Levels of DialectLevels of Dialect

Wolfram & Schilling-Estes, Wolfram & Schilling-Estes, Chapter 3Chapter 3

What we are calling What we are calling “levels”:“levels”:• LEXICON: the vocabularyLEXICON: the vocabulary• PHONOLOGY: the sound system of a language (pronunciation PHONOLOGY: the sound system of a language (pronunciation

differences: the first vowel in “chocolate” as [a] or [æ])differences: the first vowel in “chocolate” as [a] or [æ])

• SEMANTICS: the meanings of words (lexical differences: SEMANTICS: the meanings of words (lexical differences: submarine sandwich)submarine sandwich)

• GRAMMAR: the formation of words and how words are GRAMMAR: the formation of words and how words are combined into sentences (The house needs painted/painting)combined into sentences (The house needs painted/painting)

• PRAGMATICS: the use of language forms to carry out PRAGMATICS: the use of language forms to carry out particular communicative functions (Hi!/Hey!/What’s up?/S’up)particular communicative functions (Hi!/Hey!/What’s up?/S’up)

3.1 Lexical Differences3.1 Lexical Differences

• Different labels for the same Different labels for the same object/conceptobject/concept– soda/pop/coke/soft drinksoda/pop/coke/soft drink– mountain lion/cougar/panthermountain lion/cougar/panther– green beans/string beansgreen beans/string beans

• The use of the same word for different The use of the same word for different objects/concepts (corn)objects/concepts (corn)

• Unique words related to the group Unique words related to the group ([k([kʰʌləm] pile, peeler crab, [pʰoʷk] salad)ʰʌləm] pile, peeler crab, [pʰoʷk] salad)

Processes of meaning change over Processes of meaning change over time:time:

• Broadening (kleenex, xerox, coke)Broadening (kleenex, xerox, coke)• Narrowing (meat, deer)Narrowing (meat, deer)• Meaning shiftMeaning shift

bead (from prayer to a type of jewelry)bead (from prayer to a type of jewelry) Figurative or metaphorical extension: Figurative or metaphorical extension:

pen (from feather—Latin pen (from feather—Latin pennapenna--to --to writing writing implement)implement)

““Subway sandwich”????Subway sandwich”????

Word-formation processes:Word-formation processes:

• ““Coined” (Ocracoke: Coined” (Ocracoke: meehonkeymeehonkey—a —a special type of hide-and-seek)special type of hide-and-seek)

• Borrowed (Borrowed (chipmunkchipmunk from Ojibwa, from Ojibwa, delicatessendelicatessen from German, from German, arroyoarroyo from Spanish)from Spanish)

• Created out of existing wordsCreated out of existing words

See Table 3.1 on page 66See Table 3.1 on page 66

Creation of new words from existing Creation of new words from existing words:words:

• Compounding: Compounding: breakwater, fatbackbreakwater, fatback• Acronyms: Acronyms: RADAR, SCUBA; UN, AAVERADAR, SCUBA; UN, AAVE• Blending: Blending: smog, brunchsmog, brunch• Clipping: Clipping: ad, gas, lab; ‘za, ‘zinead, gas, lab; ‘za, ‘zine• Derivation: Derivation: weaponizedweaponized• Conversion:Conversion: tree tree (as verb)(as verb)• Borrowing: chipmunk, delicatessen, arroyoBorrowing: chipmunk, delicatessen, arroyo• Use of proper names: Use of proper names: sandwich, frigidairesandwich, frigidaire• Folk etymology: Folk etymology: cold slaw, old timers’ diseasecold slaw, old timers’ disease• Backformation: Backformation: orientate, burgle, couthorientate, burgle, couth• Recutting: Recutting: an apron, a whole nother, -aholican apron, a whole nother, -aholic

Function WordsFunction Words

• Prepositions: Prepositions: – sick to/at/in/on one’s stomachsick to/at/in/on one’s stomach

• Articles: Articles: – He’s in bed/in the bedHe’s in bed/in the bed

Social Judgments Social Judgments associated with Lexical Differencesassociated with Lexical Differences

• Regional curiositiesRegional curiosities

• Modern/old-fashionedModern/old-fashioned

• Socially stigmatized: Taboo wordsSocially stigmatized: Taboo words

Specialized VocabulariesSpecialized Vocabularies

• JargonJargon– Let’s google some user-friendly Let’s google some user-friendly

documentation for Macs to avoid spam.documentation for Macs to avoid spam.– The Giants’ nickel defense sacked the The Giants’ nickel defense sacked the

Cowboys’ quarterback in the shotgun Cowboys’ quarterback in the shotgun formation with a safety blitz.formation with a safety blitz.

• Argot (pronounced “are-got”)Argot (pronounced “are-got”)

3.2 Slang: the problem of 3.2 Slang: the problem of definitiondefinition(DARE rejects the label as “imprecise” and “too (DARE rejects the label as “imprecise” and “too indefinite”)indefinite”)• Eble: “Slang is vocabulary with attitude.”Eble: “Slang is vocabulary with attitude.”• A A set set of characteristics of characteristics (rather than single (rather than single

criterion)criterion)– InformalityInformality– Association with group outside of mainstream adult Association with group outside of mainstream adult

population (possibly in-group meaning)population (possibly in-group meaning)– Synonymous with a common, neutral wordSynonymous with a common, neutral word– Perceived as having a short life-spanPerceived as having a short life-span

• A continuum (a “slang scale”)A continuum (a “slang scale”)– ““out to lunch” ---------dense--------------uninformedout to lunch” ---------dense--------------uninformed

““Colloquial”Colloquial”

• Situated between slang and Situated between slang and conventional:conventional:

• Share “informality” with slangShare “informality” with slang

• But not closely associated with in-But not closely associated with in-group identity of “flouted synonymy”group identity of “flouted synonymy”

Phonological Differences: American English Phonological Differences: American English VowelsVowels

[i] (beet)[i] (beet) [u] (boot) [u] (boot)

[[ɪɪ] (bit)] (bit) [ [ʊʊ] (put)] (put)

[e] (bait) [[e] (bait) [əə] (] (aabout) bout) [o] (boat) [o] (boat)

[[ɛɛ] (bet) [] (bet) [ʌʌ] (but)] (but)

[[ææ] (bat) ] (bat) [[ɔɔ] (bought)] (bought)

[[ɑ] (father)ɑ] (father)

3.3 Phonological Differences3.3 Phonological Differences

• VARIANTS: VARIANTS:

the same phoneme is pronounced in the same phoneme is pronounced in different ways: different ways:

/æ/ ‘bag’ with [/æ/ ‘bag’ with [ɛ] or ɛ] or [I] or [a][I] or [a]

potentially setting off “chain-shifts” :potentially setting off “chain-shifts” :

Caught/cot lock/lack bag/begCaught/cot lock/lack bag/beg

The Great Vowel Shift (1450-The Great Vowel Shift (1450-1650)1650)

• WifeWife

• GeeseGeese

• NameName

• GooseGoose

• HouseHouse

Variants (cont.)Variants (cont.)

• The /ay/ diphthong (nucleus + glide)The /ay/ diphthong (nucleus + glide)

For some Southerners: ungliding or For some Southerners: ungliding or monophthongizationmonophthongization

[[ɑɑ:]:]

Southern: “boil” Southern: “boil”

Pittsburghese: “downtown”Pittsburghese: “downtown”

MinnesMinnesootata

Outer Bankers: a different location of nucleusOuter Bankers: a different location of nucleus

Phonological Differences Phonological Differences (cont.)(cont.)• MERGERS:MERGERS:

1.1. //Ɔ/ and /a/, as in Ɔ/ and /a/, as in DawnDawn and and DonDon (W. Penna, (W. Penna, gradually fanning out to encompass much of the Western gradually fanning out to encompass much of the Western US)US)

2.2. /i/ and /ɪ/, as in /i/ and /ɪ/, as in fieldfield and and filled (Texas and the South)filled (Texas and the South)3.3. /e/ and /ɛ/ before /l/, as in /e/ and /ɛ/ before /l/, as in sale sale and and sell sell (Texas and the (Texas and the

South)South)4.4. /u/ and /ʊ/, as in /u/ and /ʊ/, as in poolpool and and pullpull (Texas and the South) (Texas and the South)5.5. /e/, /ɛ/, /æ/, /ʌ/ before/r/ as in /e/, /ɛ/, /æ/, /ʌ/ before/r/ as in Mary, merry, marry, and Mary, merry, marry, and

MurrayMurray6.6. /ɪ/ and /ɛ/ before nasals, as in /ɪ/ and /ɛ/ before nasals, as in pin pin and and penpen (South) (South)7.7. /hy/ and /y/ as in /hy/ and /y/ as in HughHugh and and youyou (NYC, Philadelphia) (NYC, Philadelphia)8.8. /hw/ and /w/ as in /hw/ and /w/ as in which which and and witch witch (much of US)(much of US)

Phonological Differences Phonological Differences (cont.)(cont.)

• Differences between consonants may Differences between consonants may be eliminated, or neutralizedbe eliminated, or neutralized– ““g-dropping”g-dropping”– [d] and [[d] and [ðð] word-initially] word-initially– [l] following vowel and before labial [l] following vowel and before labial

consonant: [hconsonant: [hɛɛp]p]

““Southern Breaking”Southern Breaking”

• Diphthongization of single vowels:Diphthongization of single vowels:

bed: [bbed: [beeyyədəd]]

Bill:Bill: [biy[biyəəl]l]

Phonological Differences Phonological Differences (cont.)(cont.)

• Suprasegmental or Prosodic Suprasegmental or Prosodic Differences:Differences:

stronger “pitch accents”stronger “pitch accents”

wider pitch rangewider pitch range

Phonological Differences Phonological Differences (cont.):(cont.):

Variations in stress patterns of words:Variations in stress patterns of words:– InsuranceInsurance– PolicePolice– ThanksgivingThanksgiving

• Speed of speech: Bauer and Trudgill, Speed of speech: Bauer and Trudgill, chap. 18chap. 18

MorphologyMorphology

• InflectionalInflectional– Do not alter grammatical classDo not alter grammatical class

• Plural –sPlural –s• Possessive –sPossessive –s• Third-person present tense –sThird-person present tense –s• Past tense –edPast tense –ed• Participle –ed/enParticiple –ed/en• Progressive –ingProgressive –ing• Comparative and superlative endings: -er, -estComparative and superlative endings: -er, -est

• Derivational: change grammatical classDerivational: change grammatical class

B & T, Chapter 19: B & T, Chapter 19: MorphologyMorphology• Australian Aboriginal LanguagesAustralian Aboriginal Languages

– MayaliMayali•NgabanmarneyawoyhwarrgahganjginjengNgabanmarneyawoyhwarrgahganjginjeng

Nga-ban-marne-yawoyh-warrgah-ganj-ginje-ngNga-ban-marne-yawoyh-warrgah-ganj-ginje-ng

I—them—for—again—wrongly—meat-cook-I—them—for—again—wrongly—meat-cook-pastpast

directed tensedirected tense

actionaction

3.4 Grammatical 3.4 Grammatical DifferencesDifferences

• Morphological: Morphological: – Regularization (he run; yourn)Regularization (he run; yourn)– Double-marking (more better, most Double-marking (more better, most

fastest)fastest)

Great deal of social significance for Great deal of social significance for Americans—why?Americans—why?

Grammatical Differences: Grammatical Differences: SyntaxSyntax

auxiliaries: auxiliaries:

completive “done,” double modals, completive “done,” double modals,

transitivity: The Cowboys beattransitivity: The Cowboys beat

agreement patterns: agreement patterns:

five milefive mile

double negativedouble negative

Linear order: What that is?Linear order: What that is?

3.5 Language Use and 3.5 Language Use and PragmaticsPragmatics[how language is used in context to achieve [how language is used in context to achieve particular purposes]particular purposes]• Speech Acts (e.g., apology)Speech Acts (e.g., apology)• Directness (politeness, literal and non-Directness (politeness, literal and non-

literal language use)literal language use)• Use of address forms (power and Use of address forms (power and

solidarity)solidarity)• Ritualized language useRitualized language use• Appropriate topicsAppropriate topics• Turn-taking behavior, backchannel cuesTurn-taking behavior, backchannel cues