp w i w i i bi i i

ae ewok q e

Modem or Ethernet connectionfor remote statical analysis

of the power quality

ALPTEC 2400R

ALPTEC 2444d

ALPTEC duo:

analysis of the power quality

of the electricity provided

by the production plant

ALPTEC 2444i

GSM connection for remote

analysis of the power quality

and power supply failures

Analysis of the power quality of the electricity

provided by the transportation network

USB connection

for spot analysis

GPS

synchro.

Local bus synchro.

Connection

s w b pi b s Pc

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Exme of memeo fo he of o d b ee dbo em

Points of measurement and control

t w ap 2333b pb p i , b qi i i. I i ppi wi i pb xib b i p p 3000 a. I b pw b ii bi i 2P+e i b.I pi i p i. t i gsm b i bi b p i Wip w.


DISTURB

ANCES

DESCRIBEDI

NS

TANDARDEN

50160

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OTHERD

ISTURBANCES

other dIsturBances

Although standard EN 50-160 constitutes a contrac-

tual basis for establishing the minimum features ofthe energy distributed, the fact remains that nume-rous other disturbance phenomena circulate on thesystems and that depending on the uses, it may benecessary to characterise them so that they can beminimised or protection provided against them.It is sometimes difficult to deal with disturbance inthat its origin and the routes it takes are complex.In addition to the known phenomena of lightning andswitching, numerous new sources, in particular powerconverters, can cause disturbance in installations.This disturbance, which is generated by the instal-lation itself or carried by the system from external

sources or by the conductive parts, earthing circuitsand shared elements, depends on the characteristicsof the installation (impedances, short-circuit power,resonance, etc.). The complexity of all these EMC phe-nomena makes them difficult to predict and even moredifficult to simulate.

The various aspects of electromagnetic compatibility(EMC) are covered in this guide, including protec-tion against lightning phenomena (see Book 7), theprinciples of building installations for aspects ofequipotentiality, shielding and coupling betweenconductors (see Book 8), taking harmonics intoaccount (see Book 2) and the effect of the choice of theneutral earthing system on EMC (see p. 71).Only the main phenomena conducted via the supplysystems will be covered here, whether they are the

HV system

impedance

Transformer

impedance

LV system

impedance

Insulation

resistance

Earth

resistance

Load

N/PE loop

impedance

source of the phenomena or are affected by them:the effects of overvoltage and rapid voltage transients(capacitor switching, overvoltages caused by conver-ters, restrikes, failure of fuses, etc.) that are mainlyencountered in industrial or commercial environ-ments, as well as phenomena generated by receivers

(DC components, leakage currents, discharge on thesystem, etc.), which can all affect the quality of theenergy used, whether it comes from a public distribu-tion system or any other origin.

t ib i b p (r, X, I3).t i p b. t i bip (p/ ii, bi , -ii,.) i (pi)ii i (-,pii , i -ii

, ii ) b. I i ii pi ii i i emc.

Symmetrical system Non-symmetrical system

Source Line Fault

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OTHERD

ISTURBANCES


1 oPeratIonal sWItchIng:overvoltagesand overcurrentsAlthough these types of disturbance are mentioned instandard EN 50160, in which overvoltages are treatedin terms of impulse withstand voltage (Uimp) to beapplied when designing switchgear in order to protectagainst their possible destructive effects, they are alsosources of potential malfunctions. Their very broadfrequency spectrum, their random occurrence andtheir many forms make them difficult to eliminate. Infact, practically all operations on industrial systems,in particular high power operations, produce overvol-tages. They arise from the sudden making or breakingof the current. Lines and transformers then behave

like self-induction devices. The energy produced inthe form of transients depends on the characteristicsof the circuit being switched. The rise time is in theregion of a few microseconds and its value can reachseveral kV.The above oscillogram shows the voltage bounces andpeak voltages that may occur for example when a fluo-rescent lighting circuit is energised.

This type of disturbance is often accompanied by anovercurrent on the line concerned and emission ofmagnetic and electric fields.

Due to the size of the LF transient current(10 kHz < f < 1 MHz) on closing, the radiated impulsivemagnetic field can reach high values that may disturbsensitive products. If the overcurrent involved is high(several kA), the damped oscillatory magnetic fieldcaused by the disturbance can be simulated in order tocheck the immunity of sensitive products.

s Iec 61000-4-10 (p ii i ii ) ib ii (100 a/ i 60 i ib) 1 mhz 100 hz pi. kw p l p i i

wi q p.

a me fed eeed whe hee ebhed.

M voeWvefom

160 a e ek fo 6 x 58 W be

feqe of he dmed e wve: 3 kHz

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OTHERD

ISTURBANCES

Although closing operations are accompanied by highovercurrents and generally limited overvoltages, ope-ning operations trigger overvoltages than can be veryhigh. They can be accompanied by high frequency

electric fields that could cause disturbances. The phe-nomenon of resonance plays a major role here (see p.40).Breaking the current in an electric contact generatesdamped oscillations at the resonance frequencies ofthe source and the load. The resonance frequency ofthe source is very often higher than that of the load.Transients caused by the load and the source aresuperimposed, leading to high voltage levels at theterminals of the electric contact. If they exceed thevoltage withstand of the contact, an electric arc iscreated. A voltage collapse is then observed at the ter-minals, while the current continues to circulate (this isreferred to as non-limiting self-extinguishing current).

The arc ends when the electrical and thermal stresseson the contact are not sufficient to maintain it. Thevoltage transients during the switching phase oscillateat frequencies between 10 kHz and 10 MHz. The peakvoltages of these transients range from a few hundredvolts to several kilovolts.

The voltage/frequency parameters change inverselyduring the switching phase on opening: at the startthe peak voltages are of small amplitude but havea high frequency, while at the end the amplitude is

large but the frequency is lower. The duration of theseburst voltage transients ranges from 20 s to ten or somilliseconds. It depends on the load, the mechanicalbehaviour of the contact (switching speed) and theenvironment (temperature and pollution).

To limit overvoltages and overcurrents during opera-tions, it is essential to choose breaking devices that

act very quickly and independently of the manipulationspeed. They must be suitable for the loads.Standard IEC 60947-3 (switches, disconnectors,switch-disconnectors and fuse-combination units)specifies the various utilisation categories for typicalapplications.

uo eoe fo whe, doeo d fe-ombo od o iEc 60947-3

tp

uiii tpi ppiic a c B

ac

ac-20a ac-20B Connecting and disconnecting under no-load conditions

ac-21a ac-21B Resistive loads, including moderate overloads

ac-22a ac-22B Mixed resistive and inductive loads, including moderate overloads

ac-23a ac-23B Motor loads or other highly inductive loads

dc

dc-20a dc-20B Connecting and disconnecting under no-load conditions

dc-21a dc-21B Resistive loads, including moderate overloads

dc-22a dc-22BMixed resistive and inductive loads, including moderate overloads(for example: shunt motors)

dc-23a dc-23B Highly inductive loads (for example: series motors)

c a ppi qip q , wi B ppi qip i

s Iec 61000-4-4 (i i/b ii ) b qip ppi w p i pw pp .

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OTHERD

ISTURBANCES


Ii wi i vip (p 160 a) dPX-I (p 1600 a) pi ib wii ii i ii p. t i ac22a,ac23a dc22a, dc23a ( x i, i ).ti i b p i bi p bi ii -iii -xiii .

Ii p, i pi pi i ii , i pib p i i wii wi q b w ii.hw p pi piip i ip i bi i wi ii . ti ii

i pi pi, b i i w ip wi i iii .

i voe e oeo

N

L3

L2

L1

Main protection

Circuit

protection

Proximity

protection

c ii voee oeo

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OTHERD

ISTURBANCES

The inrush current limiter Cat. No. 442 96 redu-ces the current peak on activation of transformersand power supplies to a value of less than 5 In.This peak may be due to the aperiodic component

(see box above) or to the load of a filter capacitorat the power supply. Used with an auxiliary relayCat. No. 040 68, it can be used for limitation up to apower of 9000 VA (40 A).

< ih e me

ti , wi b , w wi

. t i , , pi bi.

aii i 10 20 I wi ppii p. ti i i b piipi, i pi i bw .t bi ( pi) i bi i ii ii. ti i i bi i, wi b i.

t wh ove voe ve

t (s)

Ie/In

U

t

t : 5 ms

U

t

0

5

10

Ovevoe whe bek

fome

n p i b ibb p, i i wi i i i i i p: p

ip ii i,i , Pw li ci i i i. a p iii i p wi p ib, ib.hw ii i i i i bi p iii i i :qipii, i, i, pi ii, p, ii, ii, ., j wi b i

ip i ii. B 8 xpi iii i.

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OTHERD

ISTURBANCES


t p i i q i ii. I i .t p i p ac i ii : i (i ), pi (i ) i (i ).t ip Z i (wi i xp i ) i i q (hz), pwpp i pi i q = 2 (xp i i p ) i xppi i Zr = r, Zc = 1/c Zl = l.I i ip iii i p p p.

Resonance of a series RLC circuit

t ii i pii ii, pi pi c l.t i p ( i- i i i-p) i i pi i i p x.l = 1/c wi b wi lc = 1.i q, wi i wi 0 q 0i q 0/2

W i , ip ii i pi i i r. I i i w (w i ii iibi i), ii b ii.t ppi i ii i . ti

ip uc ul c l i, wi x i wi ii bw.t ppi i rlc ii i.

Resonance of a parallel RLC circuit

t p p rlc ii. B i i i i wi i b u.

t i i w i i i p, pi w b i .a i ii i i ipi w. i iz , iibi pp wb i . a i pi b i (i i). o , w ipi i i. xp, i(w i i) b i .

I pi, ii px pi b p i ( i

, wii, pi, i, .) wi p bi pi. I i w pib , i pi pi i i ii i ( p. 114).

Ee eoe

U

UR UL UC

I

I

2

jCUC = Z I = ( ) I1

I

UL = Z I = j LI

2

-

R

L C

U

U

jC( ) I1

jC( ) I1jLI jLI

RI

Capacitivecircuit

Inductivecircuit

Resonantcircuit

RI U

jC( ) I1

jLI

RI

U

IR

IL

IC

R

C

L

i e c, he e /2 he ed eo o he

voe (ed qde)i de l, he e

/2 he eo o he voe( qde).

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OTHERD

ISTURBANCES

2 dIsturBances caused By statIcconvertersPower electronics has gradually become established

as the preferred method of controlling electricalenergy. Originally used almost exclusively for varying

speed or torque control applications, it has now spreadto the field of the low power switching mode powersupplies that are found everywhere, and in the futureit will play a decisive role in the control and stability

of smart electrical systems whose energy productionwith be both mixed and decentralised. (Smart grid).

si i i pi x p i (piib) b i i wi: moset i(i- i), gto i ( -i), IgBt (I g Bip ti), ., i i q.

c i w i . B bi ii . a ac/ac ib i i p iii ac/dc ii dc/ac i . liwi ac/dc i pw pp i b i xp p ac/dc ii , i q ac/ac p ,wi ii i ii p, i ac/dc ii pidc ( ii). o , i i b i i, i ac/ac .

I i ipib pw ppi (uPs) i w ac/dc dc/ac i p bp b.

c bi i iiwi ppii, w pw . nw qip i pw b , i i i i pi bw i pp ib (i,

) b .

s ovee

vi w f ig i

dc ( )

ac ( )

dc i ( )

ac i ( )

Pulse control (adjustable voltage)

ac PoWer controller (rms voltageadjustable without changing frequency)

cycloconverter(adjustable rms voltage and frequency)

Inverter rectIf

Ier

Single phase

or three phase

system

Calibrated

and filtered

AC voltage

Fixed DC

voltage

Rectification

+ battery charging

deviceBattery

Inverter

+ filter

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OTHERD

ISTURBANCES


tho bde efe he of oveo ac/Dc ovee

the he of he e wh e de of hmo

( wh ee wvefo) ee he e ooe of he ovee be ee

Io of devoe d ovevoe oommo ohe

Unlike operational switching, described in the pre-vious section, which is characterised by its more orless random and non-repetitive occurrence and bycharacteristics mainly due to loads and installations,

that caused by static converters is recurrent. The ope-ration of a static converter is intrinsically polluting, asthe electrical values are extremely variable, over veryshort periods (10 ns to 1 s), with high amplitudes(about one kilovolt and one kiloampere) and over avery wide frequency range (100 Hz to 1 MHz). In fact,each conversion stage contributes to disturbance overa frequency range that is dependent on its switchingfrequency: input rectifier up to a few dozen kHz, HFswitching stage up to a few megahertz and phenomenaassociated with the switching transitions (resonance,normal mode excitation) up to several dozen mega-hertz. EMC treatment of converters will consist oflimiting their spectral range or trying to confine all theundesirable parasitic effects in the converter.A three-phase sinusoidal voltage is generally rectifiedusing a thyristor bridge. The load current is drawn atthe three phases by alternate operation of the thyris-tors. These are trigged in succession by the thyristorthat was in control in the preceding time phase sen-ding a pulse to their gate. The result is periods, whichare of course very short (a few hundred s), in whichshort-circuits occur between phases. The value ofthese short-circuits is only limited by the impedanceof the upstream system. The effect of the inrush cur-rent is voltage drops and voltage increases that arereferred to as commutation notches. Rather thantheir amplitude, it is above all the differentials of thesevalues (dV/dt), which may reach several hundred V/s,that cause electromagnetic disturbances. The resul-ting high frequencies may encounter resonance in thesystem, in particular in the presence of capacitances(cables, capacitors), and result in this case in realovervoltages on the system.

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3 sWItchIng overvoltageso caPacItorsThe activation of capacitors placed on the HVA system

may cause transient overvoltages (several times thevalue of Un) with sufficient energy to destroy the vol-tage surge protectors at the supply end of the lowvoltage installation or even the components of thestatic converters or reactive energy compensationcapacitors.This phenomenon may be particularly dangerous if,when the HVA capacitors are activated, the resonancefrequency of the upstream circuit corresponds to theresonance frequency of the LV circuit. The characteris-tics of this phenomenon are essentially linked to theinductance L of the HVA/LV transformer, the capaci-tance C of the capacitors and the resistance R of the

low voltage network. If the resistance is low

(not many resistive receivers), the damping of thetransient overvoltages will be reduced, increasingthe risk of resonance on the HVA and LV circuits

at the same frequency (f0H = f0B).Amplification of the disturbance associated with HVAcapacitor switching is particularly sensitive if thereactive power used in HVA is much higher than thatused in low voltage. This risk can be limited by usingcapacitor banks that are activated gradually (steps)or by activation at zero voltage.High energy absorption (at least 1 kilojoule) voltagesurge protectors can be used to limit transientovervoltages from the HVA system, in the same wayas tuned filters with low voltage capacitor banks canshift the resonance frequency of the installation.Overvoltages from the HVA system will not be

eliminated, but at least they will not be amplified.

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Legrand can provide a solution that is a usefuladdition to voltage surge protectors: passivefilters used with capacitor banks. Their tuningfrequency is calculated to eliminate the sus-

pect resonance frequency and thus limit itseffects. The filter is calculated and definedafter diagnosis and measurement on siteusing a network analyser.The fact that Legrand is able to supply capa-citor banks for both HVA supplies and LVsupplies makes their mutual adaptation mucheasier, and having one manufacturer dealingwith both levels of compensation is a guaran-tee of safety.Breaking devices using technologies suitablefor capacitive currents (vacuum or SF6 filledchambers) can also be provided with the

capacitor banks.


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4 dc comPonentsThe electronic supply stage of numerous machinesand also many high consumption domestic applian-

ces (washing machines, hobs, etc.) has a rectifyingdevice. If there is an insulation fault downstream ofthis device, the earth leakage current may containa DC component (more precisely a unidirectionalpulsed component) which modifies the shape of theAC current consumed. This shape is thus asymmetri-cal, which may result in the residual current devices(RCD) failing to operate due to modification of themagnetic flux in the core. The two current half-wavesare not identical, as the opposing field (coercive) nolonger cancels the previous flux with the opposite signevery half cycle. The toroidal core may then remainmagnetised (hysteresis phenomenon) and the residual

current device is rendered inoperative.AC type RCDs, used for the majority of circuits, cannotdetect this type of fault. They should only be used forheating or lighting circuits that do not have an electro-nic power supply.

New residual current devices have been developed tooperate with electronically controlled loads.Type A RCDs protect against sinusoidal AC fault cur-rents and fault currents with a pulsed DC component.

Type B RCDs also provide protection against smoothDC fault currents. These are mainly used in industry,on three-phase installations containing for examplevariable speed drives or an uninterruptible powersupply (UPS).

5 Permanent leakage currentsUnlike fault currents, which flow accidentally betweenthe live poles and the protection circuit or earthing,leakage currents exist while the installation is opera-ting normally.

There are three different types of leakage current:

Currents caused by receivers whose power supply isearthed (via bonding parts and the protection circuits)by means of capacitive electronic components (PCs,variable speed drives, etc.). On energisation, thesecurrents are increased by an inrush current phenome-non associated with the load of the capacitors. Sometypical potential leakage current values are given thethe table below.

Currents that are associated with stray capacitances

from the installation's conductors which are propor-tional to the scale of the installation and the numberof receivers supplied. There are no exact rules for

calculating these currents other than that they cantrip a 30mA residual current device when the instal-lation reaches several hundred metres in length. Itshould also be noted that these currents may increaseover time, depending on the ageing of the insulation.Monitoring the installation's insulation by meansof continuous measurement (Permanent InsulationMonitor PIM) or regular measurement (see Book10: Measuring the insulation resistance) enables anychanges to be anticipated.

Leakage currents that frequently develop on cer-tain types of installations due to their nature, withouthowever reaching a dangerous level comparable to a

fault current (resistance furnaces, cooking or steaminstallations, equipment with numerous auxiliaries orsensors, etc.). Using the TN-S neutral earthing system

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limits the contact voltage to a value which is not dan-gerous, while permitting significant leakage currentsto exist.(see p. 61). It should however be noted thatalthough this situation provides better continuity of

operation, it must be limited to the time spent findingand dealing with the leak, in order to avoid creatingfire risks and to avoid increasing the EMC disturbanceby the circulation of permanent currents in the protec-tion circuits.The design of an electrical installation must providefor the installation of protection devices for the safetyof people and property which take account of theseleakage currents. When these currents are addedtogether in the protection circuits they can reach thetrip threshold value of the residual current protection

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at the supply end of the group of circuits concerned,remembering that this value is generally much lowerthan the theoretical threshold: for example 15 to20 mA actual for 30 mA nominal.

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(1) It is not possible to give precise details of the exact number of devices as the currents consumed aredependent on many factors (type of device, lengths and cross-sections of circuits, etc.).It is advisable to check that the RCD does not tr

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