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Business is Busyness, or the Work EthicAuthor(s): Alexander WelshSource: Social Research, Vol. 72, No. 2, BUSYNESS (SUMMER 2005), pp. 471-500Published by: The New SchoolStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971774.

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AlexanderWelshBusiness is Busyness,or the Work Ethic"nowher o bisy man s he thernas,"wereadof oneof chaucer'spilgrims;And ethe semedbisier hanhe was."Andyet? he ogicofthese ines eemsmore han littlemischievous. owhereould herebefound man sbusy sthis, ndyet hisman eemed usier hanhewas. fbothofthese tatementsrestrictlyrue,mostmen are notasbusy s they eem, nddiligences argely matter f how.Thisparticular ilgrims theSerjeantf he aw, s introducednthegeneral rologue o The anterburyales. awyers avebeentargetsof satire or uitea few enturies ow, ndsome rony nmistakablyplays boutChaucer's escription:Discreet e wasandofgreet ever-ence /He semed wich, is wordsweren owise"; nd,"Offees ndrobes hadde he manyoon."Serjeants-at-lawere seniorbarristers,as thisdescriptionwould suggest, nd from he thirteentho thenineteenthenturynEngland he titlewas bestowed ythe crown.Until1845 one had to be a Serjeantnorder opracticenthe Courtof Common leas that s,for ivil,not criminal ases althoughheserjeantouldbe assisted y esser arristers.hus,noneofthemostfamous rials fthat entury,ardell s. Pickwick or reach fprom-ise,Mrs.Bardellwasrepresentedy Serjeant uzfuz ndMr.PickwickbySerjeant nubbin;ndagain, tmaybe that he awyersnthe casewereneither obusynor o diligents they eemed.Thebest ccountof his rial anbe foundnchapters 1and 34 ofThe osthumousapersof he ickwicklub,s set downbyCharlesDickensbetween 836 and1837.

social research Vol 72 : No 2 : Summer2005 471

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As readersofDickens'sfirst ovel can attest,Mr.Pickwick sentirelynnocentfmakingoveorproposingmarriageo his andlady,Mrs.Bardell.Throughn unfortunateonjunction f circumstancesandthe widow'shyperactivemagination,hemistakes is ntentiontohireSamWeller s a manservantor proposal fmarriageoher;the olicitorsodson ndFogg, nown or heir sharp ractice,"ringsuit gainst he defendant ithoutostto their lient nless hey anpersuade ury oaward amages.Mr. ickwick,owever,san nspiredquixotic erowhoperverselynsistshat hebarristerhowilldefendhim ncourt s assured fhis nnocence. bridgingtill nother rec-edent,he asks his ownattorney,erker,otakehim toLincoln'snnand ntroduceim oSerjeantnubbin. he erjeantsthere,ccordingto hisclerk, ut veryusy"; o disturb imwouldbe "too bsurd." nlyafter erker rods he clerk nd okes about feesand the ike s theserjeant prevailed pon, nviolation fall his established ules ndcustoms, o admit hem" ndbe introducedohisclient, thedefen-dant n Bardell ndPickwick."'I amretainednthat, m I?' saidtheSerjeant." erkerxplains hepurpose fthevisit, ickwickpeaksofhis nnocence,nd Snubbinppears t onceskeptical,ored, nd mpa-tient.t s time oturn isvisitorsver ohisassistingarrister.

"Who'swithme n this ase?""Mr. hunky,erjeant nubbin,"eplied he ttorney."Phunky-Phunky,"aid theSerjeant; I neverheardthenamebefore. emust e a very oungman.""Yes, e savery oungman," epliedhe ttorney.Hewasonly alled heother ay. etmesee oh,hehasn't eenattheBar ight ears et."Other eoplehavedifficultyatchingMr.Phunky's ame: n thecourtroom,he udge in thecasewillmistakenly ritehimdownas

"Mr.Monkey."ut"although ewas an infant arrister,"heflunkey

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proves eryhandy oDickens's ronynd,onceagain,hispurpose fdistinguishingusynessrom hebusiness f he aw."Youare with me in thiscase, I understand?"aid theSerjeant.IfMr. hunkyadbeen richman,hewouldhave nstantlysent or isClerk oremind im; fhe had been awiseone,he wouldhaveappliedhisfore-fingerohisforehead,ndendeavouredorecollect hethernthemultiplicityfhisengagements e hadundertaken hisone,ornot: but ashe wasneither ichnorwise inthis ense t allevents) eturned ed, ndbowed."Haveyouread the papers,Mr.Phunky?"nquiredtheSerjeant.Here againMr.Phunky hould have professed o haveforgottenll about themerits fthecase; but as he hadread uchpapers s hadbeen aid before im nthecourseoftheaction, nd hadthoughtfnothinglse,waking rsleeping, hroughouthe womonths uring hichhe hadbeenretained sMr. erjeant nubbin'sunior, eturneddeeper ed, ndbowed gain.Except orPhunky'name,Dickens's atire f theassistant or

thedefensesratherentle. heSerjeant imselfomes ff ellenoughinthetrial: t leastheproves ohave a senseofhumor. venSerjeantBuzfuz or heplaintiff,hoseoutrageous rgumentsndnotions fevidencemakehimbeyond uestion he hitofthetrial cene, smorehilarious hanwicked. hetrue ascals reDodson ndFogg,whohavepersuadedMrs.Bardell o sue in the first lace; and theordinarilylaw-abiding r.Pickwick,ohisabiding ame "Allmenarevictims fcircumstance,nd I thegreatest"),efies hem ndgoesto ail ratherthanpaythecosts nddamagesunjustlywardedbythe ury othe

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plaintiffnd her awyers.ut venrascals re nto hegameof eemingbusier han hey re:earliernchapter 0,when hehero allson theminresponseothewrit, e s told hat Mr. odson in't thome, ndMr.Fogg's articularlyngaged." n thisfirst ccasionPickwick everthe-lessgets ospeak oboth; ndthe hapteritle "Showing owDodsonandFoggWereMenofBusiness. " anticipatesheentire outine.Lawyers,fcourse, re nottheonlyfavoritesf satire.AmongChaucer's ilgrims,n average, he clerics omeoffworse; nd fromDante'shellnotevenpopesarespared.Over ime, s thethirdearnedprofessionecomesorganized,medicines knocked ownfor aughs.There re a coupleofdelightful edical tudents,obSawyernd BenAllen, nPickwick;utmorespitefulmischiefs madewith thered-nosedreverendMr.Stiggins,orwhomtheBrick aneBranch ftheUnitedGrandJunctionbenezerTemperance ssociations nothingbut front.amWeller's tepmothersmixed pwith tiggins,nd asWeller enior omplains,She'sgotholdo' some nwentionor rown-up peoplebeingborn gain, ammy thenewbirth,thinkshey allsit. shouldwerymuch iketo see that ystemnhaction, ammy."heverywordprofession,fter ll, originally eferredo religious vow-als,the sacred ruthshatoneprofessedo believe.Accordingo the0. E.D.,theprofessions,otablyhe earned nes ofdivinity,aw, ndmedicine,ut lso themilitary,avebeencalled uch t east ince hesixteenthentury,et t stemptingo claim hemfor atire reciselybecauseof thisoriginalmeaning fthe word. nsteadofhard workwith angible esults,heprofessionsouldbeunreal,more how hansubstance,ursuits herewords ndappearancesount ormore hanthey hould. he same sundoubtedlyrue, ustrealized, f hemedi-evalcalling fprofessor.1It seems hat rofessional,s thatword susedtodistinguishheworkerfrommere mateurs, asindeed creationf henineteenthentury;and there rea hostofreasons not east, he ndustrial evolutionfor racingmany fourmodern onvictionsboutwork othatera.

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Asa studentaptivatedytheproseofthe so-called ictorian roph-ets,Carlyle, uskin,nd their ollowers,began o conclude hat heirmostfrequentlyuotedpassagefrom he Biblewas this: Whatsoeverthyhandfindethodo,do it with hymight; or here s nowork, ordevice, orknowledge,orwisdom,n thegrave,whither hougoest"(Ecclesiastes :10). The mostmemorable nstance, lbeitfrom hemouth fthat trangeharacter rofessoreufelsdrockh,upplies heclimax toSartor esartus:

I toocould nowsaytomyself. . Produce roduceWereit but thepitifullestnfinitesimalraction fa Product,produce t, n God'sname Tis the utmost hou hast nthee:outwith t, hen.Up,Up Whatsoeverhyhandfind-eth to do,do it withthywholemight.Workwhile t iscalledToday; or heNight ometh,whereinnoman canworkCarlyle,937 1833-34]:97).The same conviction bout theimportance fworkcouldbe heardeverywherenthe nineteenthentury, hethern storiedmyth,ikethisfirst ork fCarlyle,r the ast ct ofGoethe's ompletedaust,npoems nd novelsfor eaders f all ages, nwisdom iterature or heworkinglassesbySamuelSmiles, rinmanufacturingreatises ikethoseof FrederickW.Taylor.ntheory,he ndustrialconomy andbeliefnprogress depended nmaximizing ork.Unlessmostofusmostof the timemaximize urefforts,he nvisible and willpointnowhere nd thefreemarketpin imlessly.Intruth,muchpreachmentfhardwork ends oaffectation,fnotdownrightelf-contradiction.arnestness as thehighVictorianvirtue,nd it waspreached ll the time.Talentwas notsupposed ocount s much s application.none ofthosenovels hat till anbeenjoyed tany ge,DavidCopperfieldoesout ofhisway o assureusatgreatengthfhisearnestness. e writes atherelf-consciously,s ifhe knew hatwe know hat nreal ifeCharlesDickens swritinghis.Talented? ittle, erhaps. et Ido notholdone natural ift,dare ay,




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that havenot bused.Mymeaningimplys, hatwhateverhave riedto do inlife, havetriedwith llmyheart o dowell;thatwhateverhave devotedmyselfo, have devotedmyselfocompletely;hat,ngreat imsandinsmall, havealways eenthoroughlynearnestthere s no substituteor horoughgoing,rdent,ndsincere arnest-ness."APersonal istory fDavidCopperfieldevergets round to tellingthereaderwhat he xperiencefbeing successfulovelistsactuallylike. nstead,t offers brilliant ake-offfa lunaticnamedMr.Dick,whohasanobsession boutKingCharles he First ndsendsreams fhisunfinished emorialloft s a kite.In studying ickens was initially urprised o discoverhowlittleworkwas actually eaturedn thenovels.The one convincingportraitf a hard-workingiddle-classman n Dickensmaybe thatofDanielDoyce, heskillednventorn Little orritutnotthenovel'shero Welsh, 986 1971]: 3-85). hepuzzling isconnectetween hepreachmentfwork ndtherepresentedctions fthenovelsbaffledGeorgeOrwell,whowas tempted o conclude hat Dickens"has noideal ofwork" fter ll. Itwas theroutine ndingoflivinghappilyever fter hat pparentlyiquedOrwell. That s thespiritn whichmostofDickens'sbooksend-a ort f radiantdleness. . . Home ifeisalways nough thestrangempty ream ftheeighteenth-ndnineteenth-centuryiddle ourgeoisie.t wasa dream f ompletedle-ness"1954 1939]: 8-96).Andnot thebourgeois ream f thetwenti-ethortwenty-firstenturies?Weobviouslyaveenough istance romthe iteraryonventionsfearlier imes orecognizehem s fictions.Probably o one still ivingremembers eing ntroducedo theso-calledAmerican ream hroughHoratioAlger tories,which old ngreatnumbers ycelebrating similarmoral-hardworkfor oys nthehumblest alksof ife-byrewardingachprotagonist ithgreatgoodfortunecarcely elated ohisowneffortsTebbel, 963:14-17);butthatdoesnotmean that hedreamorthe disconnect romworkhasgone way.If hedreamsempty, hethernthe ensethat t acks ontentor sonly dream,hen newondersbout hepersistentccompany-

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ingmoral:Keepbusy.nhiscompendious istoryf deas,TheVictorianFramefMind,Walter .Houghtononcluded chapter nearnestness,which eatured arlylend Ruskinndothers, yobservinghat omemodernwriters n thissubjectseemedchiefly etermined o fendoff ncertainty,r even to be contending gainstdespair 1957:242-62).Whether or eligious oubt, sense ofpurposelessness,r eventhe ossof a girlfriend,orkwas the recommendedherapy workas a distraction,n short,workfor he victims fcircumstance. earthe close ofTennyson's LocksleyHall,"for xample,we find hesecouplets:Not nvainthedistance eacons.Forward,orwardetusrange,Let the greatworldspin for ever down the ringing roovesof hange.

Through he shadow of theglobewe sweep nto theyoungerday:Betteriftyears fEurope han cycle fCathay.Mother-Ageformine knewnot)helpme as when ife egun:Rift hehills, nd roll hewaters, lash he ightnings, eigh heSun.Houghtonrgued hat hiswas not somuch vision fprogressfor he machine geas Tennyson'sersonal resolution f a mood ofdepression,"utwhywould tnotbeboth? heassociation fprogress

withEurope atherhan heOrient,s wellas a goodmany therinesinthis oemof1842, tamps llthis renziedctivityith he mprima-tur f mpire. ublishednthe ameyear,hepoem Ulysses" e knowto have beenwritten decade earlierwhenTennysonwas grievingfor he oss ofhis friend rthur allam.Thatwell-known onologueconcludes, thatwhichwe are,we are;/Oneequal temper fheroichearts,Made weakbytime ndfate, utstrongnwill/Tostrive,oseek, ofind,ndnottoyield." hestrenuous orkwould gainseemto be therapeuticatherhanfor tsownsake andalsoempty,s the




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transitiveerbswithoutnobject uggest. ostrive,oseek, ofind,ndnot oyield what? f wasrightbout heVictorians' ondnessor helinesfrom cclesiastes, tmay e because hepreacher pokeofwhat-ever hehand finds odo and with stark onvictionfmortalitynowork herewe are allgoing. hatbook oftheBiblebegins, emember,"Vanityfvanities,aith hePreacher,anity fvanities; ll isvanity."Businessmightustbebusynessfter ll. t s notonly atire hat reatsthe ronyfwork ndthedeviousnessf oo much ommendingf hesame.Real-lifeiographyasSamuel miles' rincipal idacticmodesuccessstories orboth thehaves and the have-nots. is livesof heEngineersccumulateds a five-volumeork y1874; nthemid-twen-tieth enturyheMITPress till aw fit obring uta samplingf heselives 1966).Smiles'best-selling, ost ranslated ook,Self-Help1958[1859]),lso retailed ozensofcapsulebiographies.With haptersike"EnergyndCourage,"MenofBusiness,"Money:tsUseandAbuse,"and "Character:heTrueGentleman,"tcomprisesothwisdomitera-turefor heworkinglassandcourtesyookfor heaspiringmiddleclass,with modestmperialonsciousnessor llconcerned.

Thespirit fself-helps the rootofall genuinegrowthnthe ndividual;nd, xhibitedn the ives fmany,tconsti-tutes hetrue ource fnational igourndstrength. elpfromwithout s often nfeeblingn itseffects,uthelpfromwithinnvariablynvigorates.Whatevers doneformenorclasses, oa certainxtent akes way he timulusandnecessityfdoing or hemselves;nd wheremenaresubjectedoover-guidancendover-government,he nev-itable endencys to renderhem omparativelyelpless.

If his rgumentasa familiaring,t sbecausewe still ear t o often.Shared esponsibilityor ocial mprovements tantamounto "over-guidancendover-government."ot venwell-meaningublic rprivateinstitutions,miles ontinues,aneffectivelyelp he ndividual,ho s478 social research



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best eftfree odevelop imself"1958 1859]: 5).For his ision, leasenote, reedomnot laveryis associated ithhardwork.Thegospelofwork s preached ySmiles, riven ysales ofhisbooks nd nodoubt enuine cumenicalntentions,ecamemore ndmoreconfusinglyclectic. nThrift,880[1875] neof thesequelstoSelf-Help,e find paragraphike his:Labour s at once a burden, chastisement,n honour,anda pleasure. Whichwillyouchoose?] tmaybe iden-tifiedwithpoverty,ut there s also gloryn it. It bearswitness,t the sametime, o our naturalwants nd to ourmanifold eeds.What wereman,what were life,whatwerecivilization, ithoutabour?Allthat sgreat n mancomes f abour; greatnessnart,n iterature,nscience.Knowledge "thewingwherewith e fly o heaven" isonly cquired hroughabour.Genius s buta capabilityflabouring ntensely:tis thepowerofmaking reat ndsustained fforts.Copperfield'sosition xactly.] abourmaybe a chastisement,ut t s indeed glorious ne. Itisworship, uty, raise, nd immortality,for hosewholabourwith hehighestims, nd for hepurest urposes.

Smiles's wopassing eferenceso labor as chastisement,longwithhis admission boutpovertynd inclusion f "naturalwants nd . . .needs" such s hunger,helter, armth? might riggerntheread-er's mind omethingike slave abor, rmoregenerally,hetaskworkrequired f mostpeoplefor ubsistence;ut another ompetingdeahere s thatofhonor nd even"glory," hich seems nthis context("heaven,"purest urposes")oplacea haloabout Roman ndaris-tocraticdeal.And ustas Smiles ncongruouslyoncludedhis earlierbookwith chapternmanners efittinggentleman,e alsoappealsto a more ristocraticradition fvalues nThrift:Labour fall kindsis dignifyingndhonourable;t is the dler, boveall others,who isundignifiednddishonourable"1880 1875]: , 55-56). miles imply




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reachesback ntime ndco-opts hese fine entiments ithout verstoppingo thinkwhateighteenth-centuryentlemenrthe ancientauthoritiesouldmakeof heseprecepts.As the dea ofthegentlemanwas stretchedo include aborers(well-behavedaborers,t least), oorAristotlend his followersmusthave rotatedntheir raves hroughouthe ongnineteenthentury(deGrazia, 962:11-25).nhisEthics,ristotlessociated eisurewithvirtue,nda great eal of eisuref hehighest appiness f ontempla-tionwas to be pursued.nthePolitics,e excluded hosewho workedforwagesorinvulgar rafts rom itizenship ecausethey ould bescarcelymore ndependenthan laves.Thuswhenhe writes feduca-tionnthePolitics,e takes position ompletelyifferentrom miles's.Children the children f thecompanyAristotle ddresses maybetaughtomeuseful hings utnot ll,for hey houldnotbe subjectedto mechanicalwork. Wecall those artsmechanicalwhich tendtodeform hebody, nd likewise ll paid employments,or hey bsorbanddegradehemind. here re also some iberal rts uiteproper ora freeman oacquire, utonlyn a certain egree,nd fhe attends othem ooclosely,norder o attain erfectionnthem,he ameharm-ful ffects ill follow"1337b4-17).entimentsfthis ortwerewhatoncedistinguishedentlemennd their amilies romworkingolknthe West.Dignitas rovided constant efrainnthe ethicalwritingsofCicero, utdignity as there oo associatedwith eisure, tium,otworkO'Loughlin,978:xiv, assim).ntheclassical anguages,eisurewould eemto be thedesideratum,ecausework s denoted imply ythenegationf he ameword. hus nGreekeisure s scholendwork,ascholia.n Latin he words re otiumndnegotium,tsopposite busi-ness, n short. hink fnegotiumhe next imeyouarenegotiatingdealbutmight eoccupyingour imemuchbetter.One has the feeling hat the ancientsmayhavegot it right,thatwork s something eopledo not do iftheydo not haveto,andmaybe houldn't o if hey on'thaveto. Onecan understandmiles'sdilemma, incethe ndustrial evolutionmademore ndmore asksmechanical.Massproductionended o render ll crafts ulgar.His

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contemporariesohnRuskin nd WilliamMorris rilliantlyoughtrearguardction gainst hesesamedevelopments,utmorethanahundred ears fhistory ake t evidenthat heywon too fewpeopleto their ide.At he ame ime, or miles nd true elievers omixwiththeir ospel n ancientmoral ode sodiametricallypposed owork, rtopretendhatminers,armaborers,ndfactoryorkers eregentle-men, nvolved hework ethic n more contradictions.learly heywanted ohave t bothways, nd Victoriansrommanywalksof ifewent oft n this hemeGilmour,981). ncreasingly,hequality f agentleman as definedymanners ather hanby ocial lass, nd thatis evenmore hecasetoday. et obe a gentleman asalso associatedwithhavingan ndependence"an ncome, o matter ow mall, hatwas not erivedrom ork fone'sown.Comparehe mbiguitiesf n"ownershipociety," uchbruited bout hesedays.2"Heaven elps hosewhohelp hemselves,"eads hevery irstentenceofSelf-Help.mileswas notpresuming o makea theologicalpoint;likeDickens,he was basically secular hinker ndbeginshis best-sellingbook with gesture o somevagueequivalent f ancientfateor Christian rovidence. hat venerableproverb, owever usuallyspoken"Godhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves" goesback at leastto the sixteenthentury.ven fwe positthatpeople helping hem-selves oesnot nclude hosewhohelp hemselvest the ill rto moredessert t thedinnerable, here s a problem ere s old as theproverbitself,ndolder.We do not knowverymuch bout thewaysofGod,and for hereligious mong s it s all themorepresumptuouso thinkwe do. All we know s thatwe are notfullyncontrol or victims fcircumstances,s Mr. ickwickrotests."Workwhile t s calledToday," arlyle lossesEcclesiastes :10.Take s much ontrol s youcannow, incethis s theonly ifeyou'llget.Thatmotive oact,however,may eadily e extended oPlaywhileyou tillhave ime oplay. or he amepreacherntheBible, mortalmayhave nobetterhing nder he un, han oeat, nd todrink,nd




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to bemerry"Ecclesiastes:15). ndeed, esuseems o berebukinghelatter it ofwisdomn hiscrispparable fthe foolish ichman Luke12:19).Andyet andyet for hosewhodo believe n a life fter eath,theduty okeepworkingo the end can seemto be even moreprob-lematic.Christians ho mostferventlymbrace he work thichavetraditionallyeen committedo salvation yfaith, otworks,nd tosalvationredestinedor hefew t that. trictlypeaking,or alvinistshardworkmight e a signof salvation utnot theproof, ince t ispresumptuouso believe ne canbe savedbyone'sown merits. Goodsocial conductwas the result f salvation ather han hecauseof t";nevertheless,goodworks howeverneffectualoprocurealvation,couldbe evidence fthe faith hatdidprocuretwMorgan,966:3-4).Again,t almost eems hatkeeping p appearances ecomes hebestreason o work.The redoubtable xpositor fthisconundrum as Max Weberin The rotestantthicnd he piritfCapitalism1958). BetteriftyearsofEurope hana cycle fCathay" vowed hespeaker nTennyson'spoem: n essvalue-riddenerms,Weber oughtouncoverheroots fcapitalismn "thepeculiaritiesf he social tructuref heOccident."His bookmostlyookthe socialstructureorgranted, owever,nddelvednto hereligiousmind-sethat eemed osupportt:a modernandWestern ranchofChristianitymanating hieflyrom ritain.TheVictorianmiles,whose ong ife ametoan end about hetime fWeber's irst riting,oesnot makehisway nto he bookanymorethanTennysonoes,but thesameproverb ithwhich elf-Helpeganproves seful oWeber orummarizingow heProtestantthicmightthrive,egardlessfhow"uselessgoodworksmight e as a meansofattainingalvation":

Inpracticehismeans hatGodhelps hosewhohelp hem-selves.ThustheCalvinist,s it s sometimes ut,himselfcreates isown alvation,r, swouldbemore orrect,heconvictionf t.But his reationannot,s inCatholicism,consistna gradual ccumulationf ndividualoodworks

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toone'scredit,utratherna systematicelf-controlhichateverymoment tands efore he nexorablelternative,chosen rdamned1958 1920]: 5,115).I stress heBritish haracter f themind-setWeberexploresbecausehis ongfifthhapter eatures hewritingsfRichard axter,whose seventeenth-centuryhristianirectorye calls "the mostcomplete ompendiumf Puritan thics" 1958[1920]:156).Baxter'sbook dates from 673; the second edition n 1678 consistsof fourvolumes f losely rinted,ouble-columnedagesdevoted espectivelytoEthicks,Economicksmanagementf hefamily),cclesiasticks,ndPoliticks. heDirectorys iterallyseries fnumberedirections,hou-sandsofthem ssorted ndifferentategories,or hedelectation ndguidance f heChristianeader;withnearlysmany uestionsuch sthereadermight ose, longwith nswers othe ame, lsonumbered.Baxter lso cites hapter ndverseof theBibleevery hancehe gets,and soassiduouslyhat reader omes way eelinghat llof heBible

has beenswept p into hosefour olumes.1 ctually erepeats omepassages fscripturegreat eal;hisfavoriten workwouldseemtobethis, rom aulto theThessalonians:evenwhenwe werewithyou,thiswe commanded ou, hat f nywould notwork,neitherhouldhe eat.Forwehearthat here resomewhichwalkamongyoudisor-derly, orking ot atall,but arebusybodies. owthem hat re suchwecommand ndexhort yourLordJesus hrist,hatwith uietnesstheywork,ndeattheir wnbread"2Thessalonians:10-12).t shardtosaywhat heologicalrounds axterxtractsrom aul'scommand,butamongother hingstsupplieshimwith tidy efinitionf dle-ness "Idlenesss a disorderlyalking"and heglosses usybodiesnthemodern enseas "medlerswithmatters hatconcern hemnot, ndtwatlersndtale-carriers."ntruthhisChristianirectoryssocompen-dious that t caneasily ccommodatemore hanonemotive owork.Baxter ften ppealstotheargument rom heermortality,s "Liveinconstantxpectationfdeath. . . There sgreat ower nDeath torouseupa drousie oul,when t staken obe near" 1678:1:381, 87).




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notspelledout,andexceptfor warnyou,"possibly,heemployer'spaymentsn kind llpertaino this ifetime,hisworld.ThatBaxter elieved n the nextworld s certain, ut his morepersuasiveasefor herelation etween umanbehaviornthisworldand salvationn thenext ests ntheperformancefgoodworks. hisis notsurprising:he man and hisministryurvived he restorationoftheStuartmonarchyn1660, fterwhichhisChristianirectoryascomposedndpublished. axterwasa farmore cumenicalpirithanWeber hows.His directionsngoodworksmaybe consultednthefourtholume, n Politicks,hapter 0,whichbeginswith heques-tion, "What re thegroundsnd reasons nd motives o charitable orks?"And heresultsrerighthere,s if hereader adtypednthesewordsin a Google earch:12 numbered nswers ollow, oughlynorder ftheirmportance.ere nabbreviatedorm re thefirsteven: )"That

doing ooddoth make s ikestoGod." ) "It s an honourablemployment.. Greatnesss thereforeonourable,ecause t sanabilityo dogood"3)"Doinggoodmaketh spleasing ndamiable o God." ) "Goodworksareprofitableomen. . . Ourbrethrenrethe better or hem." )"Indoinggoodto otherswe do goodto ourselves: ecause we ... byLove nd Communion eel heiroys, s well as pains." ) "There s inevery oodnature singular elightndoinggood .. tosee ourhonestlabours rosperndmany o be thebetter or hem,sthepleasantestlife hatmancanhopefor." )"Goodworks re a comfortablevidencethat aith ssincere,nd that heheart issembleth otwithGod." t sonlywith his eventhnswer, hen, hatBaxter rticulatesomethinglike the Protestant ork thic s Weber nd others avetaught s tounderstandt: salvation sbygrace;work s theevidence ffaithnd,itmaybe,ofbelongingo the elect.Baxter's irst wo reasons weep-ingly ncompass he modernWest'straditional hristian nd classi-cal valueswith n assurance hatmakesSmiles'sgesturesoward hehonor ode seemtimid.His asttworeasons, umbers 1and12,putitsquarely pto hisreaders oconsult heir ibles. leven ounsels o"consider ow bundantlygoodworks]recommendedntheword fGod," nd for xamples f his, he ongest fhisanswers, epresents




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seven xcerptsrom he pistles fPaul.Twelveays consider hatGodwill n a specialmannerudgeus at the astday ccordingo ourworks,andespeciallyurworks fCharity"1678:4:258-59). his astreasonunless hewritershedging ith in specialmanner" isnothingessthan naked tatementfbeliefnsalvationyworks. axterwraps phisargument ith blanket ppealto Matthew5.He neednot evenspecifyhat herehis readerswillfind esus's arable fthe wise andfoolish irgins,isparable f hetalents,nd of hedayofudgment.Still, oodworks re notquitethe samething s work.Even fI ampersuadedbyBaxter's utpouringshatcharitys a duty, oesit follow hat mustwork n my callinguntil wearmyself way?Strictlypeaking,o derive work thicfrom duty o be charitablean additionalrguments calledfor: amely,hat ll ofmyprofits- rwagesover nd above what t costs okeepme alive be given way.Baxter everfullyrticulatesucha conclusion s that, lthough nmanyoccasionshe calls on Christians f means to sharewith theneedy.Allthesame,workwouldseem to be a dutyn itselfn thesewritings,iven hat dleness san anathema.What s it that heworkethic s so afraid f, fnot the work tself?Why s idleness empting,unlesswork anbe so much esspleasing?Why m I nottemptedoworkharder ven n order o be good? f there s a certain isparitybetween hewaypeopleboast nd theway hey eel bout heirwork,thatmay xplainwhy omany fus are content o seembusier hanwereally re.Notoriously,hosewho write bout worksometimes xpressthemselvesmorefrankly henit comesto the questionofpublicwelfare. bout hundred ears fter axter ublishedhis ambitiousChristianirectory,nother lergymanublished nonymously"ByWell-WisheroMankind" a modest amphletntitled Dissertationnthe oor awsTownsend,971[1786]).t was oneof those imeswhenwhatwe nowcallwelfareeform asin theair, nd then s nowsomebelievedhat eliefothepoormadethings orse ecause ttook waythemotiveo work.Noobliqueor subtlework thichere:peopleworktokeepfromtarving,nd nJoseph ownsend's ords,where read

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sensemoredemocratic.age fter ageofhistestifieso somegenuinelinkbetween hespirit f Protestantismnd the demoticeanings fthe New Testament.Question: Is everyne bound o abour n a Calling?"Answer: Everyne that s able,richorpoor,must ive n someprof-itablecourseofpainsor labour."Thus Baxter ependablyllustrateswhatWebermeantbythe Protestant ork thic.Theverynextques-tion ntheChristianirectoryxplicitlyoncerns herich. Is t dutyodesirend ndeavouroget,ndprosper,ndgrow ichy ur abours,henSolomonaith, abour ot oberich?rov. 3.4" 1678, :225).Needless osay, axteranexplicate olomonwhenhe hasto;therich houldhelpprovide or hepoor, ndso on. Yet his econd uestion,whethert snot duty or ometoprosperndgrow ich,salways hecrux f hematterwhen tcomesto thework thic's nspirationndsupport orcapitalism.3Baxter's hristianirectory,onsistingf more han thousand loselyprintedolio agesthat ouldreadily e searched or nswers oone'squestions, elongsto the seventeenthentury.Whether r notthebook's uccessfuluthorhould trictlyethoughtf s a Puritan,hatsame era sawthebeginningsfthecolonizationf North merica ytheEnglish-notably y saving emnant hoprayedndworked ardbecausetheywerehardpressed. o theBritishharacterf the workethic,manywill gree,wastransportedarly n tothis ountry.etbythe wentiethenturyntheseUnited tates,amentswereheard f hepassing f hework thic:aments otmerelyrom hepulpit bout hebackslidingfparishionersutfrom heacademybout hesupposeddecline fmotivationnthework orce enerally,hichwas bound oslowdownproductivity.hatwasreallyt ssuehere?Wasthere verbroad-basedusinesslike ork thic, r conditionsmore ikenecessityformostpeople nd a showofbusynessor herest?When tcomes othecrunch- nd thecrunchs still,elt ll over heworld nd intoomany treetsnd fields fthiscountry- ownsend'sndorsementfhungers theundeniablemotive owork ings ruer,venthough e

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hastilydentified imself ith heownershipociety,s we say, atherthanwith laves.As for he diffusionfsurpluswealth nthe modern ndustrialeconomy, horstein eblen n 1899 ridiculedts motives s archaicand a showofconspicuouswaste. Thearchaic heoreticalistinctionbetween he base and thehonourablen the manner f a man's iferetains erymuch of ts ancientforce vento-day.o much so thatthere re few f hebetter lasswho are notpossessed f ninstinctiverepugnanceor hevulgar orms f abour." eblen ingled ut govern-ment,war, ports,nddevout bservances"s thefavoredrofessions,towhich atiristsikeChaucernd Dickenswouldundoubtedlydd thelaw. "At his s at anyother ultural tage,governmentnd warare,atleast npart, arried nfor hepecuniary ainofthosewhoengagein them,"Veblenconceded;"but t is gainobtainedbythe honour-able method fseizure ndconversion"1934[1899]:37,40).Armedgentlemanmay ake hings,ndthedevoutmay onvert hedoubters,butgentlemens suchdo notwork. couldquotetheentire ook;The

Theoryf he eisurelasswhetherntendeds suchornot, sone of hegreat atires f lltime.By hemid-twentiethentury,heflattenedapelsonbusiness-men's uits ndmoreflamboyantlyonspicuouswaste nfemale ressthatVeblen ataloguedhadbecome thetailfins n GeneralMotors'cars,which ncreased n length nd heightwitheverymodelyear.Sociologistsworried hat theAmericanworkethicmightnow bedysfunctional,aving eenenveloped y uchfoolish isplaysf tatus.The bookfrom hisperiod hat wouldsingle ut hadnothingosay(directly)bout tailfins, ut was obviouslyonscious hroughoutftheweakness nddubiousness,speciallynother arts ftheworld,ofappealing oWeber'sProtestant ork thic o explain hedrivingforce ndpotential fcapitalism- apitalism,hat s,under heguiseof"economic rowth."nW. W.Rostow's he tages f conomicrowth(1960),Calvin s mentioned erhapsonce,Weber nd Baxternot atall,andthewordcapitalismtself omewhatmuted.The idea behindthisshort ook- not so short s to excludea fewgraphs nd statis-




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tics wasthathistorys on our ide.Thetransformationf traditional"societies ntomodernndustrial conomies hatpossess "dynamic"to transcend venthepresent ystemimplicitlyhatof the UnitedStates)proceedsby stages: ertain preconditionsor ake-off,"thetakeoff,"thedrive omaturity,"the geofhighmass-consumption,"andbeyond. orwhatmight omenext,n a footnote ostow enderedthis houghtrom homasMann's rilogy:hethird enerationftheBuddenbrooksamilyurn o music.Rostow's tages eflecthehistoryf ndustrializationut rebynomeans aid to be determinedyhistory:hatwouldbe the Marxisttake on history,nd theprovocativeubtitle f thisbook isA Non-Communistanifesto.heauthor s atparticularains o stresshat hestages omeabout,whenthey omeabout, hrough umanchoices.Given knowledgefhistory,hesemay ndeedbe "strategichoices."Butustaspersistently,ostow eeks odeny r at eastplaydown theprofitmotive."hatmotive s sometimesllowed oexist n"conjunc-tion"with thermotivesuch sfamily,ride,dventure,ndespeciallynationalism.hemanifesto as meantnotonly opositionAmericanpracticendpolicy uttoapply o the thirdworld t the time.Withencouragemento make herighttrategichoices,hird orldnationspresentlyt various tages fdevelopmentouldadvance othe nextstage nd thenext fterhat ntil,nterms f conomic rowth,twillbe one worldverymuch ike us.Mygrounds or omprehendinghisplot s another ritishxportsthat eforeWaltRostoweft heM.I.T.facultyo oin theKennedydministrations a WhiteHouse adviser(theyear hathe publishedhismanifesto),ewas wellknown s anauthoritynmodern ritishconomic istory.Rostow idnot ookto themasses ofthe thirdworld omaketherighthoicesbutto"a newlite- new eadership,"ynomeansnecessarily riven ya Protestant orkethic an unlikely ossibil-ity)yetbenton a modernizationservingomeendthey udgetobeethically oodor otherwisedvantageous." ith ircumlocutionsike"otherwisedvantageous"e eavesopenthequestion fwhatmotivesdrive he decisionmakers. oanywhowould nsistBusiness s busi-

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ness,he givesonly shrug. Sociologicallyhisnew elitemust toadegree supersedensocial andpolitical uthorityhe oldland-basedelite,whosegrasp n income boveminimumevelsofconsumptionmust ebrokenwheretproves mpossibleimplyodivert hat ncomesmoothlynto hemodern ector."f hefirst to break hegrasp f herentiersis no child'splay, s Rostow'sanguage eems o mply, hattricksmust t taketo divert heir ncome smoothly"o where t willgenerate onditionsor he take-offf economic rowth? ne cannotquarrelwithhisrepeatedbservationhat widerange fmotivesmayinfluencehenecessaryeadership, et t the ametime tseems hatcertainmotive greed? must e eschewed.deally,here sa businessethic hat snot business thic.

Under ome human motivation r other, groupmustcometoperceivet to be bothpossible ndgoodto under-take acts ofcapital nvestment . . We cannotquitesaythat t is necessary or hem o act as iftheyweretryingto maximize rofit;or he criteria or rivate-profitaxi-mization o notnecessarilyonverge ith hecriteriaoranoptimumate ndpatternfgrowthnvarious ectors.. . . Leaving side herethequestionof ultimatehumanmotivation,ndassuming hat hemajoroverhead temsaregenerated,fnecessary,ysomeform f State nitia-tive includingubsidy), e cansay s a firstpproximationthat omegroupmust uccessfullymergewhichbehavesas ftweremoved y heprofitmotive,na dynamiccon-omywith hanging roductionunctions"my mphasis)(1960:26,50-51).

Afterhisworkinghroughfwhat s necessaryrnotnecessary orgrowth, e suddenlymustmake do with n "as if"tokeepthewholeprocess n track. orRostow t is onlyMarxistswhotake theprofitmotive s justthat.But"nothingnMarx's nalysis anexplainhowandwhy he anded nterestsnthe endaccepted he Reform illofBusiness is Busyness 491



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1832" we areback nBritaingain "orwhy hecapitalistscceptedtheprogressivencometax,or the welfare tate;for t is absolutelyessential oMarxism hat t s overpropertyhatmenfightnd die"(1960:150-51). okeepnon-Communistands lean, t s as if- as if- awork thic,f herewereno such hing, illhave o be inventedeforetake-off.Oncea mature ndustrialconomy as beenachieved,ountriesface three-wayhoice.Thefirstsexpansion,yrecourseo"militaryandforeignolicy,"nto andsnot heir wn.The econds toplowbackthe conomicuccessnto omethingwe ancall hewelfaretate." nd,"the hird ossible irectionpenedup by he chievementfmaturity[is] heexpansionf onsumptionevels eyond asicfood,helter,ndclothing,ot nly obetterood,helter,ndclothingut nto herangeofmassconsumptionfdurable onsumers' oods ndservices, hichthemature conomies f thetwentiethenturyanprovide."Whichwouldyou upposestherighthoice? obefair oRostow, e doesnotdictate heanswers ous; but nevitablydepressingly?)t seemsthatthethirdlternative,he haringf omeof hat urplusccumulationofriches onecessaryofund rowth ithmore nd more onsumers,winsout.Every ouseholdwill cquire ome urplus oods o definet,therewillbemore ndmoremiddle-class ouths operformheextraconsumption,ndmore ndmore f heworld's conomieswillbeself-sustaining.till,whenndependencermodern ationhoodreat astattained,here s no simple, utomaticwitch oa dominance f theprofit otivend economicndsocialprogress.n the ontraryheresa searchinghoice . ." 1960:73-74, 52).Oneneeds orememberhatthenewKennedydministrationas about owarmuptheColdWarat this ime.Rostowwasoneof hecrewwhohitontheexperimentfso-calledimited ar nVietnam,ndgiven hegovernment'sppallingignorancef hat art f heworld, isNon-Communistanifestorovidedamore espectableationaleor hewar han heplayfulominoheory.By llmeans lear paces nthe hird orld or onsumerocieties,ince"in tsessenceCommunismslikelyowithern theageofhighmass-consumption"1960:133).

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And so it haswithered,houghmainly erhapsbecauseoftheunprecedentedvailability nd high consumption f informationaround heglobe.Moreover,hebreadth,ntelligence,nd languageof Rostow'smanifesto,ven afterdiscounting orthe roundabouttreatment fprofit-taking,ontrastmarkedlywithanything husfarpublished ythe nner ircleof thesecondBushadministration.The rhetoricrising rom heprecinctsf theWhiteHousetodayhasbecome so generalizeds todefy ttemptso understandts denota-tions. reedoms ourmostprizedpossessionntheUnited tates,ndfreedomhevaguestnd ongest-survivingeasonforwaragainst raq."America's ital nterestsndourdeepest eliefs re nowone," ccord-ingtoGeorgeW. Bush nhis second naugural ddress.An nauguraladdresss not n occasion or pecifics,utthis ne assumes he sameputative onnection etween conomicgrowthndundertaking aremitted rom rmchairs f theoppositepolitical arty half-centuryago."Thebesthopefor eace nourworld s theexpansion ffreedomin alltheworld," ush ffirmed.utnote: Thegreat bjectivef ndingtyrannys the concentrated ork fgenerations.hedifficultyfthetask s no excuse for voidingt."Thepresidentpeaksthe anguageof the work thic,not ofmilitaryuty rpreparednessor acrifice.Furthermore,America as need of dealism ndcourage ecausewehave essentialwork thome, he unfinished orkofAmerican ree-dom" New orkimes,1Jan. 005).Anopinionpiece byOrlando attersonublishedhefollowingday ntheTimeselped ort utthesegeneralities.obe sure, attersonfirstnumeratedome fallaciesnthe Bush dministration'squationofterrorism ithtyranny,eminded eaders hatU.S.governmentshavequietly acked yranniesor urownpurposes,ndobserved hat"sadly"erroristsan andwillfindhelterncountries here reedomsprotectednder aw.Most erroristcts nthis ountry though oneasdevastatings the9/11ttack havebeencarried utbyAmericans.Abroadwe are"imposing emocracyt thepoint fa gun."Thereforesomeresponseso9/11, speciallyhe raqWar, reopento thechargeofbottomlessypocrisy;ndthat s onewaythey ontinue o be seen




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free hoiceoranyethic, ompelsa large portion f thepopulationto work or indeed to submit o thediscipline f an army rnavy.Tocomprehendmoreofthesignificancef freedomnthiscontext,one shouldreview heargumentf OrlandoPatterson'sirst olumeon the subject,subtitledFreedomn theMaking fWestern ulture1991).Therehe arguesfromncienthistorynd numerous ources, iblicalas well as classical,hatwereally ouldnotunderstand hatwe meanbyfreedomf t were notfor hehistorywhether irectly xperi-encedorperceived of lavery.oaccept hatwork s thecentralssuehere, nd how"freedom"an serve s a code wordfor elf-helpr thework thic, neonlyhas to reflecthat laves re notfed, lothed,ndsheltered kept live, hat s exceptfor he work heyperformortheirmasters. hink bout hat, nd whethert s not hecase that nyworker onstrainedo theone obhe or shecando is unfree.t followsthat work thic ppliedacross he boardtoanyknownpopulationwillnever ppealto all. The elector elite till annot e sure hey avebeenchosen.The division f abor, nthis oranyother ociety,willopenmisfitsndpretenderso satire. omepeoplewillresort o seem-ingbusier han hey re.WhywouldGeorgeWalker ush dentifyoreadily ith rdinaryAmericans? isprivilegedirth estows ponhimnotonly nheritedwealth utnotable ynastic owers.Hisrecord, evertheless,uggeststhathe admires elf-made en nd women.His cabinet hoices or hesecond erm,specially,upporthis onclusion. lizabeth umiller ftheTimesut hecount t sixoutofninenewappointees:he ecretaryof tate,he ttorneyeneral,he ecretariesf griculture,ommerce,and veterans ffairs,ndperhapsmost stonishinglyis firsthoiceforhomeland ecurity.The institution fhomelandecurityn theUnited tates ndirectlyonfesses o the mperial each offreedom.)Therewere other uchappointmentsnthe first erm. Elaine Chaobelieves eeplyntheAmerican ream ecause she has lived t,"Bushsaid ofonefirst-termomineeBumiller,0 Dec.2004).Acynicmightreply ayoung olleague fmineventuredhis pinion,ctually thatthese elf-madendividuals erefavored ecausetheywere attached




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a class of workerswho will do the ob just to keepthemselves ndtheir amilieslive;for hecountryeeds"an mmigrationolicy hatpermits emporaryuestworkers ofillobsAmericans illnottake."It is as if Bush had come acrossJosephTownsend's hinkingboutthepoor.Orpossibly reeAmericans equire oreignlavesagain adifferentace ofpeopletokeeptheeconomy unctioning.armoreattentionnthespeech,however,was devoted o the mainproblemconfrontingreeAmericans hemselves:Right ow, setportion fthemoney ouearn s taken ut ofyour aycheckopayfor he SocialSecurityenefits ftoday's etirees."urelynourownership ocietywecan do better:

Here swhy ersonalccounts re better eal.Yourmoneywillgrow, vertime, t a greater atethananythinghecurrentystemandeliver,ndyour ccountwillprovidemoney or etirementver nd above the checkyouwillreceive rom ocialSecurity.naddition, ou'llbe able topassalongthemoney hat ccumulatesnyourpersonalaccount,fyouwish,toyour hildren rgrandchildren.Andbestof ll,themoneyn theaccountsyours,nd thegovernmentannever ake taway New orkimes, Feb.2005).

The dea san old one.Self-helpinvariablynvigorates,"s Smilesputit, andwheremen resubject oover-guidancendover-government,the nevitableendencys to renderhem omparativelyelpless." utthe toneadoptedbythepresidentnd the use of the secondpersonseemmeant or econdgraders;nd cansecondgradersrust ushnotto be simply riving firstwedge nto SocialSecurity?o farhe hasnot aid a word, ordoesanyone eemto be asking,boutwhether ewould"fix" hecorporatehareofthepresentwagetax.The one ideathat tands ut sthat f modest ersonal state or veryone.obuildthat state anbecomeone'scalling,with he aimofoutlivingeathitself- iving appily oreverfter,s in a novel rfairytale.




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For now the president s touringthe country, ppearingbeforeselected udiencesas he did in his lastcampaign, n order o talkup his"idea.""I likedoingthis, ytheway"he toldthe atestgroup, I likegoingaround hecountry,aying,Folks,we havegot problem'" NewYorkimes,5 Mar.2005).Nowhere, s Chaucersaid of hisman of aw,was anyoneasbusy s thispresident,ndyetperhapshe seemed busier hanhewas.NOTES1. Ratherthan contuse Baxter chapter,part,sectionnumbers,etc.,1shall citeA Christianirectoryyvolume andpageof hesecond edition.Like most other Puritansofthe time,he quotes the so-calledKing

JamesVersionof theBible,thoughnot with the modernized pellingofthe edition have been quoting.2. I cannot be the onlyone to have first ncountered hepassage fromTownsend n KarlPolanyi'sTheGreat ransformation1957 [1944]:113-14). But, n fact,Polanyi misquotedand tackedon to thebeginningof thepassage a sentence from hefollowing ectionofADissertationon the oorLaws:"Hungerwill tame the fiercestnimals, twill teachdecencyand civility, bedience and subjection, o themostbrutish,the mostobstinate, nd the mostperverse."

REFERENCESAristotle. heComplete orksfAristotle.evisedOxford ranslation. vols.Ed.Jonathan arnes.Princeton: rincetonUniversityress,1984.Baxter, ichard. Christianirectory;r, Sum f racticalheologietndCases

ofConscience.nd ed.4 vols. London:Simmons,1678.Bumiller, lizabeth."Bush's CabinetPicks ComeAlreadyVettedbyLife'sTests."NewYork imes,0 Dec. 2004.Carlyle, Thomas. Sartor Resartus.Ed. Charles Frederick Harrold.

Indianapolis ndNewYork:Odyssey, 937 [1833-34].Chaucer,Geoffrey.heWorksfGeoffreyhaucer.nd ed.Ed.F. N. Robmson.London:OxfordUniversityress,1957.De Grazia, Sebastian. 0/Time,Work ndLeisure.New York:TwentiethCentury und,1962.

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and Mark Neuman.Berkeley:UniversityfCaliforniaPress,1971[17861.

Veblen, Thorstein.TheTheory ftheLeisureClass: An Economic tudy fInstitutions.ewYork:Modern ibrary, 934 [1899].Weber,Max. TheProtestantthic nd the pirit fCapitalism.rans.TalcottParsons.New York:Scribner's, 958 [German d. 1920].Welsh,Alexander. he ity f ickens.ambridge:HarvardUniversityress,1986 [1971].

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